Sinophobia

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Anti-Chinese sentiment, Sinophobia (from Late Latin Sinae "China" and Greek φόβος, phobos, "fear"), or Chinophobia is a sentiment against China, its people, overseas Chinese, or Chinese culture.^[3] It often targets Chinese minorities living outside of China and is complicated by the dilemma of immigration, development of national identity in neighbouring countries, disparity of wealth, the fall of the past central tribute system and majority-minority relations. Its opposite is Sinophilia. Factors contributing to sinophobia include disapproval of the Chinese government, historical grievances, fear of economic competition, and racism. Sinophobia also stems from older ethnic tensions, such as those related to Japanese nationalism, Korean nationalism, Indian nationalism and Vietnamese nationalism.

Region-based

East Asia

Hong Kong

Although Hong Kong returned to Chinese rule in 1997, Hong Kongers do not fully identify with China. According to a survey conducted by the University of Hong Kong in December 2014, 42.3% of Hong Kongers identify themselves as "Hong Kong citizens", versus 17.8% who identify themselves as "Chinese citizens", and 39.3% who choose a mixed identity of both (a Hong Kong Chinese or a Hong Konger living in China).^[4] The number of Mainland Chinese visitors to Hong Kong have surged since the handover, reaching 28 million in 2011. The conspicuous consumption and rude behaviour of some mainlanders have upset many locals. In 2012, a group of Hong Kong residents published a newspaper advertisement depicting mainland visitors and immigrants as locusts.^[5] In February 2014, about 100 Hong Kongers harassed mainland tourists and shoppers during what they styled as an "anti-locust" protest in Kowloon. The protest caused a backlash and was widely condemned. In response, the Equal Opportunities Commission of Hong Kong proposed an extension of the territory's race-hate laws to cover mainlanders.^[6]

Japan

After World War II ended, the relationship between China and Japan gradually improved. However, since 2000, Japan has seen a gradual resurgence of anti-Chinese sentiments. Many Japanese believe that China is using the issue of the countries' checkered history, such as the Japanese history textbook controversies, many past war crimes committed by Japan's military, and official visits to the Yasukuni Shrine (at which a number of war criminals are interred), both as a diplomatic card and to make Japan a scapegoat in domestic politics.^[7] The Anti-Japanese Riots in Spring of 2005 also were a source of more anger towards China within the Japanese public. Anti-Chinese sentiments in Japan have been on a sharp rise since 2002. According to Pew Global Attitude Project (2008), unfavorable view of China was 84%, unfavorable view of Chinese people was 73%, the most Sinophobic perception from any other country in the world.^[8]

Korea

Korea has a long history of both resistance against and subordination to the Chinese empire. Until the arrival of Western imperialism the 19th century, Korea had been part of the sinocentric East Asian regional order.^[9] In the early 2000s, a dispute over the history of Goguryo, which both South Korea and China claim as their own, caused tension between the two countries.^[9]

In the 7th century, the kingdoms of Baekje and Silla were raided by the Chinese Tang Dynasty. This caused historical resentment between the two groups.^[10] In the 9th century, Chinese pirates and slave traders captured foreigners to sell as slaves in China. The Korean peninsula was a primary target because of its close proximity.^[11][12] As a result of this, Korean admiral Jang Bogo established the Cheonghaejin garrison, and Jang's force swept the Chinese pirates away from the western coast of Korea.^[12] During the early Ming period, China demanded tributes of rare animals, food, concubines^[13] and eunuchs^[14] as tribute from the Korean Joseon Dynasty.

In 1592, Japan invaded Korea and occupied many parts of the peninsula within months. The Korean court requested and received aid from Ming China, which helped thwart the Japanese invasion. However, the Chinese soldiers were often indistinguishable from the Japanese invaders, and they also looted and killed Korean civilians.^[15][16]

In 1931, while Korea was dominated by Imperial Japan, there was a dispute between Chinese and Korean farmers in Wanpaoshan, Manchuria. It was highly sensationalized in the Japanese and Korean press, and used as propaganda to increase anti-Chinese sentiment. It caused a series of anti-Chinese riots throughout Korea, starting in Incheon on July 3 and spreading rapidly to other cities. Chinese sources estimate that 146 people were killed, 546 wounded, and a considerable number of properties were destroyed . The worst riot occurred in Pyongyang on July 5. In this effect, the Japanese had a considerable influence on sinophobia in Korea.^[17]

Starting in October 1950, the People's Volunteer Army fought in the Korean War(1950-1953) on the side of North Korea against South Korean and United Nations troops. The participation of the PVA made the relations between South Korea and China hostile. Throughout the Cold War, there were no official relations between capitalist South Korea and communist China until August 24, 1992, when formal diplomatic relations were established between Seoul and Beijing.

In the 1960s, South Korean laws directed against foreign property ownership, at a time when most foreign ownership was by ethnic Chinese, led to many Chinese emigrating from South Korea to Taiwan.^[18]

Anti-Chinese sentiments in South Korea have been on a steady rise since 2002. According to the Pew Global Attitude Project, favorable view of China steadily declined from 66% in 2002 to 48% in 2008, while unfavorable view of China rose from 31% in 2002 to 49% in 2008.^[19] According to polls by the East Asia Institute, positive view of China's influence declined from 48.6% in 2005 to 38% in 2009, while negative view of Chinese influence rose from 46.7% in 2005 to 50% in 2008.^[20]

The turning point of rising anti-Chinese sentiments was the Northeast Project, a controversial Chinese government research project claiming Goguryeo and other various Korean kingdoms, including Gojoseon, Buyeo and Balhae, to be Tungusic states and thus part of historical Chinese territory, since Tungusic minorities like Manchus are Chinese citizens. The conflict erupted in April after the Chinese Foreign Ministry deleted references of the kingdom from the introduction of Korean history on its Web site, angering many Koreans. Beijing refused to accept Seoul's demand to restore the part on Korean history on its Foreign Ministry Web site to include the ancient kingdom. Many historians and officials in Korea believed the row is at a critical stage in diplomatic relations, with Chinese defiance of Korean requests to reinstate acknowledgment of Goguryeo as a Korean kingdom being seen by Seoul as humiliating and threatening to unravel ties between the two neighbors. This sparked a massive uproar in South Korea when the project was widely publicized in 2004.^[21] Amid intensifying criticism against China from the Korean government and public, China dispatched its new Vice Foreign Minister Wu Dawei to Seoul with the Beijing's promise not to distort the Goguryeo history in its textbooks.

During the Seoul leg of the 2008 Olympic torch relay, over 6,000 Chinese students clashed with protesters.^[21][22][23] Chinese demonstrators clashed with local activists who rallied to protest the torch relay, citing Beijing's discouraging treatment of North Korea defectors and the regime's crackdown on Tibetans' rioting for independence.^[22] With the result of these violent clashes in central Seoul, anti-Chinese sentiments in Korea aroused great indignation toward the Chinese people.^[24] The Ministry of Justice of South Korea indicated that it would punish all such demonstrators, regardless of nationality.^[25] The Government of South Korea is toughening visa regulations for Chinese students.^[26]

Mongolia

Mongolians traditionally hold very unfavorable views of China.^[27] The common stereotype is that China is trying to undermine Mongolian sovereignty in order to eventually make it part of China (the Republic of China has claimed Mongolia as part of its territory, see Outer Mongolia ). Fear and hatred of erliiz (literally, double seeds), a derogatory term for people of mixed Han Chinese and Mongol ethnicity,^[28] is a common phenomena in Mongolian politics. Erliiz are seen as a Chinese plot of "genetic pollution" to chip away at Mongolian sovereignty, and allegations of Chinese ancestry are used as a political weapon in election campaigns - though not always with success.^[29][30] Several Neo-Nazi groups opposing foreign influence, especially China's, are present within Mongolia.^[31]

Central Asia

Kazakhstan

Massive land reform protests were held in Kazakhstan. Protesters were against land renting to Chinese. ^[32][33]

Southeast Asia

Singapore

To counteract the city state's low birthrate, Singapore's government has been offering financial incentives and a liberal visa policy to attract immigrants. The policy has nearly doubled Singapore's population since 1990. Many of the newcomers are from China, although about half are from Southeast Asia. The immigrants are blamed for competing with the native-born Singaporeans for jobs and housing.^[34]

Malaysia

Due to race-based politics and Bumiputera policy, the racism growing quite high in Malaysia, especially between the Malays and Chinese. There had been several incidents of racial conflict between the Malays and Chinese before the 1969 riots. For example, in Penang, hostility between the races turned into violence during the centenary celebration of George Town in 1957 which resulted in several days of fighting and a number of deaths,^[35] and there were further disturbances in 1959 and 1964, as well as a riot in 1967 which originated as a protest against currency devaluation but turned into racial killings.^[36][37] In Singapore, the antagonism between the races led to the 1964 Race Riots which contributed to the expulsion of Singapore from Malaysia on 9 August 1965. The 13 May Incident probably the highest race riot happen in Malaysia with more than 143 or suggested 600 killed, mostly are Chinese.

Vietnam

Even sharing the same Sinosphere culture, but due to a thousand years of Chinese rule in Northern Vietnam, and later a series of Sino-Vietnamese wars in the history between two nations and recent territory disputes in the Paracel and Spratly Islands, there are strong anti-Chinese sentiments among the Vietnamese population.^[38][39] While the current government tries to maintain friendly ties with the Chinese government, past regimes from the Tay Son (18th century)^[40] to the Republic of Vietnam (20th century) had punitive measures against the Chinese communities. These ranged from outright massacres^[41] to restrictive exclusionary laws and forced assimilation.^[42] The Socialist Republic of Vietnam however toes the policy to crack down on anti-Chinese demonstrations and criticisms regarding China. Anti-Chinese sentiments however had spiked in 2007 after China formed an administration in the disputed islands,^[39] in 2009 when the Vietnamese government allowed the Chinese aluminium manufacturer Chinalco the rights to mine for bauxite in the Central Highlands,^[43][44][45] and when Vietnamese fishermen were detained by Chinese security forces while seeking refuge in the disputed territories.^[46] In 2011, following a spat in which a Chinese Marine Surveillance ship damaged a Vietnamese geologic survey ship off the coast of Vietnam, some Vietnamese travel agencies boycotted Chinese destinations or refused to serve customers with Chinese citizenship.^[47] Hundreds of people protested in front of the Chinese embassy in Hanoi and the Chinese consulate in Ho Chi Minh City against Chinese naval operations in the South China Sea before being dispersed by the police.^[48] In May 2014, mass anti-Chinese protests against China moving an oil platform into disputed waters escalated into riots in which many Chinese factories and workers were targeted.

The Sino-Vietnamese War resulted in the discrimination and consequent emigration of the country's ethnic Chinese, many of whom fled as "boat people". From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat (mainly former South Vietnam citizens fleeing the Vietcong) as refugees or were expelled across the land border with China.^[49] It only stopped at 1989 following the Đổi mới reforms in Vietnam.

According to journalist Daniel Groos, Sinophobia is omnipresent in modern Vietnam, where "from school kids to government officials, China-bashing is very much in vogue." According to Groos a majority of Vietnamese resent the import and usage of Chinese products, considering them distinctly low status.^[50]

Laos and Thailand

In Laos, anti-Chinese sentiment is frequently associated with Chinese businesses that are perceived to be responsible for destroying or 'stealing' the country's natural resources, or who are responsible for the relocation of citizens from their homes to make way for companies seeking to use the land.^[51] However, Laos seems to have warmer relations with China than two neighbors, Myanmar and Vietnam.

Thailand was generally considered to be Sinophilic. However, in the 1930s to 1970s, upon learning of an ethnic Chinese Communist plot to overthrow the government, several restrictions were placed on Chinese and their intra-community assembling.^[52] Thus, adding with the alliance between Thailand and the US, Thais also have a sense of hostility against China.

Cambodia

During the late 1960s an estimated 425,000 ethnic Chinese lived in Cambodia. By 1984, as a result of the Khmer Rouge genocide and emigration, only about 61,400 Chinese remained in the country.^[53][54][55]

The hatred for Chinese was projected on the ethnic Chinese of Cambodia during 80s. A Vietnamese report had noted "In general, the attitude of young people and intellectuals is that they hate Cambodian-Chinese."^[56]

Philippines

In the Pre colonial Philippines, Chinese pirates more of then conducted a series of raids specially to the Visayas region, in the Kedatuan of Madja-as, the Authorities made an counter-measure to drive away the Chinese, forces at the same time Chinese traders are also suspected for the piracy and illegal trade they often called Mangingilad or Pirates.

The Spanish introduced the first anti-Chinese laws in the Philippine archipelago. The Spanish massacred or expelled Chinese several times from Manila, and the Chinese responded by fleeing to the Sulu Sultanate and supporting the Moro Muslims in their war against the Spanish. The Chinese supplied the Moros with weapons and joined them in fighting the Spanish directly during the Spanish–Moro conflict.

The standoff in Spratly Islands and Scarborough Shoal between China and the Philippines contributes to anti-China sentiment among Filipinos. Campaigns to boycott Chinese products began in 2012. People protested in front of the Chinese Embassy.

Another reason is the mistrust of products made from China. In 2008, The Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD) imposed the ban amid growing fears over the safety of dairy products made in China where four children have died and more than 50,000 have fallen ill after drinking milk tainted with the industrial chemical melamine. Toys and dolls made in China has been found with lead content dangerous to children. Beauty products for females also have been found to have mercury and lead in them which can cause ailments like skin cancer.

Indonesia

The Dutch introduced anti-Chinese laws in the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch colonialists started the first massacre of Chinese in the 1740 Batavia massacre. Tens of thousands were killed.^{[57][58][59][60][61]} The Chinese and Javanese responded to the massacre by rising up in rebellion against the Dutch in the Java War (1741–43).

The asymmetrical economic position between ethnic Chinese Indonesians and indigenous Indonesians has incited anti-Chinese sentiment among the poorer majorities. During the Indonesian killings of 1965–66, in which more than 500,000 people died (mostly non-Chinese Indonesians),^[62] ethnic Chinese were killed and their properties looted and burned as a result of anti-Chinese racism on the excuse that Dipa "Amat" Aidit had brought the PKI closer to China.^[63][64] In the May 1998 riots of Indonesia following the fall of President Suharto, many ethnic Chinese were targeted by Indonesian rioters, resulting in a large number of rapes and looting. However, most of the deaths suffered when Chinese owned supermarkets were targeted for looting were not Chinese, but the Indonesian looters themselves, who were burnt to death by the hundreds when a fire broke out.^[65][66]

South Asia

Bhutan

The relation between Bhutan and China has historically been tense and past events have led to anti-Chinese sentiment within the country. Notably the Chinese government's destruction of Tibetan Buddhist institutions in Tibet in 1959 led to a wave of anti-Chinese sentiment in the country.^[67] Similarly, the publishing of a controversial map in the book, A Brief History of China which illustrated a large portion of Bhutanese territory belonging to China and the statement released by China in 1960 which claimed the Bhutanese "form a united family in Tibet" and "they must once again be united and taught the communist doctrine" all led to hostile responses from Bhutan including the closing of its border, trade and all diplomatic contact with China. Bhutan and China have not established diplomatic relations.^[68]

India

During the Sino-Indian War, the Chinese faced anti-national sentiment unleashed by the Indian National Congress-dominated government. Chinese businesses were investigated for links to the Chinese government and many people of Chinese origin were interned in prisons in North India.^[69] The Indian government passed the Defence of India Act in December 1962,^[70] permitting the "apprehension and detention in custody of any person [suspected] of being of hostile origin." The broad language of the act allowed for the arrest of any person simply for having a Chinese surname, a drop of Chinese blood, or a Chinese spouse.^[71] The Indian government incarcerated thousands of Chinese-Indians in an internment camp in Deoli, Rajasthan, where they were held for years without trial. The last internees were not released until 1967. Thousands more Chinese-Indians were forcibly deported or coerced to leave India. Nearly all internees had their properties sold off or looted.^[70] Even after their release, the Chinese Indians faced many restrictions in their freedom. They could not travel freely until the mid-1990s.^[70]

More recently India in conjunction with Tibet have called for a joint campaign to boycott Chinese goods due to border intrusion incidents. Similarly to the Philippines and Vietnam the call for the boycott of Chinese goods by India is related to the contested territorial disputes India has with China.^[72][73]

Pacific Islands

Tonga

In 2000, Tongan noble Tu'ivakano of Nukunuku banned Chinese stores from his Nukunuku District in Tonga. This followed complaints from other shopkeepers regarding competition from local Chinese.^[74] In 2001, Tonga's Chinese community (a population of about three or four thousand people) was hit by a wave racist assaults. The Tongan government did not renew the work permits of more than 600 Chinese storekeepers, and has admitted the decision was in response to “widespread anger at the growing presence of the storekeepers”.^[75]

In 2006, rioters damaged shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in Nukuʻalofa.^[76][77]

Solomon Islands

In 2006, Honiara's Chinatown suffered damage when it was looted and burned by rioters following a contested election. Ethnic Chinese businessmen were falsely blamed for bribing members of the Solomon Islands' Parliament. The government of Taiwan was the one that supported the then current government of the Solomon Islands. The Chinese businessmen were mainly small traders from mainland China and had no interest in local politics.^[76]

Eurasia

Russia

In Russia’s Siberia and the Russian Far East, there was a long-standing dispute over territory, which was resolved in 2004. Russia and China no longer have territorial disputes and China does not claim land in Russia, however, there is also a perceived fear of a demographic takeover by Chinese immigrants in sparsely populated Russian areas.^[78][79]

Turkey

Anti-Chinese sentiment in Turkey has been a strong factor, due to historical issues between two countries, remains. Despite far away thousand miles, in the past, the Turkic peoples, from the Göktürks to the Uyghurs, had always fought against Imperial China. Due to China's occupation of East Turkestan, known as Xinjiang, which belongs to Turkic peoples, hatreds against China is very common.

On July 4, 2015, a group of around 2,000 Turkish nationalists from the Grey Wolves linked to MHP protesting against China's fasting ban in Xinjiang mistakenly attacked South Korean tourists in Istanbul,^[80][81] which led to China issuing a travel warning to its citizens traveling to Turkey.^[82] A Uyghur employee at a Chinese restaurant was beaten by the Turkish Grey Wolves-linked protesters.^[83] This event negatively impacted China–Turkey relations.^[84]

Devlet Bahçeli, a leader from Turkey's MHP (Nationalist Movement Party), said that the attacks by MHP affiliated Turkish youth on South Korean tourists was "understandable", telling the Turkish news paper Hurriyet that: "What feature differentiates a Korean from a Chinese? They see that they both have slanted eyes. How can they tell the difference?".^[85] Another translation of his remarks was : "What is the difference between a Korean and a Chinese anyway? They both have slitty eyes. Does it make any difference?"^[86][87] A Uyghur staffed, Turkish owned Chinese restaurant was assaulted by Turkish nationalists, who have also attacked the Dutch consulate which they thought was the Russian consulate.^[88][89]

Western world

Like China's perception in other countries, China's large population, long history and size has been the subject of fear somewhat. China has figured in the Western imagination in a number of different ways as being a very large civilization existing for many centuries with a very large population; however the rise of the People's Republic of China after the Chinese Civil War has dramatically changed the perception of China from a relatively positive light to negative because of the fear of communism in the West, and repeated public accusations against China of human rights abuses.

Sinophobia became more common as China was becoming a major source of immigrants for the west (including the American West).^[90] Numerous Chinese immigrants to North America were attracted by wages offered by large railway companies in the late 19th century as the companies built the transcontinental railroads.

Sinophobic policies (such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, anti-Chinese zoning laws and restrictive covenants, the policies of Richard Seddon, and the White Australia policy) and pronouncements on the "yellow peril" were in evidence as late as the mid-20th century in the Australia, United States, Canada, and New Zealand.

Australia

The Chinese population was active in political and social life in Australia. Community leaders protested against discriminatory legislation and attitudes, and despite the passing of the Immigration Restriction Act in 1901, Chinese communities around Australia participated in parades and celebrations of Australia's Federation and the visit of the Duke and Duchess of York.

Although the Chinese communities in Australia were generally peaceful and industrious, resentment flared up against them because of their different customs and traditions. In the mid-19th century, terms such as "dirty, disease ridden, [and] insect-like" were used in Australia and New Zealand to describe the Chinese.^[91]

A poll tax was passed in Victoria in 1855 to restrict Chinese immigration. New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia followed suit. Such legislation did not distinguish between naturalised, British citizens, Australian-born and Chinese-born individuals. The tax in Victoria and New South Wales was repealed in the 1860s, but by the 1880s there was another wave of anti-Chinese sentiment. Despite a steady decline in the number of Chinese residents in Australia, the numbers of Chinese and Chinese-Australians in the more visible Chinatowns of Melbourne and Sydney were growing. In 1887, two Chinese Commissioners, the first statesmen from China to visit Australia, arrived to assess the living conditions of Chinese in Australia after numerous requests from Chinese living abroad. In 1888, following protests and strike actions, an inter-colonial conference agreed to reinstate and increase the severity of restrictions on Chinese immigration. This provided the basis for the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act and the seed for the White Australia Policy, which although relaxed over time, was not fully abandoned until the early 1970s.

Number of cases have been reported, related to Sinophobia in the country.^[92] Recently, on February 2013, a Chinese football team had reported about the abuses and racism they suffered on Australia Day.^[93]

Canada

In the 1850s, sizable numbers of Chinese immigrants came to British Columbia seeking gold; the region was known to them as Gold Mountain. Starting in 1858, Chinese "coolies" were brought to Canada to work in the mines and on the Canadian Pacific Railway. However, they were denied by law the rights of citizenship, including the right to vote, and in the 1880s, "head taxes" were implemented to curtail immigration from China. In 1907, a riot in Vancouver targeted Chinese and Japanese-owned businesses. In 1923, the federal government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, commonly known as the Exclusion Act, prohibiting further Chinese immigration except under "special circumstances". The Exclusion Act was repealed in 1947, the same year in which Chinese Canadians were given the right to vote. Restrictions would continue to exist on immigration from Asia until 1967, when all racial restrictions on immigration to Canada were repealed, and Canada adopted the current points based immigration system. On June 22, 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered an apology and compensation only for the head tax once paid by Chinese immigrants.^[94] Survivors or their spouses were paid approximately CAD$20,000 in compensation.^[95]

United States

Starting with the California Gold Rush in the late 19th century, the United States—particularly the West Coast states—imported large numbers of Chinese migrant laborers. Early Chinese immigrant worked as gold miners, and later on subsequent large labor projects, such as the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad. The decline of the Qing Dynasty in China caused many Chinese to emigrate overseas in search of a more stable life, and this coincided with the rapid growth of American industry. The Chinese were considered by employers as "reliable" workers who would continue working, without complaint, even under destitute conditions.^[96]

Chinese migrant workers encountered considerable prejudice in the United States, especially by the people who occupied the lower layers in white society, because Chinese "coolies" were used as a scapegoat for depressed wage levels by politicians and labor leaders.^[97] Cases of physical assaults on the Chinese include the Chinese massacre of 1871 in Los Angeles and the murder of Vincent Chin. The 1909 murder of Elsie Sigel in New York, of which a Chinese person was suspected, was blamed on the Chinese in general and led to physical violence. "The murder of Elsie Sigel immediately grabbed the front pages of newspapers, which portrayed Chinese men as dangerous to "innocent" and "virtuous" young white women. This murder led to a surge in the harassment of Chinese in communities across the United States."^[98]

Italian-Americans and Irish-Americans, who had once been subject to similar prejudice themselves, were often involved in such assaults, believing that their condition had been worsened by the influx of Chinese laborers.

The emerging American trade unions, under such leaders as Samuel Gompers, also took an outspoken anti-Chinese position,^[99] regarding Chinese laborers as competitors to white laborers. Only with the emergence of the international trade union, IWW, did trade unionists start to accept Chinese workers as part of the American working-class.^[100]

In the 1870s and 1880s various legal discriminatory measures were taken against the Chinese. These laws, in particular the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, were aimed at restricting further immigration from China.^[101] although the laws were later repealed by the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943. In particular, even in his lone dissent against Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), then-Supreme Court Justice John Marshall Harlan wrote of the Chinese as: "a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the Chinese race."^[102]

In the United States elections, 2010, a significant number^[104] of negative advertisements from both major political parties focused on a candidates' alleged support for free trade with China which were criticized by Jeff Yang for promoting anti-Chinese xenophobia.^[105] Some of the stock images that accompanied ominous voiceovers about China were actually of Chinatown, San Francisco.^[105] These advertisements included one produced by Citizens Against Government Waste called "Chinese Professor," which portrays a 2030 conquest of the West by China and an ad by Congressman Zack Space attacking his opponent for supporting free trade agreements like NAFTA, which the ad claimed causes jobs to be outsourced to China.^[106]

On October 2013, a child actor on Jimmy Kimmel Live! jokingly suggested in a skit that the U.S. could solve its debt problems by "kill[ing] everyone in China."^[107]

Africa

According to a recent Pew Research Center survey of six African countries, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, and Uganda had higher disapproval towards China compared to previous years while they had higher positive view for the United States.

Ghana

Ghanaians have alleged Chinese miners of illegally seizing jobs, polluting community water supplies, and disturbing agricultural production through their work.

A sixteen-year-old illegal Chinese miner was shot in 2012, while trying to escape arrest. After this incident, the Chinese miners needed to arm themselves.^[108]

Zambia

Multiple presidential candidate Michael Sata has often invoked harsh rhetoric against the Chinese commercial presence in Africa's largest copper producing country. Though he failed to win elections thrice, he won the 2011 election. Despite toning down his rhetoric, the investment climate for Zambia was read as uncertain.^[109]

Historical sinophobia-led violence

List of non-Chinese "sinophobia-led" violence against ethnic Chinese (i.e., Han Chinese, Overseas Chinese, and Zhonghua minzu)

Australia

• Lambing Flat riots
• Buckland Riot

Canada

• Vancouver anti-Chinese riots, 1886

Dutch East Indies

• 1740 Batavia massacre

Indonesia

• May 1998 riots of Indonesia

Malaysia

• 13 May incident (Malaysia)

By Japanese in WW2

• Nanking Massacre
• Sook Ching massacre
• Changkiao massacre
• Wanpaoshan Incident

United States

• Chinese massacre of 1871
• Rock Springs massacre
• Issaquah riot of 1885
• Tacoma riot of 1885
• Seattle riot of 1886
• Anti-Chinese violence in Washington

Vietnam

• 2014 Vietnam anti-China protest

Derogatory terms

There are a variety of derogatory terms referring to China and Chinese people. Many of these terms are viewed as racist. However, these terms do not necessarily refer to the Chinese ethnicity as a whole; they can also refer to specific policies, or specific time periods in history.

In English

• Ah Tiong – refers specifically to Chinese nationals, and never to overseas Chinese. Primarily used in Singapore to differentiate between the Singaporeans of Chinese heritage and Chinese nationals. From the Hokkien '阿中', 中 referring to the PRC's Chinese name. Considered offensive.
• Cheena – same usage as 'Ah Tiong' in Singapore.
• Chinaman – the term Chinaman is noted as offensive by modern dictionaries, dictionaries of slurs and euphemisms, and guidelines for racial harassment.
• Ching chong – Used to mock people of Chinese descent and the Chinese language, or other East or Southeast Asians who may look Chinese.
• Chink – racial slur referring to a person of Chinese ethnicity, but sometimes directed towards anyone of East or Southeast Asian descent.
• Chinky – the name "chinky" is the adjectival form of chink and, like chink, is an ethnic slur for Chinese occasionally directed towards other East or Southeast Asian people.
• Chonky – refers to a person of Chinese heritage with white attributes whether being a personality aspect or physical aspect.^[110][111]

In Filipino (Tagalog)

• Intsik – is used to refer to refer people of Chinese ancestry including Chinese Filipinos. The originally neutral term recently gained negative connotation with the increasing preference of Chinese Filipinos not to be referred to as intsik. The term originally came from in chiek, a Hokkien term referring to one's uncle. The term has variations, which may be more offensive in tone such as intsik beho and may used in a deregatory phrase, intsik beho tulo laway ("old Chinaman with drooling saliva").^[112][113]
• Tsekwa (sometimes spelled chekwa) – is a slang term used by the Filipinos to refer Chinese people.^[114]

In French

• Chinetoque (m/f) – derogatory term referring to Asian people.

In Malaysian and Indonesian

• Cokin, derogatory term to Asian people^[115]
• Panlok (Panda lokal/local panda): derogatory term referring to Chinese female or female who look like Chinese, particularly prostitute^[116]

In Japanese

• Dojin (土人, dojin) - literally "earth people", referring either neutrally to local folk or derogatorily to indigenous peoples and savages, used towards the end of the 19th century and early 20th century by Japanese colonials, being a sarcastic remark regarding backwardsness.
• Tokuajin (特亞人, tokuajin) - literally "particular Asian people", derogatory term used against Koreans and Chinese.
• Shina (支那 (シナ) shina) – Japanese reading of the Chinese character compound "支那" (Zhina in Mandarin Chinese), originally a Chinese transcription of an Indic name for China that entered East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Its effect when a Japanese person uses it to refer to a Chinese person is considered by some people to be similar to the American connotation of the word "negro", a word that has harmless etymologies but has gained derogative connotations due to historical context, where the phrase shinajin (支那人, lit. "Shina person") was used refer to Chinese.
• Chankoro (チャンコロ, chankoro) - derogatory term originating from a corruption of the Taiwanese Hokkien pronunciation of 清國奴 Chheng-kok-lô͘, used to refer to any "chinaman", with a meaning of "Qing dynasty's slave".

In Korean

• Jjangkkae (Hangul: 짱깨) – the Korean pronunciation of 掌柜 (zhǎngguì), literally "shopkeeper", originally referring to owners of Chinese restaurants and stores;^[117] derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
• Seom jjangkkae (Hangul: 섬짱깨) – literally "island shopkeeper"; referring to Taiwanese people.
• Jjangkkolla (Hangul: 짱꼴라) – this term has originated from Japanese term chankoro (淸國奴, lit. "slave of Qing Manchurian"). Later, it became a derogatory term that indicates people in China.^[118]
• Jung-gong (Hangul: 중공; Hanja: 中共) – literally "Chinese communist", it is generally used to refer to Chinese communists and nationalists, since the Korean War (1950–1953).
• Orangkae (Hangul: 오랑캐) – literally "Barbarian", derogatory term used against Han Chinese, Mongolian and Manchus.
• Doenom (Hangul: 되놈) – derogatory term referring to Chinese people. Originally, this term has meant "Manchus". Later, however, it indicates to the people lived in China, especially Han Chinese people.
• Ttaenom (Hangul: 때놈) – literally "dirty bastard", it means some unwashed Chinese people.

In Russian

• Kitayoza (Russian: китаёза kitayóza) (m/f) – derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
• Uzkoglazy (Russian: узкоглазый uzkoglázy) (m) – generic derogatory term referring to Asian people (lit. "narrow-eyed").

In Vietnamese

• Tàu – literally "boat". It is used to refer to Chinese people in general, can be constructed as derogatory. This usage is derived from the fact that many Chinese refugees came to Vietnam in boats during the Qing dynasty.
• Khựa – neologism, derogatory term for Chinese people and combination of two words above is called Tàu Khựa, that is a common word
• Tung Của or Trung Của – the parody spelling of the word "中国" which spell "zhong guó" in a scornful way, but rarely used.
• Trung Cộng – used by anti-communist Vietnamese nationalists, expressing their dislike towards China's political manipulation.

In Cantonese

• Wong choong (Chinese: 蝗蟲; Cantonese: wong choong) – literally "locust"; neologism used to refer to mainlanders who visit Hong Kong in large numbers.^[5]

In Taiwanese Hokkien

• Si-a-liok (Written Taiwanese: 死阿陸; Taiwanese Romanization: Sí-a-lio̍k or Sí-a-la̍k) – literally "damned mainland Chinese", sometimes uses "四二六" (426, "sì-èr-liù") in Mandarin as word play. See also: 阿陸仔.

See also

• Sinophile
• Yellow Peril
• Fu Manchu
• Ming the Merciless
• Li Shoon
• Boycott Chinese products
• Anti-Mongolianism
• Desinicization
• VANK

References

Further reading