Black stork

Black stork
In Kruger National Park, South Africa
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Ciconiiformes
Family: Ciconiidae
Genus: Ciconia
Species: C. nigra
Binomial name
Ciconia nigra
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Range of C. nigra      Breeding range     Year-round range     Wintering range

The black stork (Ciconia nigra) is a large bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae. Measuring on average 95–100 cm (37–39 in) from beak tip to end of tail with a 145–155 cm (57–61 in) wingspan, the adult black stork has mainly black plumage, with white underparts, long red legs and a long pointed red beak. A widespread, but uncommon, species, it breeds in in scattered locations across Europe (predominantly in Spain, and central and eastern parts), and Asia to the Pacific Ocean. It is a long-distance migrant, with European populations wintering in tropical Sub-Saharan Africa, and Asian populations in the Indian subcontinent. When migrating between Europe and Africa, it avoids crossing the Mediterranean Sea and detours via the Levant in the east or the Strait of Gibraltar in the west. An isolated, non-migratory, population occurs in Southern Africa.

Unlike the closely related white stork, the black stork is a shy and wary species. It is seen singly or in pairs, usually in marshy areas, rivers or inland waters. It feeds on amphibians, small fish and insects, generally wading slowly in shallow water stalking its prey. Breeding pairs usually build nests in large forest trees—most commonly deciduous but also coniferous—which can be seen from long distances, as well as on large boulders, or under overhanging ledges in mountainous areas. The female lays two to five greyish-white eggs, which become soiled during incubation. Incubation takes 32 to 38 days, with both sexes sharing duties, and fledging takes 60 to 71 days.

The black stork is considered to be a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, however its status is uncertain. Despite its large range, it is nowhere abundant, and it appears to be declining in parts of its range, such as in India, China and parts of Western Europe, though increasing in others such as the Iberian Peninsula. Various conservation measures have been taken for the black storks, like the Conservation Action Plan for African black storks by Wetlands International. It is also covered under the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.

Taxonomy and etymology

The black stork was first written about scientifically by English naturalist Francis Willughby in the 17th century, who saw one in Frankfurt and named it Ciconia nigra.[2][lower-alpha 1] It was one of the many species originally described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Ardea nigra.[4] It was moved to the new genus Ciconia by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson two years later.[5] Both the genus and the specific names are Latin; Ciconia is "stork" and niger/-gra is "black".[6] The word stork is derived from the Old English word storc, thought to be related to the Old High German storah, meaning "stork", and the Old English stearc, meaning "stiff".[7]

The black stork is a member of the genus Ciconia, or typical storks, a group of seven extant species, characterised by straight bills and mainly black and white plumage.[8] The black stork was long thought to be most closely related to the white stork (C. ciconia).[9] However, genetic analysis via DNA–DNA hybridization and mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA by Beth Slikas in 1997 found that it was basal (an early offshoot) in the genus Ciconia.[10] Fossil remains have been recovered from Miocene beds Rusinga and Maboko Islands in Kenya, which are indistinguishable from the white and black storks.[11]

Description

Adult in a Dutch zoo

The black stork is a large bird, measuring 95–100 cm (37–39 in) in length with a 145–155 cm (57–61 in) wingspan,[12] and weighing around 3 kg (6.6 lb).[13] Standing as tall as 102 cm (40 in),[14] it has long red legs, a long neck and a long, straight, pointed red beak.[12] The plumage is black with a purplish green sheen, except for the white lower breast, belly, armpits, axillaries and undertail coverts.[12][15] The breast feathers are long and shaggy, forming a ruff which is used in some courtship displays.[12] The black stork has brown iris, and bare red skin around its eyes.[12][16] The sexes are identical in appearance, except that males are larger than females on average.[12] Moulting takes place in spring, with the iridescent sheen brighter in new plumage.[17] It walks slowly and steadily on the ground and like all storks, it flies with its neck outstretched.[18]

It bears some resemblance to Abdim's stork (C. abdimii), which can be distinguished by its much smaller build, predominantly green bill, legs and feet, and white rump and lower back.[12][19]

The juvenile resembles the adult in plumage, but the areas corresponding to the adult black feathers are browner and less glossy. The scapulars, wing and upper tail coverts have pale tips. The legs, bill and bare skin around the eyes are greyish green.[12] It could possibly be confused with the juvenile yellow-billed stork, but the latter has paler wings and mantle, longer bill and white under the wings.[20]

Distribution and habitat

Black stork in flight

During the summer, the black stork is found from Eastern Asia (Siberia and northern China) west to Central Europe, reaching Estonia in the north, Poland, Lower Saxony and Bavaria in Germany, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy and Greece in the south,[12] with an outlying population in the central-southwest region of the Iberian Peninsula (Extremadura and surrounding provinces of Spain, plus Portugal).[21] It is migratory, wintering in tropical Africa and Asia, although certain populations of black storks are sedentary or dispersive.[17] An isolated population exists in Southern Africa, where the species is more numerous in the east, in eastern South Africa and Mozambique, and is also found in Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Botswana and less commonly Namibia.[22]

After disappearing from Belgium before the onset of the 20th century, it has returned to breed in the Belgian Ardennes, Luxembourg and Burgundy, France, by 2000.[23] It appears to be increasing in numbers in Spain and Portugal, where the population was estimated at 405 to 483 pairs in 2006.[21] The black stork is a rare vagrant to the British Isles, turning up in the warmer months—particularly in spring—generally in the south and east. Sightings have become more common since the 1970s as its breeding range moves northwards.[24] It has been recorded in Scotland six times between 1946 and 1983, including from Shetland, Orkney and the Highlands, as well as the Scottish Borders (Peebles).[25] It is not abundant in the western parts of its distribution, but more densely inhabits eastern Transcaucasia.[12] Further east, it has been recorded from locations across Iran, though little is known about its habits there; breeding has been recorded from near Aliabad in Fars province, Khabr National Park in Kerman province, Karun river in Khuzestan province, Qaranqu River in East Azarbaijan province, and Aliabad river in Razavi Khorasan province.[26] The population has declined in Iran due to draining of wetlands.[27] East of the Ural Mountains, the black stork is patchily found in forested and mountainous areas up to 60°-63° N across Siberia to the Pacific Ocean. South of Siberia, it breeds in Xinjiang, northwestern China, northern Mongolia south to the Altai Mountains, and northeastern China south to the vicinity of Beijing. In the Korean Peninsula, the black stork is a uncommon summer visitor, no longer breeding in the south since 1966. Birds have been seen in the northeast but it is not known if they breed there. Similarly it has been seen in the summer in Afghanistan, but is unknown if it breeds there. [17]

Most of the black storks that summer in Europe migrate to Africa,[17] with those from western Germany and points west heading south via the Iberian Peninsula and the rest via Turkey and the Levant. Those flying via Spain spend winter in the Falémé River basin of eastern Senegal, Guinea, southern Mauritania, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone and western and central Mali, while those flying via the Sinai end up in northern Ethiopia, the Kotto River basin in the Central African Republic, the Mbokou river basin in Chad and northeastern Nigeria.[28] Black storks summering in western Asia, migrate to northern and northeastern India,[17] ranging mainly from Punjab south to Karnataka,[29] and Africa.[16] It is an occasional visitor to Sri Lanka.[30] Those summering further east in eastern Russia and China winter mainly in southern China, although occasionally further south, in Myanmar, northern Thailand, Hong Kong and Laos.[17] It was first recorded in western Myanmar in 1998.[31]

The black stork prefers more wooded areas than the better known white stork, and breeds in large marshy wetlands with interspersed coniferous or broadleaved woodlands, but also inhabits hills and mountains with sufficient networks of creeks.[12] It usually inhabits ponds, rivers, edges of lakes, estuaries and other freshwater wetlands.[16] The black stork does inhabit more agricultural areas in the Caspian lowlands, but even here it avoids close contact with people.[12] Its wintering habitat in India comprises reservoirs or rivers with nearby scrub or forest, which provide trees that black storks can roost in at night.[29] In southern Africa it is found in shallow water in rivers or lakes, or swamps, but is occasionally encountered on dry land.[22]

Migration

Red Line: Migration Border
Orange Arrow: Western Migration
Yellow Arrow: Eastern Migration
Blue: Winter Location

Migration takes place from early August to October, with a major exodus in September.[17] Some of the Iberian populations, and also those in southern Africa, are essentially non-migratory, though they may wander freely in the non-breeding areas.[17] A broad-winged soaring bird, the black stork is assisted by thermals of hot air for long distance flight, although are less dependent on them than the white stork.[32][33] Since thermals only form over land, storks, together with large raptors,[34] must cross the Mediterranean at the narrowest points, and many black storks travel south going through the Bosphorus,[33][17] as well as the Sinai and Gibraltar. The trip is around 5,667 km (3,521 mi) via the western route and 7,000 km (4,300 mi) via the eastern route, with satellite tracking yielding an average travel time of 37 and 80 days respectively[28] The western route goes over the Rock of Gibraltar of over the Bay of Gibraltar, generally on a southwesterly track that takes them to the central part of the Straight, from where they reach Morocco.[35][34] Many birds fly around the Sahara next to the coast.[35] About 10% of the western storks choose the passage Sicily – Cap Bon, Tunisia, which might be due to the frequent flapping flights compared to those of the white storks.[36][34]

Spain contains several important areas—Monfragüe National Park, Sierra de Gredos Regional Park, National Hunting Reserve in Cíjara, Natural Park of the Sierra Hornachuelos and Doñana National Park—where black storks stopover on the western migration route. Further south, Lake Faguibine in Mali is another stopover point. However, it has been affected by drought in recent years. Pesticide use has threatened birdlife in Doñana.[37]

Behaviour

A wary species, the black stork avoids contact with people.[16] It is generally found alone or in pairs, or in flocks of up to a 100 birds when migrating,[38] or over winter.[16]

The black stork has a wider range of calls than the white stork, its main call being a chee leee, which sounds like a loud inhalation. It makes a hissing call as a warning or threat.[39] Displaying males produce a long series of wheezy raptor-like squealing calls rising to a crescendo and then falling.[40] It rarely indulges in mutual bill-clattering when adults meet at the nest.[41] Adults will do so when angered or as part of mating ritual. The young clatter their bills when aroused.[39]

The up-down display is used for a number of interactions with other members of the species. Here a stork positions its body horizontally and quickly bobs its head up from down-facing to around 30 degrees above horizontal and back again, and displaying the white segments of its plumage prominently, and this is repeated several times. The display is used as a greeting between birds, and—more vigorously—as a threat display. Threat displays are uncommonly seen due to the solitary nature of the species.[38]

Feeding

Black stork foraging
Black Stork nesting in Prague Zoo

The black stork mainly eats fish,[1] including small cyprinids, pikes, roaches, eels, budds, perches, burbots, sicklebacks and muddy loaches (Misgurnus and Cobitis).[42] It may feed on amphibians, small reptiles, crabs, mammals and birds, and invertebrates such as snails,[1] molluscs,[43][42] earthworms, and insects such as water beetles and their larvae.[43][42]

Foraging for food takes place mostly in fresh water, though the black stork may look for food on dry land at times.[17] The black stork wades patiently and slowly in shallow water, often alone or in a small group if food is plentiful. It has been observed shading the water with its wings while hunting.[38] In India, it often forages in mixed species flocks with the white stork, woolly-necked stork (Ciconia episcopus), demoiselle crane (Grus virgo) and bar-headed goose (Anser indicus). The black stork also follows large mammals such as deer and livestock, presumably to eat the invertebrates and small animals flushed by the latter's presence.[29]

Breeding

The black stork nests in the northern hemisphere spring over April and May,[17] with eggs usually laid in late April.[43] In southern Africa, breeding takes place over autumn and winter, possibly to take advantage of abundant water prey rendered easier to catch as the rivers dry up and recede—from April and May in Zimbabwe, Botswana and northern South Africa, and as late as July further south.[22]

The nest is large, constructed from sticks and twigs, and sometimes also large branches, and are at an elevation of 4–25 m (13–82 ft).[17][1] The black stork prefers to construct its nest in forest trees with large canopies where the nest can be built far from the main trunk—generally in places far from human disturbance.[1][17] For the most part, deciduous trees are chosen for nesting sites, though conifers are used as well.[12] A 2003 field study in Estonia found that the black stork preferred oak (Quercus robur), European aspen (Populus tremula), and to a lesser extent Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and ignored Norway spruce (Picea abies), in part due to the canopy structure of the trees. Trees with nests averaged around 25.6 ± 5.2 m high and had a diameter at breast height of 66 ± 20 cm. Furthermore, 90% of the trees chosen were at least 80 years old, highlighting the importance of conserving old-growth forests.[44] A 2004 field study of nesting sites in Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli National Park in north-eastern Greece found that it preferred the Calabrian pine (Pinus brutia), which had large side branches that allowed it to build the nest away from the trunk, as well as black pine (Pinus nigra) and to a lesser extent Turkey oak (Quercus cerris). The storks chose the largest trees in an area, generally on steeper ground and near streams. Trees chosen were on average over 90 years old.[45] In the Iberian peninsula it nests in pine and cork oak (Quercus suber).[21]

In steeply mountainous areas such as parts of Spain, South Africa and the Carpathian Mountains it nests on cliffs, on large boulders, in caves and under overhanging ledges.[12] The black stork's solitary nests are usually at least 1 km (0.6 mi) apart, even where the species are numerous.[38] Although newly constructed nests may be significantly smaller, older nests can be 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in diameter. In southern Africa, the black stork may occupy the nests of other bird species such as hamerkop (Scopus umbretta) or Verreaux's eagle (Aquila verreauxi) and commonly reuse them in successive years.[1] They are repaired with earth and grass, and lined with leaves, moss, grass, animal-fur, paper, clay and rags.[17][43]

Egg, Collection Museum Wiesbaden

In a clutch, there are two to five, or rarely even six large oval grey-white eggs, which become soiled during incubation.[17] They can be 64–70 mm (2.5–2.8 in) long and 50–53 mm (2.0–2.1 in) wide, averaging about 68 mm (2.7 in) in length and 52 mm (2.0 in) in width.[46] The eggs are laid with an interval of two days.[17] Hatching is asynchronous,[17] and takes place at the end of May.[43] Incubation takes 32 to 38 days, with both sexes sharing duties, which commences after the first or second egg is laid.[17] The young start flying by the end of July.[43] Fledging takes 60 to 71 days, after which the young joins the adults at their feeding grounds.[17] However, for another 2 weeks, the young continue to return to the nest, to be fed and to roost at night.[17]

At least one adult remains in the nest for two to three weeks after hatching to protect the young. Both parents feed the young by regurgitating onto the floor of the nest.[17] Black stork parents have been known to kill one of their fledglings, generally the weakest, in times of food shortage to reduce brood size and hence increase the chance of survival of the remaining nestlings. Stork nestlings do not attack each other, and their parents' method of feeding them (disgorging large amounts of food at once) means that stronger siblings cannot outcompete weaker ones for food directly, hence parental infanticide is an efficient way of reducing brood size. This behaviour has only rarely been observed in the species, although the shyness of the species and difficulties in studying its nesting habits mean that it might not be an uncommon phenomenon.[47]

Parasites

The black stork hosts more than 12 species of helminth, with Cathaemasia hians and Dicheilonema ciconiae reported to be the most dominant. The juvenile black stork, although having a less diverse helminth population, is parasitized more frequently than the adult.[48] A new species of Corynebacterium—C. ciconiae—has been isolated from the trachea of healthy black storks, and is thought to be part of the natural flora of the species.[49] A diverse array of predatory mesostigmatid mites—particularly the genera Dendrolaelaps and Macrocheles—have been recovered from black stork nests. Their role is unknown, though they could prey on parasitic arthropods.[50]

Status and conservation

Since 1998, the black stork has been rated as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. This is because it has a large range—more than 20,000 km2 (7700 mi2)—and because its population is thought not to have declined by 30% over ten years or three generations and thus is not a rapid enough decline to warrant a vulnerable rating. However, the state of the population overall is unclear,[1] and although it is widespread, it is not abundant anywhere.[17] Black stork numbers have declined for many years in western Europe, and the species has already been extirpated from Scandinavia.[17] The population in India—a major wintering ground—is declining.[29] Previously a regular winter visitor to the Mai Po Marshes, it is now seldom seen there, and appears to be in decline in China overall.[16] Its habitat is changing rapidly in much of eastern Europe and Asia.[17] Various conservation measures have been taken, including Wetlands International's Conservation Action Plan for African black storks, which focuses on improving the wintering conditions of the birds which breed in Europe.[1] It is protected by the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).[1]

Hunters threaten the black stork in some countries of southern Europe and Asia,[1] such as Pakistan, and breeding populations may have been eliminated there.[17] The black stork vanished from the Ticino River valley in northern Italy, with hunting a likely contributor. In 2005, black storks were released into the Parco Lombardo del Ticino in an attempt to re-establish the species there.[23]

Notes

  1. ↑ The universally accepted starting point of modern taxonomy for animals is set at 1758, with the publishing of Linnaeus' 10th edition of Systema Naturae, although scientists had been coining names in the previous century.[3]

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Ciconia nigra (Black Stork)". www.iucnredlist.org. BirdLife International. 2017. Archived from the original on 5 October 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
  2. ↑ Willughby, Francis (1681). The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton in the County of Warwick, esq. ... :. London, United Kingdom: A.C. for John Martyn. p. 286.
  3. ↑ Polaszek, Andrew (2010). Systema Naturae 250 – The Linnaean Ark. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 34. ISBN 9781420095029.
  4. ↑ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Holmiae: (Laurentii Salvii). p. 142.
  5. ↑ Brisson, Mathurin Jacques (1760). Ornithologie; ou, Méthode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres, sections, genres, espéces & leurs variétés. &c Vol-ume 1 [Ornithology; or, The Division of Birds into Orders, Sections, Genera, Species, and Varieties, etc.] (in French). Paris, France: C.J.B. Bauche. p. 48.
  6. ↑ Lewis, Charlton Thomas; Kingery, Hugh Macmaster (1918). An Elementary Latin Dictionary. New York: American Book Company. p. 126. ISBN 0-19-910205-8.
  7. ↑ "Stork". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  8. ↑ Kahl, M. Philip (1987). "An overview of the storks of the world". Colonial Waterbirds. 10 (2): 131–134. JSTOR 1521251. doi:10.2307/1521251.
  9. ↑ Wood, D. Scott (1984). "Concordance between classifications of the Ciconiidae based on behavioral and morphological data" (PDF). Journal of Ornithology. 125: 25–37. doi:10.1007/BF01652936.
  10. ↑ Slikas, Beth (1997). "Phylogeny of the Avian Family Ciconiidae (Storks) Based on CytochromebSequences and DNA–DNA Hybridization Distances". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 8 (3): 275–300. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 9417889. doi:10.1006/mpev.1997.0431.
  11. ↑ Dykes, Gareth J.; Alexander, Cyril Walker (2008). "New Records of Fossil ‘Waterbirds’ from the Miocene of Kenya". American Museum Novitates. 3610: 1–10. ISSN 0003-0082. hdl:2246/5906.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Cramp 1977, p. 323.
  13. ↑ Dementʹev, Georgiĭ Petrovich; Institution, Smithsonian; (U.S.), National Science Foundation (1966). Birds of the Soviet Union: (Ptitsy Sovetskogo Soyuza). Jerusalem, Israel: Israel Program for Scientific Translations. p. 406.
  14. ↑ Stevenson, Terry; Fanshawe, John (2001). Field Guide to the Birds of East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi. Elsevier Science. p. 28. ISBN 978-0856610790.
  15. ↑ Sinclair, Ian (2006) [1995]. Sasol Southern African Birds: A Photographic Guide. Cape Town, South Africa: Struik. p. 32. ISBN 9781770072442.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 MacKinnon, John Ramsay; MacKinnon, John; Phillipps, Karen; He, Fen-qi (2000). A Field Guide to the Birds of China. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 243. ISBN 9780198549406.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Hancock, James; Kushlan, James A.; Kahl, M. Philip (2010). Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills of the World. London, United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 70–74. ISBN 9781408134993.
  18. ↑ Bambaradeniya, Channa N. B. (2009). The Illustrated Atlas of Wildlife. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 47. ISBN 9780520257856.
  19. ↑ Ali, Salim; S. Dillon, Ripley (1979). Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. 1. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. pp. 102–104. ISBN 9780195659344.
  20. ↑ Cramp 1977, p. 322.
  21. 1 2 3 Cano Alonso, Luis Santiago; Franco, Cláudia; Pacheco, Carlos; Reis, Susana; Rosa, Gonçalo; Fernandez-Garcia, Manuel (2006). "The breeding population of black stork Ciconia nigra in the Iberian Peninsula" (PDF). Biota. 7 (1/2): 15–23.
  22. 1 2 3 "Black Stork" (PDF). Second Southern African Bird Atlas Project. Animal Demography Unit, University of Cape Town. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
  23. 1 2 World Association of Zoos and Aquariums. "Black Stork Reintroduction". Archived from the original on 2017-07-26. Retrieved 2017-07-26.
  24. ↑ Dymond, J.N; Fraser, P.A; Gantlett, S.J.M (2010). Rare Birds in Britain and Ireland. London, United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 40–41. ISBN 9781408139622.
  25. ↑ Thom, Valerie M. (2010) [1986]. Birds in Scotland. London, United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-4081-3835-9.
  26. ↑ Qashqaei, Ali Turk; Dibadj, Parham; Sadeghpour, Shahrokh; Jomehpour, Mehdi; Aslani, Javad; Kolnegari, Mahmood; Gholami, Jafar; Akefi, Hamid; Sakhi, Ebrahim; Alavi, Mohammad; Nejat, Farshad; Ardani, Panteha; Babaki, Setareh; Pirooz, Reihaneh Saberi; Ashariuon, Ashkan; Ahmadzadeh, Faraham (2017). "Further breeding records of Black Stork Ciconia nigra in Iran". Sandgrouse. 39: 48–52.
  27. ↑ Firouz, Eskandar (2005). The Complete Fauna of Iran. London, United Kingdom: I.B.Tauris. p. 120. ISBN 9781850439462.
  28. 1 2 Bobek, Miroslav; Hampl, Radek; Peške, Lubomír; Pojer, František; Šimek, Jaroslav; Bureš, Stanislav (2008). "African Odyssey project–satellite tracking of black storks Ciconia nigra breeding at a migratory divide". Journal of Avian Biology. 39 (5): 500–506.
  29. 1 2 3 4 Pande, Satish; Pawashe, Amit; Deshpande, Prashant; Sant, Niranjan; Kasambe, Raju; Mahabal, Anil (2007). "Recent records, review of wintering distribution, habitat choice and associations of Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) in India and Sri Lanka". Biota. 7 (1–2): 65–75.
  30. ↑ Harrison, John (2011) [1999]. A Field Guide to the Birds of Sri Lanka. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-19-958566-3.
  31. ↑ Robson, C.R.; Buck, H.; Farrow, D.S.; Fisher, T.; King, B.F. (1998). "A birdwatching visit to the Chin Hills, West Burma (Myanmar), with notes from nearby areas" (PDF). Forktail. 13: 109–120.
  32. ↑ Perrins, Christopher M.; Elphick, Jonathan (2003). The Complete Encyclopedia of Birds and Bird Migration. Edison, New Jersey: Chartwell Books. pp. 93–94. ISBN 9780785816676.
  33. 1 2 Elkins, Norman (2010). Weather and Bird Behaviour. United Kingdom: A&C Black. pp. 179–180. ISBN 9781408128220.
  34. 1 2 3 Finlayson, Clive (2010). Birds of the Strait of Gibraltar. London, United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 9781408136942.
  35. 1 2 Juana, Eduardo de; Garcia, Ernest (2015). The Birds of the Iberian Peninsula. United States: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 162–163. ISBN 9781472905918.
  36. ↑ Thomsen, Peter; Jacobsen, Peder (1979). The birds of Tunisia: an annotated check-list and a field-guide to bird-watching. Copenhagen, Denmark: Nature-Travels. pp. 17–18. ISBN 9788798076414.
  37. ↑ Chevallier, Damien; Le Maho, Yvon; Brossault, P.; Baillon, François; Massemin, Sylvie (2011). "The use of stopover sites by Black Storks (Ciconia nigra) migrating between West Europe and West Africa as revealed by satellite telemetry". Journal of Ornithology. 152 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1007/s10336-010-0536-6.
  38. 1 2 3 4 Cramp 1977, p. 326.
  39. 1 2 Cramp 1977, p. 327.
  40. ↑ Rasmussen, Pamela C.; Anderton, John C. (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volume 2. Washington, DC and Barcelona: Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. p. 63.
  41. ↑ Anonymous (2017). RSPB Pocket Birds of Britain and Europe. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley Limited. p. 133. ISBN 9780241302781.
  42. 1 2 3 Sidorovich, Vadim (2016). Naliboki Forest: Wild animals. Belarus: Chatyry Chverci. pp. 494–498. ISBN 9789855810354.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Pottetz, Liselotte; Barowski, Anatol (2016). Black Stork – White Shadow (in German). Edition digital. p. 3. ISBN 9783956557491.
  44. ↑ Lõhmus, Asko; Sellis, Urmas (2003). "Nest trees – a limiting factor for the Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) population in Estonia" (PDF). Aves (1–4): 84–91.
  45. ↑ Vlachos, Christos G.; Bakaloudis, Dimitrios E.; Alexandrou, Olga G.; Bontzorlos, Vasileios A.; Papakosta, Malamati A. (2008). "Factors affecting the nest site selection of the black stork, Ciconia nigra in the Dadia-Lefkimi-Soufli National Park, north-eastern Greece" (PDF). Folia Zoologica. 57 (3): 251–257.
  46. ↑ Dresser, Henry Eeles (1881). A History of the Birds of Europe: Including All the Species Inhabiting the Western Palaeactic Region. author. p. 8.
  47. ↑ Zielinski, Piotr (2002). "Brood reduction and parental infanticide — are the White Stork Ciconia ciconia and the Black Stork C. nigra exceptional?" (PDF). Acta Ornithologica. 37 (2): 113–119. doi:10.3161/068.037.0207. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
  48. ↑ Sitko, J.; Heneberg, P. (2015). "Composition, structure and pattern of helminth assemblages associated with central European storks (Ciconiidae)". Parasitology International. 64 (2): 130–134. doi:10.1016/j.parint.2014.11.004.
  49. ↑ Fernández-Garayzábal, J. F.; Vela, A. I.; Egido, R.; Hutson, R. A.; Lanzarot, M. P.; Fernández-García, M.; Collins, M. D. (2004). "Corynebacterium ciconiae sp. nov., isolated from the trachea of black storks (Ciconia nigra)" (PDF). International journal of systematic and evolutionary microbiology. 54 (6): 2191–2195. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.63165-0.
  50. ↑ Błoszyk, Jerzy; Gwiazdowicz, Dariusz J.; Halliday, Bruce; Dolata, Paweł T.; Gołdyn, Bartłomiej (2009). "Nests of the black stork Ciconia nigra as a habitat for mesostigmatid mites (Acari: Mesostigmata)" (PDF). Biologia. 64 (5): 962–968.

Cited text

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ciconia nigra.
Wikispecies has information related to: Ciconia nigra
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.