Attica Prison riot

Attica Prison riot

Attica Correctional Facility
DateSeptember 9–13, 1971
LocationAttica, New York. U.S.
42°50′59″N 78°16′18″W / 42.84972°N 78.27167°W / 42.84972; -78.27167
Belligerents
Attica inmates New York (state) New York State Police
New York (state) New York State Department of Corrections
New York (state) New York Army National Guard
Commanders and leaders
Governor Nelson Rockefeller
Commissioner Russell G. Oswald
Superintendent William Kirwan
Strength
Approximately 1,000 inmates
Casualties and losses
33 prisoners killed 10 correctional officers killed

The Attica Prison riot, also known as the Attica Prison rebellion or Attica Prison uprising, occurred at the Attica Correctional Facility in Attica, New York, United States in 1971. Based upon prisoners' demands for better living conditions and political rights, the riot was one of the most well-known and significant uprisings of the Prisoners' Rights Movement. On September 9, 1971, two weeks after the killing of George Jackson at San Quentin State Prison, about 1,000 of the Attica prison's approximately 2,200 inmates rioted and took control of the prison, taking 42 staff hostage.

During the following four days of negotiations, authorities agreed to 28 of the prisoners' demands, but would not agree to demands for complete amnesty from criminal prosecution for the prison takeover or for the removal of Attica's superintendent. By the order of Governor Nelson Rockefeller, state police took back control of the prison. When the uprising was over, at least 43 people were dead, including ten correctional officers and civilian employees, and 33 inmates.

Rockefeller, who refused to visit the prisoners during the rebellion, stated that the prisoners "carried out the cold-blood killings they had threatened from the outset,"[1] despite only one of the deaths being attributed to the prisoners. New York Times writer Fred Ferretti said the rebellion concluded in "mass deaths that four days of taut negotiations had sought to avert".[2]

The riot

Memorial to the officers and other prison employees who died in the riot in front of the prison.

At approximately 4:20 a.m. on Thursday, September 9, 1971, 5 Company lined up for roll-call. Hearing rumors that one of their companions was to remain in his cell after being isolated for an incident involving an assault on a prison officer, a small group of 5 Company inmates protested that they too would be locked up and began walking back towards their cells. The remainder of 5 Company continued towards breakfast. As the protesting group walked past the isolated inmate, they freed him from his cell. They then rejoined the rest of 5 Company and proceeded on their way to breakfast. A short time later, when the command staff discovered what had occurred, they changed the usual scheduling of the prisoners, but did not tell the correctional officer in charge of leading 5 Company to the yard. Instead of going to the yard after breakfast as they usually did, the prisoners were led there to find a locked door, puzzling them and the correctional officer. Complaints led to anger when more correctional officers arrived to lead the prisoners back to their cells. An officer was assaulted and the riot began.[3]

The inmates quickly gained control of sections, D-yard, two tunnels, and the central control room, referred to as "Times Square". Inmates took 42 officers and civilians hostage, and produced a list of grievances demanding their conditions be met before their surrender.[4]

Negotiations

Throughout the negotiations, there was leadership and organization among the prisoners. Frank "Big Black" Smith was appointed as head of security, and he also kept the hostages and the observers safe.[5] Additionally, an ardent orator, 21-year-old Elliott James "L.D." Barkley, was a strong force during the negotiations, speaking with great articulation to the inmates, the camera crews, and outsiders at home.[6] Barkley, just days away from his scheduled release at the time of the riot, was killed during the recapturing of the prison. Assemblyman Arthur Eve testified that Barkley was alive after the prisoners had surrendered and the state regained control; another inmate stated that the officers searched him out, yelling for Barkley, and shot him in the back.[6][7]

We are men! We are not beasts and we do not intend to be beaten or driven as such. The entire prison populace, that means each and every one of us here, have set forth to change forever the ruthless brutalization and disregard for the lives of the prisoners here and throughout the United States. What has happened here is but the sound before the fury of those who are oppressed. We will not compromise on any terms except those terms that are agreeable to us. We’ve called upon all the conscientious citizens of America to assist us in putting an end to this situation that threatens the lives of not only us, but of each and every one of you, as well.
“
”

Elliott James "L.D." Barkley, 1971

As speakers like Barkley raised morale, the rebels' negotiating team of prisoners proposed their requests to the commissioner. The Attica Liberation Faction Manifesto Of Demands is a compilation of complaints written by the Attica prisoners, which speak directly to the "sincere people of society". It includes 27 demands, such as better medical treatment, fair visitation rights, and an end to physical brutality. The prisoners also requested better sanitation, improved food quality, and one set of rules for the state among numerous other demands. The manifesto specifically assigns the power to negotiate to five inmates: Donald Noble, Peter Butler, Frank Lott, Carl Jones-El, and Herbert Blyden X. Additionally, the document specifically lists out "vile and vicious slave masters" who oppressed the prisoners such as the New York governor, New York Corrections, and even the United States Courts.[8]

The prisoners continued to unsuccessfully negotiate with Correctional Services Commissioner Russell G. Oswald, and then later with a team of observers that included Tom Wicker, an editor of The New York Times, James Ingram of the Michigan Chronicle, state senator John Dunne, state representative Arthur Eve, civil rights lawyer William Kunstler, and others. Prisoners requested the presence of Minister Louis Farrakhan, National Representative of the Nation of Islam, but he declined.[9]

The situation may have been further complicated by Governor Rockefeller's refusal to come to the scene of the riot and meet with the inmates,[4] although some later evaluations of the incident would postulate that his absence from the scene actually prevented the situation from deteriorating.[10] Negotiations broke down, and Oswald was unable to make further concessions to the inmates. However, he did not tell them that negotiations had ended and he would take the prison back by force. He even said: "I want to continue negotiations with you."[11] Oswald later called Governor Rockefeller and again begged him to come to the prison to calm the riot. After the governor's refusal, Oswald stated that he would order the State Police to retake the facility by force. Rockefeller agreed with Oswald's decision. This agreement was later criticized by a commission created by Rockefeller to study the riot and its aftermath.[12]

Retaking of the prison and retaliation

As the demands were not met, negotiations broke down and the mood among the inmates deteriorated. It appeared as though Gov. Rockefeller remained opposed to the inmates' demands, and they became restless. Defensive trenches had been dug, metal gates had been electrified, crude battlements were fashioned out of metal tables and dirt, gasoline was put in position to be lit in the event of conflict, and the "Times Square" prison command center was fortified. The inmates brought four corrections officers to the top of the command center and threatened to slit their throats. Reporters in helicopters circling the prison reported that the hostages in D yard were also being prepared for killing. Gov. Rockefeller had ordered that the prison be retaken that day if negotiations failed. Situation commander Oswald, seeing the danger to the hostages, ordered that the prison be retaken by force. Of the decision, he later said "On a much smaller scale, I think I have some feeling now of how Truman must have felt when he decided to drop the A-bomb."[13]

At 9:46 a.m. on Monday, September 13, 1971, tear gas was dropped into the yard and New York State Police troopers opened fire non-stop for two minutes into the smoke. Among the weapons used by the troopers were shotguns, which led to the wounding and killing of hostages and inmates who were not resisting.[14] Former prison officers were allowed to participate, a decision later called "inexcusable" by the commission established by Rockefeller to study the riot and the aftermath.[12] By the time the facility was retaken, nine hostages and 29 inmates had been killed. A tenth hostage died on October 9, 1972, of gunshot wounds received during the assault.[15]

The final death toll from the riot also includes the officer fatally injured at the start of the riot and four inmates who were subjected to vigilante killings. Nine hostages died from gunfire by state troopers and soldiers.[4][16] The New York State Special Commission on Attica wrote, "With the exception of Indian massacres in the late 19th century, the State Police assault which ended the four-day prison uprising was the bloodiest one-day encounter between Americans since the Civil War."[16][17]

Media reports claimed that inmate hostage-takers slit the throats of many of their hostages, reports that contradicted official medical evidence.[18] Newspaper headlines made statements such as "I Saw Slit Throats", implying that prisoners had cut the hostages' throats when the armed raid occurred. These reports set the stage for reprisals by troopers and prison officers. Inmates were made to strip and crawl through the mud and then some were made to run naked between lines of enraged officers, who beat the inmates.[18][19] Several days after the riot's end, prison doctors reported evidence of more beatings.[12][20][21] The Special Commission found that state officials failed to quickly refute those rumors and false reports.[12]

Retaliation by Weatherman

At 7:30 p.m. on September 17, Weatherman launched a retaliatory attack on the New York Department of Corrections, exploding a bomb near Oswald's office. "The communique accompanying the attack called the prison system an example of 'how a society run by white racists maintains its control,' with white supremacy being the 'main question white people have to face'"[22] and said that the Attica riots are blamed on Gov. Nelson Rockefeller.

Lawsuits and payments

Within four years of the riot, 62 inmates had been charged in 42 indictments with 1,289 separate counts. One state trooper was indicted for reckless endangerment.[23]

Inmates and families of inmates killed in the prison retaking sued the State of New York for civil rights violations by law enforcement officers during and after the retaking of Attica. After years in the courts, in 2000, the State of New York agreed to pay $8 million ($12 million minus legal fees) to settle the case.[24] The State of New York also recognized the families of the slain prison employees in 2005 with a $12 million financial settlement.[25]

The Forgotten Victims of Attica have also asked the State of New York to release state records of the uprising to the public. In 2013, Attorney General Eric Schneiderman said he would seek the release of the entire 570-page Meyer Report, the state's review of the uprising. The report was prepared by former State Supreme Court justice Bernard S. Meyer and submitted in 1975. One volume was made public, but a State Supreme Court justice ordered in 1981 that the other two be sealed permanently.[26] In May 2015, 46 pages of the report were released. The released pages contain accounts from witnesses and inmates describing torture, burning, and sexual abuse of inmates by prison authorities.[27]

Racial issues

At the time of the riots, black empowerment was increasing and many black prisoners had transferred to Attica, increasing population from its designed 1200 prisoners to 2243.[28] 54% of these were Black American, 9% Puerto Rican, and 37% white;[29] however, most of the 383 correctional officers were white. Some corrections officers were openly racist and assaulted the prisoners with their batons, which they dubbed "nigger sticks."[28] Additionally, George Jackson, a member of the Black Panther Party, had died at the hands of white prison officers under disputed circumstances two weeks before the riot in the San Quentin State Prison in California.

Al Jundi v. Mancusi

It was believed that a group of Muslims were responsible for the uprising and the harm of the hostages, when in fact the group of Muslims was protecting the hostages from other inmates. The leader of the Muslims even told the other inmates that if any of the inmates tried to hurt the hostages, that they would "kill [the inmates involved] or die protecting the hostages." The court in Al Jundi v. Mancusi, 113 F.Supp.2d 441 wrote:[30][31]

A number of former Muslim inmates testified that they had been singled out for "special" brutal treatment by troopers and prison officers because they had played an active role in protecting the hostages during the four days before the retaking. Because a number of militant inmates were prepared to do harm to the hostages, Frank "Big Black" Smith, in conjunction with the Muslim leadership, implemented a plan to secure the safety of the hostages during negotiations.[32]

This view was corroborated by Michael Smith, age 51, a former corrections officer who was a hostage up to September 13, 1971. He testified that he was taken hostage on September 9, 1971 by a group of inmates who were out of control. He described them as a "wave of human emotion". He was in charge of the sheet metal shop and developed a good rapport with the inmates who worked under him and they protected him from the militant group. But eventually he came under the control of the take-over group and found himself in the center of D-Yard with other hostages. One of the inmates, Don Noble, whom he had befriended and who worked in the sheet metal shop, and Carl Reighn (originally referred to in previous interviews as Carl Rain) protected him on September 9, 1971, trying desperately to come up with ways to hide or save him and protect him; and would later save his life on September 13, 1971. Carl Reighn was present from the moment they broke the metal shop doors down.

Smith was interviewed by the media while being held hostage along with Corrections Officer Cunningham. He conveyed that the inmates' demands were for improved conditions and reported that he was not being harmed. He was blindfolded most of the time. Upon receiving news of Corrections Officer Quinn's death, the negotiation process broke down.

On Sunday night, September 12, 1971, the feeling was "somber".[32] He got a pen and wrote a goodbye note to his wife and family on dollar bills which were in his wallet. He testified that the hostages sat in a circle and leaned up against each other for support.

On Monday, September 13, 1971, he was selected along with a few other hostages to be taken up on the A-Yard catwalk and a hostage execution was arranged. He was taken to the top of the catwalk by three inmates and sat on a chair blindfolded. Inmate Don Noble was on his left and held a knife to his throat. As the Army helicopter hovered over them and dropped tear gas, the shooting started and the inmate on his right was shot twice and blown over the railing of the catwalk. Don Noble pulled him to his left and the inmate immediately behind him received a fatal volley of gunfire. Noble was shot and Smith was shot four times in the stomach and once in the arm. The chair on which he had been sitting disintegrated from gunshots. Smith said in court, "I don't know how long the shooting went on. You could hear people crying, people dying and people screaming." He never lost consciousness as he lay on the catwalk until a trooper stood over him pointing a shotgun at his head. A prison officer saw what was going on and yelled to the trooper, "He is one of us", who then focused his attention on Noble, at which point Smith told the trooper, "He saved my life".

He was eventually taken by National Guard medics to St. Jerome's Hospital in Batavia for an extensive period of treatment involving multiple surgeries. He was eventually released from service as a corrections officer because of his physical inability to perform his duties. He commented on the inaccuracy of the McKay Report which claimed that he had been merely knocked unconscious—no mention of his extensive gunshot wounds nor how they were obtained. He openly stated that his life was saved while he was held hostage because of the dedicated efforts of the Muslim group at Attica. "In fact, I can recall hearing one of the Muslim leaders instructing one of their men that if anyone tries to break through their Muslim perimeter to kill them or die protecting the hostages."

Books

The first historical account of the Attica Prison Riot (A Time to Die, 1975) was written by Tom Wicker, a N.Y. Times editor, who was present at the prison as an observer. A more detailed historical account of the riot was published by historian Heather Ann Thompson in 2016. The book, entitled Blood in the Water: The Attica Prison Uprising of 1971 and Its Legacy, draws on interviews with former inmates, hostages, families of victims, law enforcement, lawyers, and state officials, as well as significant archives of previously unreleased materials.[9] Malcolm Bell's historical account The Turkey Shoot: Tracking the Attica Cover-up had already been written and Bell was involved with the original New York (State) Special Commission on Attica.

Film

Direct coverage of the Attica Prison riot:

Firestone's 1974 film, restored in 2007, culls together primary footage from surveillance and news cameras along with prisoner, family, and guard interviews to create an account of the massacre that has been described as temperate, but undeniably damning with respect to the state's actions. As The New Yorker's 1974 review describes it, "Cinda Firestone’s quiet picture uses horrifying film footage: shots taken through state troopers' telescopic rifle lenses; musings by inmates which sometimes sputter into anger against a world that finds descriptions of Attica incredible; riot quellers insensibly proud of their skill with weapons, showing off their prowess before the commission of inquiry. …If Attica disturbed our slumber for a mere month or two, one of the qualities of this trumpet call of a film is that it makes the disturbance enduring."
Criminal Injustice: Death and Politics at Attica brings this historical event to life in completely new and startling ways. Based on scores of interviews of eyewitnesses who just now are telling their stories, as well as filmmaker access to newly discovered documents, Criminal Injustice brings genuinely new evidence to light regarding what exactly happened at Attica between September 9–13, 1971 and the role played there by local, state, and even federal officials. Indeed this film raises important new questions about the deaths caused at Attica, about the involvement by individuals in the White House at Attica, and the influence of Nelson Rockefeller's political aspirations on decision made before, during, and long after the controversial and deadly retaking of that prison. Forty years after this cataclysmic and highly charged event, filmmakers Marshall and Christopher found that many are willing to speak with new candor that adds depth, and in some cases alters, the historic record. The film includes the final interview regarding Attica given by NYT reporter Tom Wicker (who was an observer/negotiator on the scene and author of A Time to Die about his experiences at Attica), Malcolm Bell, the special prosecutor turned whistle blower, Dr. Heather Thompson who is the nation's leading academic authority on the Attica prison uprising—as well as inmates, former hostages, law enforcement officers and others.[35]

Several other films reference the uprising:

Music

The incident is directly referenced in several songs:

Poetry

Television

See also

References

Notes

  1. ↑ The Milwaukee Star (1971)
  2. ↑ Ferretti (1971)
  3. ↑ "Attica Correctional Facility: 1971 Prison Riot". Attica Central School District. Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2006-10-04.
  4. 1 2 3 "People & Events: Attica Prison Riot – September 9–13, 1971". American Experience—The Rockefellers. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 8 September 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-04.
  5. ↑ Attica Timeline
  6. 1 2 Eyes on the Prize (1990)
  7. ↑ Criminal Injustice: Death and Politics at Attica (2013)
  8. ↑ The Attica Liberation Faction Manifesto Of Demands (1971)
  9. 1 2 Oppenheimer, Mark (2016-08-18). "‘Blood in the Water,’ a Gripping Account of the Attica Prison Uprising". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-08-18.
  10. ↑ Benjamin, G., & Rappaport, S. (1974). Attica and Prison Reform. Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, 31(3), 203-212. Retrieved October 6, 2006, from JSTOR database.
  11. ↑ Ann Thompson, Heather (2016-08-23). Blood in the Water: The Attica Prison Uprising of 1971 and Its Legacy. Pantheon. p. 170. ISBN 0375423222.
  12. 1 2 3 4 "A Year Ago at Attica". Time. Time Magazine, Inc. 1972-09-25. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  13. ↑ "The Nation: War at Attica: Was There No Other Way?". Time. September 27, 1971.
  14. ↑ "Use of Shotguns in Attica Revolt Deplored in House Unit's Report; No Comment on Report". The New York Times. June 27, 1973.
  15. ↑ Attica: The Official Report of the New York State Special Commission on Attica (PDF). New York: Bantam Books. 1972. p. 456 (digital page 496). OCLC 601935.
  16. 1 2 Schmalleger, F. & Smykla, J. (2007, 2005). Corrections in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ↑ https://www.themarshallproject.org/2015/05/26/the-attica-turkey-shoot
  18. 1 2 http://www.kqed.org/tv/programs/index.jsp?pgmid=21946
  19. 1 2 http://www.bspfilms.org/films-criminal-injustice-death-and-politics-at-attica.php
  20. ↑ Ferretti, Fred (September 15, 1971). "Autopsies Show Shots Killed 9 Attica Hostages, Not Knives; State Official Admits Mistake". The New York Times. p. 1.
  21. ↑ Farrell, William E. (September 17, 1971). "Rockefeller Lays Hostages' Deaths to Troopers' Fire". The New York Times. p. 1.
  22. ↑ Berger, Dan, Outlaws of America: the Weather Underground and the politics of solidarity, (AK Press, 2006) pp. 182–3, via Google Books. Retrieved 2011-09-12.
  23. ↑ Al-Jundi v. Mancusi, 113 F. Supp. 2d 441 (W.D.N.Y. 2000)
  24. ↑ Chen, David W. (29 August 2000). "COMPENSATION SET ON ATTICA UPRISING". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  25. ↑ "State and Prison Workers Settle Attica Riot Claims". The New York Times. 14 January 2005. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  26. ↑ Kaplan, Thomas (19 April 2013). "Decades Later, State Seeks Release of Report on Attica Uprising". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  27. ↑ New Attica documents reveal inmate accounts of torture after 1971 prison riot The Guardian
  28. 1 2 "Obituary:Vincent Mancusi". Daily Telegraph. 24 Sep 2012. Retrieved 27 Sep 2012.
  29. ↑ Attica: The Official Report of the New York State Special Commission on Attica (PDF). New York: Bantam Books. 1972. pp. 28 (digital page 67). OCLC 601935.
  30. ↑ http://cases.justia.com/us-court-of-appeals/F2/926/235/258238/
  31. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-19. Retrieved 2008-07-31.
  32. 1 2 http://www.pbs.org/pov/docs/disturbingtheuniverse/kunstler_lp_smith.pdf
  33. ↑ "Tuesday, September 13 >> Featured Screening: Attica at BAMcinématek". ScreenSlate. September 13, 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
  34. ↑ https://www.academicvideostore.com/video/criminal-injustice-death-and-politics-attica-0
  35. ↑ http://interactive.wxxi.org/highlights/2013/01/criminal-injustice-death-and-politics-attica
  36. ↑ Rzewski, Frederic. Coming Together / Les Moutons de Panurge / Attica. Opus One: 20.
  37. ↑ Thompson, Heather Ann. "Editorial: ‘Orange’ is the New Attica on Netflix". NBC News. NBC. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
  38. ↑ Source: Time Travel Files: "Past Tense". DVD extra included with Star Trek: Deep Space Nine – The Complete Third Season. ASIN B00008KA5A.

Bibliography

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