War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
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The War in Afghanistan (or the U.S. War in Afghanistan)[40][41] followed the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan.[42] The U.S. was supported initially by Canada[43] and the United Kingdom and later by a coalition of over 40 countries, including all NATO members, under a United Nations mandate. The war's public aims were to dismantle al-Qaeda and to deny it a safe base of operations in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power.[44] The War in Afghanistan is the longest war in United States history.[45][46][47][48][49]
Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden and expel al-Qaeda; bin Laden had already been wanted by the U.S. since 1998.[50] The Taliban declined to extradite him unless given evidence of his involvement in the September 11 attacks and also declined demands to extradite others on the same grounds. The U.S. dismissed the request for evidence as a delaying tactic,[51] and on 7 October 2001 launched Operation Enduring Freedom with the United Kingdom. The two were later joined by other forces, including the Northern Alliance which had been fighting the Taliban in the ongoing civil war since 1996.[52][53] In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council established the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), to assist the Afghan interim authorities with securing Kabul. At the Bonn Conference the same month, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim Administration, which after a 2002 loya jirga (grand assembly) in Kabul became the Afghan Transitional Administration. In the popular elections of 2004, Karzai was elected president of the country, now named the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.[54]
NATO became involved in ISAF in August 2003, and later that year assumed leadership of it. At this stage, ISAF included troops from 43 countries with NATO members providing the majority of the force.[55] One portion of U.S. forces in Afghanistan operated under NATO command; the rest remained under direct U.S. command.
Following defeat in the initial invasion, the Taliban was reorganized by its leader Mullah Omar, and launched an insurgency against the government and ISAF in 2003.[56][57] Though outgunned and outnumbered, insurgents from the Taliban, Haqqani Network, Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin and other groups have waged asymmetric warfare with guerilla raids and ambushes in the countryside, suicide attacks against urban targets and turncoat killings against coalition forces. The Taliban exploited weaknesses in the Afghan government, which is among the most corrupt in the world, to reassert influence across rural areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan. In the initial years there was little fighting, but from 2006 the Taliban made significant gains and showed an increased willingness to commit atrocities against civilians. ISAF responded in 2006 by increasing troops for counterinsurgency operations to "clear and hold" villages and "nation building" projects to "win hearts and minds".[58][59] Violence sharply escalated from 2007 to 2009.[60] While ISAF continued to battle the Taliban insurgency, fighting crossed into neighboring North-West Pakistan.[61] Troop numbers began to surge in 2009 continued to increase through 2011 when roughly 140,000 foreign troops operated under ISAF and U.S. command in Afghanistan.[62] Of these 100,000 were from the U.S.[63][64] On 1 May 2011, United States Navy SEALs killed Osama bin Laden in Abbotabad, Pakistan.
In May 2012, NATO leaders endorsed an exit strategy for withdrawing their forces. UN-backed peace talks have since taken place between the Afghan government and the Taliban.[65] In May 2014, the United States announced that its major combat operations would end in December 2014, and that it would leave a residual force in the country.[66] In October 2014, British forces handed over the last bases in Helmand to the Afghan military, officially ending their combat operations in the war.[67] On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations in Afghanistan and officially transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO led Operation Resolute Support was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF.[68][69] In May 2017, over 13,000 foreign troops remain in Afghanistan without any formal plans to withdraw.[70][71]
Tens of thousands of people have been killed in the war. Over 4,000 ISAF soldiers and civilian contractors, over 15,000 Afghan national security forces were killed, as well as over 31,000 civilians.[72]
Before the start of war
Origins of Afghanistan's civil war
Afghanistan's political order began to break down with the overthrow of King Zahir Shah by his distant cousin Mohammed Daoud Khan in a bloodless 1973 Afghan coup d'état. Daoud Khan had served as prime minister since 1953 and promoted economic modernization, emancipation of women, and Pashtun nationalism. This was threatening to neighboring Pakistan, faced with its own restive Pashtun population. In the mid-1930's, Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto began to encourage Afghan Islamist leaders such as Burhanuddin Rabbani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, to fight against the regime. In 1978, Daoud Khan was killed in a coup by Afghan's Communist Party, his former partner in government, known as the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). The PDPA pushed for a socialist transformation by abolishing arranged marriages, promoting mass literacy and reforming land ownership. This undermined the traditional tribal order and provoked opposition across rural areas. The PDPA's crackdown was met with open rebellion, including Ismail Khan's Herat Uprising. The PDPA was beset by internal leadership differences and was weakened by an internal coup on 11 September 1979 when Hafizullah Amin ousted Nur Muhammad Taraki. The Soviet Union, sensing PDPA weakness, intervened militarily three months later, to depose Amin and install another PDA faction led by Babrak Karmal.
The entry of Soviet forces in Afghanistan in December 1979 prompted its Cold War rivals, the United States, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and China to support rebels fighting against the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. In contrast to the secular and socialist government, which controlled the cities, religiously motivated mujahideen held sway in much of the countryside. Beside Rabbani, Hekmatyar, and Khan, other mujahideen commanders included Jalaluddin Haqqani. The CIA worked closely with Pakistan's Inter-Service Intelligence to funnel foreign support for the mujahideen. The war also attracted Arab volunteers, known as "Afghan Arabs", including Osama bin Laden.
After the withdrawal of the Soviet military from Afghanistan in May 1989, the PDPA regime under Najibullah held on until 1992, when the collapse of the Soviet Union deprived the regime of aid, and the defection of Uzbek general Abdul Rashid Dostum cleared the approach to Kabul. With the political stage cleared of socialists, the warlords, some of them Islamist, vied for power. By then, Bin Laden had left the country and the United States' interest in Afghanistan also diminished.
Warlord rule (1992–1996)
In 1992, Rabbani officially became president of the Islamic State of Afghanistan, but had to battle other warlords for control of Kabul. In late 1994, Rabbani's defense minister, Ahmad Shah Massoud, defeated Hekmatyr in Kabul and ended ongoing bombardment of the capital.[73][74][75] Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation. Other warlords, including Ismail Khan in the west and Dostum in the north, maintained their fiefdoms.
In 1994, Mohammed Omar, a mujahideen member who taught at a Pakistani madrassa, returned to Kandahar and formed the Taliban movement. His followers were religious students, known as the Talib and they sought to end warlordism through strict adherence to Islamic law. By November 1994, the Taliban had captured all of Kandahar Province. They declined the government's offer to join in a coalition government and marched on Kabul in 1995.[76]
Taliban Emirate vs Northern Alliance
The Taliban's early victories in 1994 were followed by a series of costly defeats.[77] Pakistan provided strong support to the Taliban.[78][79] Analysts such as Amin Saikal described the group as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan's regional interests, which the Taliban denied.[78] The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995, but were driven back by Massoud.[74][80]
On 27 September 1996, the Taliban, with military support by Pakistan and financial support from Saudi Arabia, seized Kabul and founded the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.[81] They imposed their fundamentalist interpretation of Islam in areas under their control, issuing edicts forbidding women to work outside the home, attend school, or to leave their homes unless accompanied by a male relative.[82] According to the Pakistani expert Ahmed Rashid, "between 1994 and 1999, an estimated 80,000 to 100,000 Pakistanis trained and fought in Afghanistan" on the side of the Taliban.[83][84]
Massoud and Dostum, former arch-enemies, created a United Front against the Taliban, commonly known as the Northern Alliance.[85] In addition to Massoud's Tajik force and Dostum's Uzbeks, the United Front included Hazara factions and Pashtun forces under the leadership of commanders such as Abdul Haq and Haji Abdul Qadir. Abdul Haq also gathered a limited number of defecting Pashtun Taliban.[86] Both agreed to work together with the exiled Afghan king Zahir Shah.[84] International officials who met with representatives of the new alliance, which the journalist Steve Coll referred to as the "grand Pashtun-Tajik alliance", said, "It's crazy that you have this today … Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Hazara … They were all ready to buy in to the process … to work under the king's banner for an ethnically balanced Afghanistan."[87][88] The Northern Alliance received varying degrees of support from Russia, Iran, Tajikistan and India. The Taliban captured Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998 and drove Dostum into exile.
The conflict was brutal. According to the United Nations (UN), the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians. UN officials stated that there had been "15 massacres" between 1996 and 2001. The Taliban especially targeted the Shia Hazaras.[89][90] In retaliation for the execution of 3,000 Taliban prisoners by Uzbek general Abdul Malik Pahlawan in 1997, the Taliban executed about 4,000 civilians after taking Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998.[91][92]
Bin Laden's 055 Brigade was responsible for mass killings of Afghan civilians.[93] The report by the United Nations quotes eyewitnesses in many villages describing "Arab fighters carrying long knives used for slitting throats and skinning people".[89][90]
By 2001, the Taliban controlled as much as 90% of Afghanistan, with the Northern Alliance confined to the country's northeast corner. Fighting alongside Taliban forces were some 28,000–30,000 Pakistanis (usually also Pashtun) and 2,000–3,000 Al-Qaeda militants.[76][93][94][95] Many of the Pakistanis were recruited from madrassas.[93] A 1998 document by the U.S. State Department confirmed that "20–40 percent of [regular] Taliban soldiers are Pakistani." The document said that many of the parents of those Pakistani nationals "know nothing regarding their child's military involvement with the Taliban until their bodies are brought back to Pakistan". According to the U.S. State Department report and reports by Human Rights Watch, other Pakistani nationals fighting in Afghanistan were regular soldiers, especially from the Frontier Corps, but also from the Pakistani Army providing direct combat support.[79][96]
Al-Qaeda
In August 1996, Bin Laden was forced to leave Sudan and arrived in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. He had founded Al-Qaeda in the late 1980s to support the mujahideen's war against the Soviets, but became disillusioned by infighting among warlords. He grew close to Mullah Omar and moved Al-Qaeda's operations to eastern Afghanistan.
The 9/11 Commission in the U.S. reported found that under the Taliban, al-Qaeda was able to use Afghanistan as a place to train and indoctrinate fighters, import weapons, coordinate with other jihadists, and plot terrorist actions.[97] While al-Qaeda maintained its own camps in Afghanistan, it also supported training camps of other organizations. An estimated 10,000 to 20,000 men passed through these facilities before 9/11, most of whom were sent to fight for the Taliban against the United Front. A smaller number were inducted into al-Qaeda.[98]
After the August 1998 U.S. Embassy bombings were linked to bin Laden, President Bill Clinton ordered missile strikes on militant training camps in Afghanistan. U.S. officials pressed the Taliban to surrender bin Laden. In 1999, the international community imposed sanctions on the Taliban, calling for bin Laden to be surrendered. The Taliban repeatedly rebuffed these demands.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Special Activities Division paramilitary teams were active in Afghanistan in the 1990s in clandestine operations to locate and kill or capture Osama bin Laden. These teams planned several operations, but did not receive the order to proceed from President Clinton. Their efforts built relationships with Afghan leaders that proved essential in the 2001 invasion.[99]
Change in U.S. policy toward Afghanistan
During the Clinton administration, the U.S. tended to favor Pakistan and until 1998–1999 had no clear policy toward Afghanistan. In 1997, for example, the U.S. State Department's Robin Raphel told Massoud to surrender to the Taliban. Massoud responded that, as long as he controlled an area the size of his hat, he would continue to defend it from the Taliban.[76] Around the same time, top foreign policy officials in the Clinton administration flew to northern Afghanistan to try to persuade the United Front not to take advantage of a chance to make crucial gains against the Taliban. They insisted it was the time for a cease-fire and an arms embargo. At the time, Pakistan began a "Berlin-like airlift to resupply and re-equip the Taliban", financed with Saudi money.[100]
U.S. policy toward Afghanistan changed after the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings. Subsequently, Osama bin Laden was indicted for his involvement in the embassy bombings. In 1999 both the U.S. and the United Nations enacted sanctions against the Taliban via United Nations Security Council Resolution 1267, which demanded the Taliban surrender Osama bin Laden for trial in the U.S. and close all terrorist bases in Afghanistan.[101] The only collaboration between Massoud and the U.S. at the time was an effort with the CIA to trace bin Laden following the 1998 bombings.[102] The U.S. and the European Union provided no support to Massoud for the fight against the Taliban.
By 2001 the change of policy sought by CIA officers who knew Massoud was underway.[103] CIA lawyers, working with officers in the Near East Division and Counter-terrorist Center, began to draft a formal finding for President George W. Bush's signature, authorizing a covert action program in Afghanistan. It would be the first in a decade to seek to influence the course of the Afghan war in favor of Massoud.[81] Richard A. Clarke, chair of the Counter-Terrorism Security Group under the Clinton administration, and later an official in the Bush administration, allegedly presented a plan to incoming Bush National Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice in January 2001.
A change in U.S. policy was effected in August 2001.[81] The Bush administration agreed on a plan to start supporting Massoud. A meeting of top national security officials agreed that the Taliban would be presented with an ultimatum to hand over bin Laden and other al-Qaeda operatives. If the Taliban refused, the U.S. would provide covert military aid to anti-Taliban groups. If both those options failed, "the deputies agreed that the United States would seek to overthrow the Taliban regime through more direct action."[104]
Northern Alliance on the eve of 9/11
Ahmad Shah Massoud was the only leader of the United Front in Afghanistan. In the areas under his control, Massoud set up democratic institutions and signed the Women's Rights Declaration.[105] As a consequence, many civilians had fled to areas under his control.[106][107] In total, estimates range up to one million people fleeing the Taliban.[108]
In late 2000, Ahmad Shah Massoud, a Tajik nationalist and leader of the Northern Alliance, invited several other prominent Afghan tribal leaders to a jirga in northern Afghanistan "to settle political turmoil in Afghanistan".[109] Among those in attendance were Pashtun nationalists, Abdul Haq and Hamid Karzai.[110][111]
In early 2001, Massoud and several other Afghan leaders addressed the European Parliament in Brussels, asking the international community to provide humanitarian help. The Afghan envoy asserted that the Taliban and al-Qaeda had introduced "a very wrong perception of Islam" and that without the support of Pakistan and Osama bin Laden, the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for another year. Massoud warned that his intelligence had gathered information about an imminent, large-scale attack on U.S. soil.[112]
On 9 September 2001, two French-speaking Algerians posing as journalists killed Massoud in a suicide attack in Takhar Province of Afghanistan. The two perpetrators were later alleged to be members of al-Qaeda. They were interviewing Massoud before detonating a bomb hidden in their video camera.[113][114] Both of the alleged al-Qaeda men were subsequently killed by Massoud's guards.
11 September attacks
On the morning of 11 September 2001, a total of 19 Arab men carried out four coordinated attacks in the United States. Four commercial passenger jet airliners were hijacked.[115][116] The hijackers – members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell –[117] intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, killing everyone on board and more than 2000 people in the buildings. Both buildings collapsed within two hours from damage related to the crashes, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C.. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville, in rural Pennsylvania, after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C., to target the White House, or the U.S. Capitol. No one aboard the flights survived. According to the New York State Health Department, the death toll among responders including firefighters and police was 836 as of June 2009.[118] Total deaths were 2996, including the 19 hijackers.[118]
U.S. invasion of Afghanistan
The United States invasion of Afghanistan occurred after the September 11 attacks in late 2001,[119] supported by allies including the United Kingdom.
U.S. President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden and expel al-Qaeda from Afghanistan. Bin Laden had been wanted by the U.S. since 1998 for the bombing of two U.S. embassies and was never officially charged for the 9/11 attacks.[120] The Taliban government refused to extradite him (or others sought by the U.S.) unless it provided evidence of his involvement in the 9/11 attacks.[51] They ignored U.S. demands to shut down al-Qaeda bases. The request for proof of bin Laden's involvement was dismissed by the U.S. as a delaying tactic.[121]
Immediately after the attacks, General Tommy Franks, then-commanding general of Central Command (CENTCOM), initially proposed to President George W. Bush and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld that the U.S. invade Afghanistan using a conventional force of 60,000 troops, preceded by six months of preparation. Rumsfield and Bush feared that a conventional invasion of Afghanistan could bog down as had happened to the Soviets and the British.[122] Rumsfield rejected Franks's plan, saying "I want men on the ground now!" Franks returned the next day with a plan utilizing U.S. Special Forces.[123] On 26 September 2001, fifteen days after the 9/11 attack, the U.S. covertly inserted members of the CIA's Special Activities Division led by Gary Schroen as part of team Jawbreaker into Afghanistan, forming the Northern Afghanistan Liaison Team.[124][125][126] They linked up with the Northern Alliance as part of Task Force Dagger.[127]
Two weeks later, Operational Detachment Alpha (ODA) 555 and 595, both 12-man Green Beret teams from 5th Special Forces Group, plus Air Force combat controllers, were airlifted by helicopter from the Karshi-Khanabad Air Base in Uzbekistan[128] more than 300 kilometers (190 mi) across the 16,000 feet (4,900 m) Hindu Kush mountains in zero-visibility conditions by two SOAR MH-47E Chinook helicopters. The Chinooks were refueled in-flight three times during the 11-hour mission, establishing a new world record for combat rotorcraft missions at the time. They linked up with the CIA and Northern Alliance. Within a few weeks the Northern Alliance, with assistance from the U.S. ground and air forces, captured several key cities from the Taliban.[124][129]
The U.S. officially launched Operation Enduring Freedom on 7 October 2001 with the assistance of the United Kingdom. The two were later joined by other countries.[52][53] The U.S. and its allies drove the Taliban from power and built military bases near major cities across the country. Most al-Qaeda and Taliban were not captured, escaping to neighboring Pakistan or retreating to rural or remote mountainous regions.[130]
On 20 December 2001, the United Nations authorized an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), with a mandate to help the Afghans maintain security in Kabul and surrounding areas. It was initially established from the headquarters of the British 3rd Mechanised Division under Major General John McColl, and for its first years numbered no more than 5,000.[131] Its mandate did not extend beyond the Kabul area for the first few years.[132] Eighteen countries were contributing to the force in February 2002.
At the Bonn Conference in December 2001, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim Administration, which after a 2002 loya jirga in Kabul became the Afghan Transitional Administration. In the popular elections of 2004, Karzai was elected president of the country, now named the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.[54]
In August 2003, NATO became involved, taking the helm at ISAF.[55] Some U.S. forces in Afghanistan operated under NATO command; the rest remained under direct U.S. command. Taliban leader Mullah Omar reorganized the movement, and in 2003, launched an insurgency against the government and ISAF.[56][57]
An insurgency gains strength
After evading coalition forces throughout mid-2002, Taliban remnants gradually regained confidence and prepared to launch the Taliban insurgency that Omar had promised.[133] During September, Taliban forces began a jihad recruitment drive in Pashtun areas in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pamphlets distributed in secret appeared in many villages in southeastern Afghanistan called for jihad.[134]
Small mobile training camps were established along the border to train recruits in guerrilla warfare.[135] Most were drawn from tribal area madrassas in Pakistan. Bases, a few with as many as 200 fighters, emerged in the tribal areas by the summer of 2003. Pakistani will to prevent infiltration was uncertain, while Pakistani military operations proved of little use.[136]
The Taliban gathered into groups of around 50 to launch attacks on isolated outposts, and then breaking up into groups of 5–10 to evade counterattacks. Coalition forces were attacked indirectly, through rocket attacks on bases and improvised explosive devices.
To coordinate the strategy, Omar named a 10-man leadership council, with himself as its leader.[136] Five operational zones were assigned to Taliban commanders such as Dadullah, who took charge in Zabul province.[136] Al-Qaeda forces in the east had a bolder strategy of attacking Americans using elaborate ambushes. The first sign of the strategy came on 27 January 2003, during Operation Mongoose, when a band of fighters were assaulted by U.S. forces at the Adi Ghar cave complex 25 km (15 mi) north of Spin Boldak.[137] 18 rebels were reported killed with no U.S. casualties. The site was suspected to be a base for supplies and fighters coming from Pakistan. The first isolated attacks by relatively large Taliban bands on Afghan targets also appeared around that time.
As the summer continued, Taliban attacks gradually increased in frequency. Dozens of Afghan government soldiers, NGO humanitarian workers, and several U.S. soldiers died in the raids, ambushes and rocket attacks. Besides guerrilla attacks, Taliban fighters began building up forces in the district of Dai Chopan in Zabul Province. The Taliban decided to make a stand there. Over the course of the summer, up to 1,000 guerrillas moved there. Over 220 people, including several dozen Afghan police, were killed in August 2003. In late August 2005, Afghan government forces attacked, backed by U.S. troops with air support. After a one-week battle, Taliban forces were routed with up to 124 fighters killed.
On 11 August 2003, NATO assumed control of ISAF.[132] On 31 July 2006, ISAF assumed command of the south of the country, and by 5 October 2006, of the east.[138] Once this transition had taken place, ISAF grew to a large coalition involving up to 46 countries, under a U.S. commander.
2006: Southern Afghanistan
From January 2006, a multinational ISAF contingent started to replace U.S. troops in southern Afghanistan. The British 16th Air Assault Brigade (later reinforced by Royal Marines) formed the core of the force, along with troops and helicopters from Australia, Canada and the Netherlands. The initial force consisted of roughly 3,300 British,[139] 2,300 Canadian,[140] 1,963 Dutch, 300 Australian,[141] 290 Danish[142] and 150 Estonian troops.[143] Air support was provided by U.S., British, Dutch, Norwegian and French combat aircraft and helicopters.
In January 2006, NATO's focus in southern Afghanistan was to form Provincial Reconstruction Teams with the British leading in Helmand while the Netherlands and Canada would lead similar deployments in Orūzgān and Kandahar, respectively. Local Taliban figures pledged to resist.[144]
Southern Afghanistan faced in 2006 the deadliest violence since the Taliban's fall. NATO operations were led by British, Canadian and Dutch commanders. Operation Mountain Thrust was launched on 17 May 2006, with. In July, Canadian Forces, supported by U.S., British, Dutch and Danish forces, launched Operation Medusa.
A combined force of Dutch and Australians launched a successful offensive between late April to mid July 2006 to push the Taliban out of the Chora and Baluchi areas.
On 18 September 2006 Italian special forces of Task Force 45 and airborne troopers of the 'Trieste' infantry regiment of the Rapid Reaction Corps composed of Italian and Spanish forces, took part in 'Wyconda Pincer' operation in the districts of Bala Buluk and Pusht-i-Rod, in Farah province. Italian forces killed at least 70 Taliban. The situation in RC-W then deteriorated. Hotspots included Badghis in the very north and Farah in the southwest.
Further NATO operations included the Battle of Panjwaii, Operation Mountain Fury and Operation Falcon Summit. NATO achieved tactical victories and area denial, but the Taliban were not completely defeated. NATO operations continued into 2007.
2007: Coalition offensive
In January and February 2007, British Royal Marines mounted Operation Volcano to clear insurgents from firing-points in the village of Barikju, north of Kajaki.[145] Other major operations during this period included Operation Achilles (March–May) and Operation Lastay Kulang. The UK Ministry of Defence announced its intention to bring British troop levels in the country up to 7,700 (committed until 2009).[146] Further operations, such as Operation Silver and Operation Silicon, took place to keep up the pressure on the Taliban in the hope of blunting their expected spring offensive.[147][148]
In February 2007, Combined Forces Command-Afghanistan inactivated. Combined Joint Task Force 76, a two-star U.S. command headquartered on Bagram Airfield, assumed responsibility as the National Command Element for U.S. forces in Afghanistan.[149] Combined Security Transition Command-Afghanistan, or CSTC-A, the other two-star U.S. command, was charged with training and mentoring the Afghan National Security Forces.
On 4 March 2007, U.S. Marines killed at least 12 civilians and injured 33 in Shinwar district, Nangrahar,[150] in a response to a bomb ambush. The event became known as the "Shinwar massacre".[151] The 120 member Marine unit responsible for the attack were ordered to leave the country by Army Major General Frank Kearney, because the incident damaged the unit's relations with the local Afghan population.[152]
Later in March 2007, the U.S. added more than 3,500 troops.
On 12 May 2007, ISAF forces killed Mullah Dadullah. Eleven other Taliban fighters died in the same firefight.
During the summer, NATO forces achieved tactical victories at the Battle of Chora in Orūzgān, where Dutch and Australian ISAF forces were deployed.
On 16 August, eight civilians including a pregnant woman and a baby died when, few hours after an insurgent IED ambush damaged a Polish wheeled armored vehicle, Polish soldiers shelled the village of Nangar Khel, Paktika Province. Seven soldiers were charged with war crimes, after locals stated the Polish unit fired mortar rounds and machine guns into a wedding celebration without provocation,[153] but they were cleared of all charges in 2011.[154]
On 28 October about 80 Taliban fighters were killed in a 24-hour battle in Helmand.[155]
Western officials and analysts estimated the strength of Taliban forces at about 10,000 fighters fielded at any given time. Of that number, only 2,000 to 3,000 were highly motivated, full-time insurgents. The rest were volunteer units, made up of young Afghans, angered by deaths of Afghan civilians in military airstrikes and American detention of Muslim prisoners who had been held for years without being charged.[156] In 2007, more foreign fighters came into Afghanistan than ever before, according to officials. Approximately 100 to 300 full-time combatants were foreigners, many from Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Chechnya, various Arab countries and perhaps even Turkey and western China. They were reportedly more violent, incontrollable and extreme, often bringing superior video-production or bombmaking expertise.[157]
On 2 November security forces killed a top-ranking militant, Mawlawi Abdul Manan, after he was caught crossing the border. The Taliban confirmed his death.[158] On 10 November the Taliban ambushed a patrol in eastern Afghanistan. This attack brought the U.S. death toll for 2007 to 100, making it the Americans' deadliest year in Afghanistan.[159]
The Battle of Musa Qala took place in December. Afghan units were the principal fighting force, supported by British forces.[160] Taliban forces were forced out of the town.
Reassessment and renewed commitment from 2008
Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said that while the situation in Afghanistan is "precarious and urgent", the 10,000 additional troops needed there would be unavailable "in any significant manner" unless withdrawals from Iraq are made. The priority was Iraq first, Afghanistan second.[161]
In the first five months of 2008, the number of U.S. troops in Afghanistan increased by over 80% with a surge of 21,643 more troops, bringing the total from 26,607 in January to 48,250 in June.[162] In September 2008, President Bush announced the withdrawal of over 8,000 from Iraq and a further increase of up to 4,500 in Afghanistan.[163]
In June 2008, British prime minister Gordon Brown announced the number of British troops serving in Afghanistan would increase to 8,030 – a rise of 230.[164] The same month, the UK lost its 100th serviceman.[165]
On 13 June, Taliban fighters demonstrated their ongoing strength, liberating all prisoners in Kandahar jail. The operation freed 1200 prisoners, 400 of whom were Taliban, causing a major embarrassment for NATO.[166]
On 13 July 2008, a coordinated Taliban attack was launched on a remote NATO base at Wanat in Kunar province. On 19 August, French troops suffered their worst losses in Afghanistan in an ambush with 10 soldiers killed in action and 21 injured.[167] Later in the month, an airstrike targeted a Taliban commander in Herat province and killed 90 civilians.
Late August saw one of NATO's largest operations in Helmand, Operation Eagle's Summit, aiming to bring electricity to the region.[168]
On 3 September, commandos, believed to be U.S. Army Special Forces, landed by helicopter and attacked three houses close to a known enemy stronghold in Pakistan. The attack killed between seven and twenty people. Local residents claimed that most of the dead were civilians. Pakistan condemned the attack, calling the incursion "a gross violation of Pakistan's territory".[169][170]
On 6 September, in an apparent reaction, Pakistan announced an indefinite disconnection of supply lines.[171]
On 11 September, militants killed two U.S. troops in the east. This brought the total number of U.S. losses to 113, more than in any prior year.[172] Several European countries set their own records, particularly the UK, who suffered 108 casualties.[32]
Taliban attacks on supply lines
In November and December 2008, multiple incidents of major theft, robbery, and arson attacks afflicted NATO supply convoys in Pakistan.[173][174][175] Transport companies south of Kabul were extorted for money by the Taliban.[175][176] These incidents included the hijacking of a NATO convoy carrying supplies in Peshawar,[174] the torching of cargo trucks and Humvees east of the Khyber pass[177] and a half-dozen raids on NATO supply depots near Peshawar that destroyed 300 cargo trucks and Humvees in December 2008.[178]
Issues with Pakistan
An unnamed senior Pentagon official told the BBC that at some point between 12 July and 12 September 2008, President Bush issued a classified order authorizing raids against militants in Pakistan. Pakistan said it would not allow foreign forces onto its territory and that it would vigorously protect its sovereignty.[179] In September, the Pakistan military stated that it had issued orders to "open fire" on U.S. soldiers who crossed the border in pursuit of militant forces.[180]
On 25 September 2008, Pakistani troops fired on ISAF helicopters. This caused confusion and anger in the Pentagon, which asked for a full explanation into the incident and denied that U.S. helicopters were in Pakistani airspace. Chief Pakistani military spokesman Major General Athar Abbas said that the helicopters had "crossed into our territory in Ghulam Khan area. They passed over our checkpost so our troops fired warning shots". A few days later a CIA drone crashed into Pakistan territory.[181]
A further split occurred when U.S. troops apparently landed on Pakistani soil to carry out an operation against militants in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. Pakistanis reacted angrily to the action, saying that 20 innocent villagers had been killed by U.S. troops.[182] However, despite tensions, the U.S. increased the use of remotely piloted drone aircraft in Pakistan's border regions, in particular the Federally Administered Tribal Regions (FATA) and Balochistan; as of early 2009, drone attacks were up 183% since 2006.[183]
By the end of 2008, the Taliban apparently had severed remaining ties with al-Qaeda.[184] According to senior U.S. military intelligence officials, perhaps fewer than 100 members of al-Qaeda remained in Afghanistan.[185]
In a meeting with General Stanley McChrystal, Pakistani military officials urged international forces to remain on the Afghan side of the border and prevent militants from fleeing into Pakistan. Pakistan noted that it had deployed 140,000 soldiers on its side of the border to address militant activities, while the coalition had only 100,000 soldiers to police the Afghanistan side.[186]
2009: Southern Afghanistan
Northern Distribution Network
In response to the increased risk of sending supplies through Pakistan, work began on the establishment of a Northern Distribution Network (NDN) through Russia and Central Asian republics. Initial permission to move supplies through the region was given on 20 January 2009, after a visit to the region by General David Petraeus.[187] The first shipment along the NDN route left on 20 February from Riga, Latvia, then traveled 5,169 km (3,212 mi) to the Uzbek town of Termez on the Afghanistan border.[188] In addition to Riga, other European ports included Poti, Georgia and Vladivostok, Russia.[189] U.S. commanders hoped that 100 containers a day would be shipped along the NDN.[188] By comparison, 140 containers a day were typically shipped through the Khyber Pass.[190] By 2011, the NDN handled about 40% of Afghanistan-bound traffic, versus 30% through Pakistan.[189]
On 11 May 2009, Uzbekistan president Islam Karimov announced that the airport in Navoi (Uzbekistan) was being used to transport non-lethal cargo into Afghanistan. Due to the still unsettled relationship between Uzbekistan and the U.S. following the 2005 Andijon massacre and subsequent expulsion of U.S. forces from Karshi-Khanabad airbase, U.S. forces were not involved in the shipments. Instead, South Korea's Korean Air, which overhauled Navoi's airport, officially handled logistics.[191]
Originally only non-lethal resources were allowed on the NDN. In July 2009, however, shortly before a visit by new President Barack Obama to Moscow, Russian authorities announced that U.S. troops and weapons could use the country's airspace to reach Afghanistan.[192]
Human rights advocates were (as of 2009) concerned that the U.S. was again working with the government of Uzbekistan, which is often accused of violating human rights.[193] U.S. officials promised increased cooperation with Uzbekistan, including further assistance to turn Navoi into a regional distribution center for both military and civilian ventures.[194][195]
2009 Increase in U.S. troops
In January 2009, about 3,000 U.S. soldiers from the 3rd Brigade Combat Team of the 10th Mountain Division moved into the provinces of Logar and Wardak. Afghan Federal Guards fought alongside them. The troops were the first wave of an expected surge of reinforcements originally ordered by President Bush and increased by President Obama.[196]
In mid-February 2009, it was announced that 17,000 additional troops would be deployed in two brigades and support troops; the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade of about 3,500 and the 5th Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, a Stryker Brigade with about 4,000.[197] ISAF commander General David McKiernan had called for as many as 30,000 additional troops, effectively doubling the number of troops.[198] On 23 September, a classified assessment by General McChrystal included his conclusion that a successful counterinsurgency strategy would require 500,000 troops and five years.[199]
In November 2009, Ambassador Karl W. Eikenberry sent two classified cables to Washington expressing concerns about sending more troops before the Afghan government demonstrates that it is willing to tackle the corruption and mismanagement that has fueled the Taliban's rise. Eikenberry, a retired three-star general who in 2006–2007 commanded U.S. troops in Afghanistan, also expressed frustration with the relative paucity of funds set aside for development and reconstruction.[200] In subsequent cables, Eikenberry repeatedly cautioned that deploying sizable American reinforcements would result in "astronomical costs" – tens of billions of dollars – and would only deepen the Afghan government's dependence on the United States.
On 26 November 2009, Karzai made a public plea for direct negotiations with the Taliban leadership. Karzai said there is an "urgent need" for negotiations and made it clear that the Obama administration had opposed such talks. There was no formal U.S. response.[201][202]
On 1 December, Obama announced at the U.S. Military Academy in West Point that the U.S. would send 30,000 more troops.[203] Antiwar organizations in the U.S. responded quickly, and cities throughout the U.S. saw protests on 2 December.[204] Many protesters compared the decision to deploy more troops in Afghanistan to the expansion of the Vietnam War under the Johnson administration.[205]
Kunduz airstrike
On 4 September, during the Kunduz Province Campaign a devastating NATO air raid was conducted 7 kilometres southwest of Kunduz where Taliban fighters had hijacked civilian supply trucks, killing up to 179 people, including over 100 civilians.[206]
Operation Khanjar and Operation Panther's Claw
On 25 June U.S. officials announced the launch of Operation Khanjar ("strike of the sword").[207] About 4000 U.S. Marines from the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade[208] and 650 Afghan soldiers[209] participated. Khanjar followed a British-led operation named Operation Panther's Claw in the same region.[210] Officials called it the Marines' largest operation since the 2004 invasion of Fallujah, Iraq.[208] Operation Panther's Claw was aimed to secure various canal and river crossings to establish a long-term ISAF presence.[211]
Initially, Afghan and American soldiers moved into towns and villages along the Helmand River[208] to protect the civilian population. The main objective was to push into insurgent strongholds along the river. A secondary aim was to bring security to the Helmand Valley in time for presidential elections, set to take place on 20 August.
Taliban gains
According to a 22 December briefing by Major General Michael T. Flynn, the top U.S. intelligence officer in Afghanistan, "The Taliban retains [the] required partnerships to sustain support, fuel legitimacy and bolster capacity."[212] The 23-page briefing states that "Security incidents [are] projected to be higher in 2010." Those incidents were already up by 300 percent since 2007 and by 60 percent since 2008, according to the briefing.[213] NATO intelligence at the time indicated that the Taliban had as many as 25,000 dedicated soldiers, almost as many as before 9/11 and more than in 2005.[214]
On 10 August McChrystal, newly appointed as U.S. commander in Afghanistan, said that the Taliban had gained the upper hand. In a continuation of the Taliban's usual strategy of summer offensives,[215] the militants aggressively spread their influence into north and west Afghanistan and stepped up their attack in an attempt to disrupt presidential polls.[216] Calling the Taliban a "very aggressive enemy", he added that the U.S. strategy was to stop their momentum and focus on protecting and safeguarding Afghan civilians, calling it "hard work".[217]
The Taliban's claim that the over 135 violent incidents disrupting elections was largely disputed. However, the media was asked to not report on any violent incidents.[218] Some estimates reported voter turn out as much less than the expected 70 percent. In southern Afghanistan where the Taliban held the most power, voter turnout was low and sporadic violence was directed at voters and security personnel. The chief observer of the European Union election mission, General Philippe Morillon, said the election was "generally fair" but "not free".[219]
Western election observers had difficulty accessing southern regions, where at least 9 Afghan civilians and 14 security forces were killed in attacks intended to intimidate voters. The Taliban released a video days after the elections, filming on the road between Kabul and Kandahar, stopping vehicles and asking to see their fingers. The video went showed ten men who had voted, listening to a Taliban militant. The Taliban pardoned the voters because of Ramadan.[220] The Taliban attacked towns with rockets and other indirect fire. Amid claims of widespread fraud, both top contenders, Hamid Karzai and Abdullah Abdullah, claimed victory. Reports suggested that turnout was lower than in the prior election.[221]
After Karzai's alleged win of 54 per cent, which would prevent a runoff, over 400,000 Karzai votes had to be disallowed after accusations of fraud. Some nations criticized the elections as "free but not fair".[222]
In December, an attack on Forward Operating Base Chapman, used by the CIA to gather information and to coordinate drone attacks against Taliban leaders, killed at least six CIA officers.
2010: American–British offensive and Afghan peace initiative
In public statements U.S. officials had previously praised Pakistan's military effort against militants during its offensive in South Waziristan in November 2009.[223] Karzai started peace talks with Haqqani network groups in March 2010,[224] and there were other peace initiatives including the Afghan Peace Jirga 2010. In July 2010, a U.S. Army report read: "It seems to always be this way when we go there [to meet civilians]. No one wants anything to do with us." A report on meeting up with school representatives mentioned students throwing rocks at soldiers and not welcoming their arrival, as had been reported on several occasions elsewhere.[225] President Zardari said that Pakistan had spent over 35 billion U.S. dollars during the previous eight years fighting against militancy.[226] According to the Afghan government, approximately 900 Taliban were killed in operations conducted during 2010.[227] Due to increased use of IEDs by insurgents the number of injured coalition soldiers, mainly Americans, significantly increased.[228] Beginning in May 2010 NATO special forces began to concentrate on operations to capture or kill specific Taliban leaders. As of March 2011, the U.S. military claimed that the effort had resulted in the capture or killing of more than 900 low- to mid-level Taliban commanders.[229][230] Overall, 2010 saw the most insurgent attacks of any year since the war began, peaking in September at more than 1,500. Insurgent operations increased "dramatically" in two-thirds of Afghan provinces.[231]
Troop surge
Deployment of additional U.S. troops continued in early 2010, with 9,000 of the planned 30,000 in place before the end of March and another 18,000 expected by June, with the 101st Airborne Division as the main source. U.S. troops in Afghanistan outnumbered those in Iraq for the first time since 2003.[232]
The CIA, following a request by General McChrystal, planned to increase teams of operatives, including elite SAD officers, with U.S. military special operations forces. This combination worked well in Iraq and was largely credited with the success of that surge.[233] The CIA also increased its campaign using Hellfire missile strikes on Al-Qaeda in Pakistan. The number of strikes in 2010, 115, more than doubled the 50 drone attacks that occurred in 2009.[234]
The surge in troops supported a sixfold increase in Special Forces operations.[235] 700 airstrikes occurred in September 2010 alone versus 257 in all of 2009. From July 2010 to October 2010, 300 Taliban commanders and 800-foot-soldiers were killed.[236] Hundreds more insurgent leaders were killed or captured as 2010 ended.[235] Petraeus said, "We've got our teeth in the enemy's jugular now, and we're not going to let go."[237]
The CIA created Counter-terrorism Pursuit Teams (CTPT) staffed by Afghans at the war's beginning.[238][239] This force grew to over 3,000 by 2010 and was considered one of the "best Afghan fighting forces". Firebase Lilley was one of SAD's nerve centers.[239] These units were not only effective in operations against the Taliban and al-Qaeda forces in Afghanistan,[240] but have expanded their operations into Pakistan.[241] They were also important factors in both the "counterterrorism plus" and the full "counter-insurgency" options discussed by the Obama administration in the December 2010 review.[242]
WikiLeaks disclosure
On 25 July 2010, the release of 91,731 classified documents from the WikiLeaks organization was made public. The documents cover U.S. military incident and intelligence reports from January 2004 to December 2009.[243] Some of these documents included sanitized, and "covered up", accounts of civilian casualties caused by Coalition Forces. The reports included many references to other incidents involving civilian casualties like the Kunduz airstrike and Nangar Khel incident.[244] The leaked documents also contain reports of Pakistan collusion with the Taliban. According to Der Spiegel, "the documents clearly show that the Pakistani intelligence agency Inter-Services Intelligence (usually known as the ISI) is the most important accomplice the Taliban has outside of Afghanistan."[245]
Pakistan and U.S. tensions
Tensions between Pakistan and the U.S. were heightened in late September after several Pakistan Frontier Corps soldiers were killed and wounded. The troops were attacked by a U.S. piloted aircraft that was pursuing Taliban forces near the Afghan-Pakistan border, but for unknown reasons opened fire on two Pakistan border posts. In retaliation for the strike, Pakistan closed the Torkham ground border crossing to NATO supply convoys for an unspecified period. This incident followed the release of a video allegedly showing uniformed Pakistan soldiers executing unarmed civilians.[246] After the Torkham border closing, Pakistani Taliban attacked NATO convoys, killing several drivers and destroying around 100 tankers.[247]
2011: U.S. and NATO drawdown
Battle of Kandahar
The Battle of Kandahar was part of an offensive named after the Battle of Bad'r that took place on 13 March 624, between Medina and Mecca. The Battle followed a 30 April announcement that the Taliban would launch their Spring offensive.[248]
On 7 May the Taliban launched a major offensive on government buildings in Kandahar. The Taliban said their goal was to take control of the city. At least eight locations were attacked: the governor's compound, the mayor's office, the NDS headquarters, three police stations and two high schools.[249] The battle continued onto a second day. The BBC's Bilal Sarwary called it "the worst attack in Kandahar province since the fall of the Taliban government in 2001, and a embarrassment for the Western-backed Afghan government."[250]
Death of Osama bin Laden
On 2 May U.S. officials announced that al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden had been killed in Operation Neptune Spear, conducted by the CIA and U.S. Navy SEALs, in Pakistan. Crowds gathered outside the White House chanting "U.S.A, U.S.A" after the news emerged.[251]
Withdrawal
On 22 June President Obama announced that 10,000 troops would be withdrawn by the end of 2011 and an additional 23,000 troops would return by the summer of 2012. After the withdrawal of 10,000 U.S. troops, only 80,000 remained.[252] In July 2011 Canada withdrew its combat troops, transitioning to a training role.
Following suit, other NATO countries announced troop reductions. The United Kingdom stated that it would gradually withdraw its troops, however it did not specify numbers or dates.[253] France announced that it would withdraw roughly 1,000 soldiers by the end of 2012, with 3,000 soldiers remaining. Hundreds would come back at the end of 2011 and in the beginning of 2012, when the Afghan National Army took control of Surobi district. The remaining troops would continue to operate in Kapisa. Their complete withdrawal was expected by the end of 2014 or earlier given adequate security.[254]
Belgium announced that half of their force would withdraw starting in January 2012.[255] Norway announced it had started a withdrawal of its near 500 troops and would be completely out by 2014.[256] Equally, the Spanish Prime Minister announced the withdrawal of troops beginning in 2012, including up to 40 percent by the end of the first half of 2013, and complete withdrawal by 2014.[257]
2011 U.S.–NATO attack in Pakistan
After Neptune Spear, ISAF forces accidentally attacked Pakistan's armed forces on 26 November, killing 24 Pakistani soldiers. Pakistan blocked NATO supply lines and ordered Americans to leave Shamsi Airfield. NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen said the attack was 'tragic' and 'unintended'. "This (regret) is not good enough. We strongly condemn the attacks and reserve the right to take action," said DG ISPR Major General Athar Abbas. "This could have serious consequences in the level and extent of our cooperation.[258]
2012: Strategic agreement
Taliban attacks continued at the same rate as they did in 2011, around 28,000 attacks.[259] In September 2012, the surge of American personnel that began in late 2009 ended.[260]
Reformation of the United Front (Northern Alliance)
In late 2011 the National Front of Afghanistan (NFA) was created by Ahmad Zia Massoud, Abdul Rashid Dostum and Haji Mohammad Mohaqiq in what many analysts have described as a reformation of the military wing of the United Front (Northern Alliance) to oppose a return of the Taliban to power.[261] Meanwhile, much of the political wing reunited under the National Coalition of Afghanistan led by Abdullah Abdullah becoming the main democratic opposition movement in the Afghan parliament.[262][263] Former head of intelligence Amrullah Saleh has created a new movement, Basej-i Milli (Afghanistan Green Trend), with support among the youth mobilizing about 10,000 people in an anti-Taliban demonstration in Kabul in May 2011.[264][265][266]
In January 2012, the National Front of Afghanistan raised concerns about the possibility of a secret deal between the U.S., Pakistan and the Taliban during a widely publicized meeting in Berlin. U.S. Congressman Louie Gohmert wrote, "These leaders who fought with embedded Special Forces to initially defeat the Taliban represent over 60-percent of the Afghan people, yet are being entirely disregarded by the Obama and Karzai Administrations in negotiations."[267] After the meeting with U.S. congressmen in Berlin the National Front signed a joint declaration stating among other things:
We firmly believe that any negotiation with the Taliban can only be acceptable, and therefore effective, if all parties to the conflict are involved in the process. The present form of discussions with the Taliban is flawed, as it excludes anti-Taliban Afghans. It must be recalled that the Taliban extremists and their Al-Qaeda supporters were defeated by Afghans resisting extremism with minimal human embedded support from the United States and International community. The present negotiations with the Taliban fail to take into account the risks, sacrifices and legitimate interests of the Afghans who ended the brutal oppression of all Afghans.[268]— National Front Berlin Statement, January 2012
High-profile U.S. military incidents
Beginning in January 2012, incidents involving U.S. troops[269][270][271][272][273][274] occurred which were described by The Sydney Morning Herald as "a series of damaging incidents and disclosures involving U.S. troops in Afghanistan […]".[269] These incidents created fractures in the partnership between Afghanistan and ISAF,[275] raised the question whether discipline within U.S. troops was breaking down,[276] undermined "the image of foreign forces in a country where there is already deep resentment owing to civilian deaths and a perception among many Afghans that U.S. troops lack respect for Afghan culture and people"[277] and strained the relations between Afghanistan and the United States.[270][271] Besides an incident involving U.S. troops who posed with body parts of dead insurgents and a video apparently showing a U.S. helicopter crew singing "Bye-bye Miss American Pie" before blasting a group of Afghan men with a Hellfire missile[277][278][279] these "high-profile U.S. military incidents in Afghanistan"[273] also included the 2012 Afghanistan Quran burning protests and the Panjwai shooting spree.
Enduring Strategic Partnership Agreement
On 2 May 2012, Presidents Karzai and Obama signed a strategic partnership agreement between the two countries, after the U.S. president had arrived unannounced in Kabul on the first anniversary of Osama bin Laden's death.[280] The U.S.-Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement, officially entitled the "Enduring Strategic Partnership Agreement between the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the United States of America",[281] provides the long-term framework for the two countries' relationship after the drawdown of U.S. forces.[282] The Strategic Partnership Agreement went into effect on 4 July 2012, according to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton on 8 July 2012 at the Tokyo Conference on Afghanistan.[283] On 7 July 2012, as part of the agreement, the U.S. designated Afghanistan a major non-NATO ally after Karzai and Clinton met in Kabul.[284] On 11 November 2012, as part of the agreement, the two countries launched negotiations for a bilateral security agreement.[285]
NATO Chicago Summit: Troops withdrawal and long-term presence
On 21 May 2012 the leaders of NATO-member countries endorsed an exit strategy during the NATO Summit.[54] ISAF Forces would transfer command of all combat missions to Afghan forces by the middle of 2013,[286] while shifting from combat to advising, training and assisting Afghan security forces.[287][288] Most of the 130,000 ISAF troops would depart by the end of December 2014.[286] A new NATO mission would then assume the support role.[287][289]
2013: Withdrawal
Karzai–Obama meeting
Karzai visited the U.S. in January 2012. At the time the U.S. Government stated its openness to withdrawing all of its troops by the end of 2014.[290] On 11 January 2012 Karzai and Obama agreed to transfer combat operations from NATO to Afghan forces by spring 2013 rather than summer 2013.[291][292] "What's going to happen this spring is that Afghans will be in the lead throughout the country", Obama said. "They [ISAF forces] will still be fighting alongside Afghan troops...We will be in a training, assisting, advising role." Obama added[292] He also stated the reason of the withdrawals that "We achieved our central goal, or have come very close...which is to de-capacitate al-Qaeda, to dismantle them, to make sure that they can't attack us again."[293]
Obama also stated that he would determine the pace of troop withdrawal after consultations with commanders.[294] He added that any U.S. mission beyond 2014 would focus solely on counterterrorism operations and training.[293][294] Obama insisted that a continuing presence must include an immunity agreement in which U.S. troops are not subjected to Afghan law.[295] "I can go to the Afghan people and argue for immunity for U.S. troops in Afghanistan in a way that Afghan sovereignty will not be compromised, in a way that Afghan law will not be compromised," Karzai replied.[292]
Both leaders agreed that the United States would transfer Afghan prisoners and prisons to the Afghan government[292][296] and withdraw troops from Afghan villages in spring 2013.[296][297] "The international forces, the American forces, will be no longer present in the villages, that it will be the task of the Afghan forces to provide for the Afghan people in security and protection," the Afghan president said.[296]
Security transfer
On 18 June 2013 the transfer of security responsibilities was completed.[298][299][300][301] The last step was to transfer control of 95 remaining districts. Karzai said, "When people see security has been transferred to Afghans, they support the army and police more than before." NATO leader Rasmussen said that Afghan forces were completing a five-stage transition process that began in March 2011. "They are doing so with remarkable resolve," he said. "Ten years ago, there were no Afghan national security forces … now you have 350,000 Afghan troops and police."[298] ISAF remained slated to end its mission by the end of 2014.[301] Some 100,000 ISAF forces remained in the country.[299]
2014: Withdrawal continues and the insurgency increases
After 2013, Afghanistan was shaken hard with suicide bombings by the Taliban. A clear example of this is a bombing of a Lebanese restaurant in the Wazir Akbar Khan area of Kabul on 18 February 2014. Among the dead in this attack was UN staff and the owner of a restaurant, who died protecting his business; 21 people altogether were killed. Meanwhile, the withdrawal continued, with 200 more U.S. troops going home. The UK halved their force and were slowing withdrawal with all but two bases being closed down. On 20 March 2014, more than 4 weeks after a bomb in a military bus by the Taliban rocked the city once again, a raid on the Serena Hotel's restaurant in Kabul by the Taliban resulted in the deaths of 9 people, including the 4 perpetrators. The attack came just 8 days after Swedish radio journalist Nils Horner was shot dead by the Taliban.
However, as the U.S. troops withdrew from Afghanistan, they were replaced by private security companies hired by the United States government and the United Nations. Many of these private security companies (also termed military contractors) consisted of ex U.S. Army, U.S. Marine, British, French and Italian defense personnel who had left the defense after a few years of active service. Their past relations with the defense helped establish their credentials, simultaneously allowing the U.S. and British to continue to be involved in ground actions without the requirement to station their own forces. This included companies such as the Ohio-based military contracting company, Mission Essential Personal (MEP) set up by Sunil Ramchand, a former White House staffer and U.S. Navy veteran.[302]
Despite the crisis in Crimea, by March 2014 Russia had not tried to exert pressure on the U.S. via the Northern Distribution Network supply line.[303] On 9 June 2014 a coalition air strike mistakenly killed five U.S. troops, an Afghan National Army member and an interpreter in Zabul Province.[304]
On 5 August 2014, a gunman in an Afghan military uniform opened fire on a number of U.S., foreign and Afghan soldiers, killing a U.S. general, Harold J. Greene[305] and wounding about 15 officers and soldiers including a German brigadier general and a large number of U.S. soldiers at Camp Qargha, a training base west of Kabul.[306]
Two longterm security pacts, the Bilaterial Security agreement between Afghanistan and the United States of America and the NATO Status of Forces Agreement between NATO and Afghanistan, were signed on 30 September 2014. Both pacts lay out the framework for the foreign troop involvement in Afghanistan after the year 2014.[307]
After 13 years Britain and the United States officially ended their combat operation in Afghanistan on 26 October 2014. On that day Britain handed over its last base in Afghanistan, Camp Bastion, while the United States handed over its last base, Camp Leatherneck, to Afghan forces.[308]
As early as November 2012, the U.S. and NATO were considering the precise configuration of their post-2014 presence in Afghanistan.[309][310] On 27 May 2014, President Barack Obama announced that U.S. combat operations in Afghanistan would end in December 2014 (see Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan). 9,800 troops were to remain, training Afghan security forces and supporting counterterrorism operations against remnants of al-Qaeda. This force would be halved by the end of 2015, and consolidated at Bagram Air Base and in Kabul. All U.S. forces, with the exception of a "normal embassy presence," would be removed from Afghanistan by the end of 2016.[311] In 2014, 56 United States service members, and 101 contractors, died in Afghanistan.[312]
On 28 December 2014 NATO officially ended combat operations in a ceremony held in Kabul.[68] Continued operations by United States forces within Afghanistan will continue under the name Operation Freedom's Sentinel;[313] this was joined by a new NATO mission under the name of Operation Resolute Support.[314] Operation Resolute Support, will involve 28 NATO nations, 14 partner nations, eleven thousand American troops, and eight hundred fifty German troops.[315]
The UK officially commemorated the end of its role in the Afghan war in a ceremony held in St Paul's cathedral on 13 March 2015.[316] Around 500 UK troops remain in "non-combat" roles.[317][318]
2015 onwards: NATO presence continues
NATO operations continued under Operation Resolute Support, with the stated goal "to train, advise and assist the Afghan security forces and institutions".[319]
Although there was a formal end to combat operations, partially because of improved relations between the United States and the Ghani presidency, American forces increased raids against Islamist militants and terrorists, justified by a broad interpretation of protecting American forces.[320] A joint raid by American and Afghan forces arrested six Taliban connected to the 2014 Peshawar school massacre.[321]
American Secretary of Defense Ash Carter traveled to Afghanistan in February 2015,[322] during a time in which the slowing of American withdrawal from Afghanistan was discussed.[323] In the same month, the headquarters element of the 7th Infantry Division (United States) began to deploy to Afghanistan;[324] it was to be joined by the 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division, and by the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade.[325]
In March 2015, it was announced that the United States would maintain almost ten thousand service members in Afghanistan until at least the end of 2015, a change from planned reductions.[326] In May 2015, Russia has closed a key military transport corridor (the Northern Distribution Network) which allowed NATO to deliver military supplies to Afghanistan through the Russian territory.[327] In July 2016, NATO parteners decided to sustain Operation Resolute Support beyond 2016.[319]
On 31 December 2016, United States troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan, leaving behind 8,400 troops stationed at 4 garrisons (Kabul, Kandahar, Bagram, and Jalalabad). As of May 2017, a total of 13,576 troops remain in Afghanistan under Operation Resolute Support. The largest contributor nation is the United States with 6,941 troops.[71]
In February 2017, U.S. president Donald Trump and Afghan president Ashraf Ghani spoke about the possibility of increasing U.S. and NATO troop numbers. General John Nicholson, the commander of U.S. and international troops in Afghanistan, stated that he believed a few thousand more troops are needed to push back against the expanding Taliban.[70]
Impact on Afghan society
Civilian casualties
According to the Watson Institute for International Studies Costs of War Project, roughly 31,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the war up to the middle of 2016.[72]
War casualty estimates vary. According to a UN report, the Taliban were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in Afghanistan in 2009.[328] A UN report in June 2011 stated that 2,777 civilians were known to have been killed in 2010, (insurgents responsible for 75%).[329] A July 2011 UN report said "1,462 non-combatants died" in the first six months of 2011 (insurgents 80%).[330] In 2011 a record 3,021 civilians were killed, the fifth successive annual rise.[331] According to a UN report, in 2013 there were 2,959 civilian deaths with 74% being blamed on anti-government forces, 8% on Afghan security forces, 3% on ISAF forces, 10% to ground engagements between anti-Government forces and pro-Government forces and 5% of the deaths were unattributed.[332] 60% of Afghans have direct personal experience and most others report suffering a range of hardships. 96% have been affected either personally or from the wider consequences.[333]
A report titled Body Count put together by Physicians for Social Responsibility, Physicians for Global Survival and the Nobel Peace Prize-winning International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians have been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.[334]
Health
According to Nicholas Kristoff, improved healthcare resulting from the war has saved hundreds of thousands of lives.[335]
Refugees
Since 2001, more than 5.7 million former refugees have returned to Afghanistan,[336][337][338] but 2.2 million others remained refugees in 2013.[339] In January 2013 the UN estimated that 547,550 were internally displaced persons, a 25% increase over the 447,547 IDPs estimated for January 2012[338][339][340]
Drug trade
From 1996 to 1999, the Taliban controlled 96% of Afghanistan's poppy fields and made opium its largest source of revenue. Taxes on opium exports became one of the mainstays of Taliban income. According to Rashid, "drug money funded the weapons, ammunition and fuel for the war." In The New York Times, the Finance Minister of the United Front, Wahidullah Sabawoon, declared the Taliban had no annual budget but that they "appeared to spend U.S.$300 million a year, nearly all of it on war". He added that the Taliban had come to increasingly rely on three sources of money: "poppy, the Pakistanis and bin Laden".[341]
By 2000 Afghanistan accounted for an estimated 75% of the world's opium supply and in 2000 produced an estimated 3276 tonnes from 82,171 hectares (203,050 acres).[342] Omar then banned opium cultivation and production dropped to an estimated 74 metric tonnes from 1,685 hectares (4,160 acres).[343] Some observers say the ban – which came in a bid for international recognition at the United Nations – was issued only to raise opium prices and increase profit from the sale of large existing stockpiles. 1999 had yielded a record crop and had been followed by a lower but still large 2000 harvest. The trafficking of accumulated stocks continued in 2000 and 2001. In 2002, the UN mentioned the "existence of significant stocks of opiated accumulated during previous years of bumper harvests". In September 2001 – before 11 September attacks against the U.S. – the Taliban allegedly authorized Afghan peasants to sow opium again.[341]
Soon after the invasion opium production increased markedly.[344] By 2005, Afghanistan was producing 90% of the world's opium, most of which was processed into heroin and sold in Europe and Russia.[345] In 2009, the BBC reported that "UN findings say an opium market worth $65bn (£39bn) funds global terrorism, caters to 15 million addicts, and kills 100,000 people every year".[346]
Public education
As of 2013, 8.2 million Afghans attended school, including 3.2 million girls, up from 1.2 million in 2001, including fewer than 50,000 girls.[347][348]
War crimes
War crimes (a serious violation of the laws and customs of war giving rise to individual criminal responsibility)[349] have been committed by both sides including civilian massacres, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, use of torture and the murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes include theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.
Taliban
In 2011 The New York Times reported that the Taliban was responsible for 3⁄4 of all civilian deaths in the war in Afghanistan.[350][351] In 2013 the UN stated that the Taliban had been placing bombs along transit routes.[352]
In 2015, Amnesty International reported that the Taliban committed mass murder and gang rape of Afghan civilians in Kunduz.[353] Taliban fighters killed and raped female relatives of police commanders and soldiers as well as midwives.[353] One female human rights activist described the situation in the following manner:[353]
When the Taliban asserted their control over Kunduz, they claimed to be bringing law and order and Shari’a to the city. But everything they’ve done has violated both. I don’t know who can rescue us from this situation.
Northern Alliance
In December 2001 the Dasht-i-Leili massacre took place, where between 250 and 3,000 Taliban fighters who had surrendered, were shot and/or suffocated to death in metal truck containers during transportation by Northern Alliance forces. Reports place U.S. ground troops at the scene.[354][355][356] The Irish documentary Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death investigated these allegations and claimed that mass graves of thousands of victims were found by UN investigators[357] and that the U.S. blocked investigations into the incident.[358]
Coalition
On 21 June 2003, David Passaro, a CIA contractor and former United States Army Ranger, killed Abdul Wali, a prisoner at a U.S. base 16 km (10 mi) south of Asadabad, in Kunar Province. Passaro was found guilty of one count of felony assault with a dangerous weapon and three counts of misdemeanor assault. On 10 August 2009, he was sentenced to 8 years and 4 months in prison.[359][360]
In 2002, two unarmed civilian Afghan prisoners were tortured and later killed by U.S. armed forces personnel at the Bagram Theater Internment Facility (also Bagram Collection Point or B.C.P.) in Bagram, Afghanistan.[361] The prisoners, Habibullah and Dilawar, were chained to the ceiling and beaten, which caused their deaths.[362] Military coroners ruled that both the prisoners' deaths were homicides.[363] Autopsies revealed severe trauma to both prisoners' legs, describing the trauma as comparable to being run over by a bus. Fifteen soldiers were charged.
During the summer of 2010, ISAF charged five United States Army soldiers with the murder of three Afghan civilians in Kandahar province and collecting their body parts as trophies in what came to be known as the Maywand District murders. In addition, seven soldiers were charged with crimes such as hashish use, impeding an investigation and attacking the whistleblower, Specialist Justin Stoner.[364][365][366] Eleven of the twelve soldiers were convicted on various counts.[367]
A British Royal Marine Sergeant, identified as Sergeant Alexander Blackman from Taunton, Somerset,[368] was convicted at court martial in Wiltshire of the murder of an unarmed, reportedly wounded, Afghan fighter in Helmand Province in September 2011.[369] In 2013, he received a life sentence from the court martial in Bulford, Wiltshire, and was dismissed with disgrace from the Royal Marines. In 2017, after appeal to the Court Martial Appeal Court (CMAC), his conviction was lessened to manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility and the sentence was reduced to seven years effectively releasing Blackman due to time served.[370]
On 11 March 2012, the Kandahar massacre occurred when sixteen civilians were killed and six wounded in the Panjwayi District of Kandahar Province, Afghanistan.[371][372] Nine of the victims were children,[372] and eleven of the dead were from the same family.[373] United States Army Staff Sergeant Robert Bales was taken into custody and charged with sixteen counts of premeditated murder. After pleading guilty to sixteen counts of premeditated murder, Bales was sentenced to life in prison without parole and dishonorably discharged from the United States Army.[374]
Costs
The cost of the war reportedly was a major factor as U.S. officials considered drawing down troops in 2011.[375] A March 2011 Congressional Research Service report noted, 1) following the Afghanistan surge announcement in 2009, Defense Department spending on Afghanistan increased by 50%, going from $4.4 billion to $6.7 billion a month. During that time, troop strength increased from 44,000 to 84,000, and was expected to be at 102,000 for fiscal year 2011; 2) The total cost from inception to the fiscal year 2011 was expected to be $468 billion.[376] The estimate for the cost of deploying one U.S. soldier in Afghanistan is over U.S.$1 million a year.[377] According to "Investment in Blood", a book by Frank Ledwidge, summations for the UK contribution to the war in Afghanistan came to £37bn ($56.46 billion).[378]
Stability problems
In a 2008 interview, the then-head U.S. Central Command General David H. Petraeus, insisted that the Taliban were gaining strength. He cited a recent increase in attacks in Afghanistan and in neighboring Pakistan. Petraeus insisted that the problems in Afghanistan were more complicated than the ones he had faced in Iraq during his tour and required removing widespread sanctuaries and strongholds.[379]
Observers have argued that the mission in Afghanistan is hampered by a lack of agreement on objectives, a lack of resources, lack of coordination, too much focus on the central government at the expense of local and provincial governments, and too much focus on the country instead of the region.[380]
In 2009, Afghanistan moved three places in Transparency International's annual index of corruption, becoming the world's second most-corrupt country just ahead of Somalia.[381] In the same month, Malalai Joya, a former member of the Afghan Parliament and the author of "Raising My Voice", expressed opposition to an expansion of the U.S. military presence and her concerns about the future. "Eight years ago, the U.S. and NATO – under the banner of women's rights, human rights, and democracy – occupied my country and pushed us from the frying pan into the fire. Eight years is enough to know better about the corrupt, mafia system of President Hamid Karzai. My people are crushed between two powerful enemies. From the sky, occupation forces bomb and kill civilians … and on the ground, the Taliban and warlords continue their crimes. It is better that they leave my country; my people are that fed up. Occupation will never bring liberation, and it is impossible to bring democracy by war."[382]
Pakistan plays a central role in the conflict. A 2010 report published by the London School of Economics says that Pakistan's ISI has an "official policy" of support to the Taliban.[383] "Pakistan appears to be playing a double-game of astonishing magnitude," the report states.[383] Amrullah Saleh, former director of Afghanistan's intelligence service, stated, "We talk about all these proxies [Taliban, Haqqanis] but not the master of proxies, which is the Pakistan army. The question is what does Pakistan's army want to achieve …? They want to gain influence in the region"[384] About the presence of foreign troops in Afghanistan he stated: "[T]hey fight for the U.S. national interest but … without them we will face massacre and disaster and God knows what type of a future Afghanistan will have."[384][385]
Afghan security forces
Afghan National Army
U.S. policy called for boosting the Afghan National Army to 134,000 soldiers by October 2010. By May 2010 the Afghan Army had accomplished this interim goal and was on track to reach its ultimate number of 171,000 by 2011.[386] This increase in Afghan troops allowed the U.S. to begin withdrawing its forces in July 2011.[387][388]
In 2010, the Afghan National Army had limited fighting capacity.[389] Even the best Afghan units lacked training, discipline and adequate reinforcements. In one new unit in Baghlan Province, soldiers had been found cowering in ditches rather than fighting.[390] Some were suspected of collaborating with the Taliban.[389] "They don't have the basics, so they lay down," said Capt. Michael Bell, who was one of a team of U.S. and Hungarian mentors tasked with training Afghan soldiers. "I ran around for an hour trying to get them to shoot, getting fired on. I couldn't get them to shoot their weapons."[389] In addition, 9 out of 10 soldiers in the Afghan National Army were illiterate.[391]
The Afghan Army was plagued by inefficiency and endemic corruption.[392] U.S. training efforts were drastically slowed by the problems.[393] U.S. trainers reported missing vehicles, weapons and other military equipment, and outright theft of fuel.[389] Death threats were leveled against U.S. officers who tried to stop Afghan soldiers from stealing. Afghan soldiers often snipped the command wires of IEDs instead of marking them and waiting for U.S. forces to come to detonate them. This allowed insurgents to return and reconnect them.[389] U.S. trainers frequently removed the cell phones of Afghan soldiers hours before a mission for fear that the operation would be compromised.[394] American trainers often spent large amounts of time verifying that Afghan rosters were accurate – that they are not padded with "ghosts" being "paid" by Afghan commanders who stole the wages.[395]
Desertion was a significant problem. One in every four combat soldiers quit the Afghan Army during the 12-month period ending in September 2009, according to data from the U.S. Defense Department and the Inspector General for Reconstruction in Afghanistan.[396]
Afghan National Police
The Afghan National Police provides support to the Afghan army. Police officers in Afghanistan are also largely illiterate. Approximately 17 percent of them tested positive for illegal drugs in 2010. They were widely accused of demanding bribes.[397] Attempts to build a credible Afghan police force were faltering badly, according to NATO officials.[398] A quarter of the officers quit every year, making the Afghan government's goals of substantially building up the police force even harder to achieve.[398]
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Insider attacks
Beginning in 2011, insurgent forces in Afghanistan began using a tactic of insider attacks on ISAF and Afghan military forces. In the attacks, Taliban personnel or sympathizers belonging to, or pretending to belong to, the Afghan military or police forces attack ISAF personnel, often within the security of ISAF military bases and Afghan government facilities. In 2011, for example, 21 insider attacks killed 35 coalition personnel. Forty-six insider attacks killed 63 and wounded 85 coalition troops, mostly American, in the first 11 months of 2012.[399] The attacks continued but began diminishing towards the planned 31 December 2014 ending of combat operations in Afghanistan by ISAF. However, on 5 August 2014, a gunman in an Afghan military uniform opened fire on a number of international military personnel, killing a U.S. general and wounding about 15 officers and soldiers, including a German brigadier general and 8 U.S. troops, at a training base west of Kabul.[306]
Reactions
Domestic reactions
In November 2001, the CNN reported widespread relief amongst Kabul's residents after the Taliban fled the city, with young men shaving off their beards and women taking off their burqas.[400] Later that month the BBC's longtime Kabul correspondent Kate Clark reported that "almost all women in Kabul are still choosing to veil" but that many felt hopeful that the ousting of the Taliban would improve their safety and access to food.[401][A 1]
A 2006 WPO opinion poll found that the majority of Afghans endorsed America's military presence, with 83% of Afghans stating that they had a favorable view of the U.S. military forces in their country. Only 17% gave an unfavorable view.[402] The majority of Afghans, among all ethnic groups including Pashtuns, stated that the overthrowing of the Taliban was a good thing. 82% of Afghans as a whole and 71% of those living in the war zone held this anti-Taliban view.[403] The Afghan population gave the U.S.A one of its most favorable ratings in the world. A solid majority (81%) of Afghans stated that they held a favorable view of the U.S.A.[404] However, the majority of Afghans (especially those in the war zone) held negative views on Pakistan and most Afghans also stated that they believe that the Pakistani government was allowing the Taliban to operate from its soil.[405]
Polls of Afghans displayed strong opposition to the Taliban and significant support of the U.S. military presence. However the idea of permanent U.S. military bases was not popular in 2005.[406]
According to a May 2009 BBC poll, 69% of Afghans surveyed thought it was at least mostly good that the U.S. military came in to remove the Taliban – a decrease from 87% of Afghans surveyed in 2005. 24% thought it was mostly or very bad – up from 9% in 2005. The poll indicated that 63% of Afghans were at least somewhat supportive of a U.S. military presence in the country – down from 78% in 2005. Just 18% supported increasing the U.S. military's presence, while 44% favored reducing it. 90% of Afghans surveyed opposed the Taliban, including 70% who were strongly opposed. By an 82%–4% margin, people said they preferred the current government to Taliban rule.[407]
In a June 2009 Gallup survey, about half of Afghan respondents felt that additional U.S. forces would help stabilize the security situation in the southern provinces. But opinions varied widely; residents in the troubled South were mostly mixed or uncertain, while those in the West largely disagreed that more U.S. troops would help the situation.[408]
In December 2009, many Afghan tribal heads and local leaders from the south and east called for U.S. troop withdrawals. "I don't think we will be able to solve our problems with military force," said Muhammad Qasim, a Kandahar tribal elder. "We can solve them by providing jobs and development and by using local leaders to negotiate with the Taliban."[409] "If new troops come and are stationed in civilian areas, when they draw Taliban attacks civilians will end up being killed," said Gulbadshah Majidi, a lawmaker and close associate of Mr. Karzai. "This will only increase the distance between Afghans and their government."[410]
In late January 2010, Afghan protesters took to the streets for three straight days and blocked traffic on a highway that links Kabul and Kandahar. The Afghans were demonstrating in response to the deaths of four men in a NATO-Afghan raid in the village of Ghazni. Ghazni residents insisted that the dead were civilians.[411]
A 2015 survey by Langer Research Associates found that 77% of Afghans support the presence of U.S. forces; 67% also support the presence of NATO forces. Despite the problems in the country, 80% of Afghans still held the view that it was a good thing for the United States to overthrow the Taliban in 2001. More Afghans blame the Taliban or al-Qaeda for the country's violence (53%) than those who blame the U.S.A (12%).[412]
- ↑ Reporting in Kabul had been severely limited first by the Taliban's ban on nearly all foreign news organizations and subsequently by US bombing which destroyed Al Jazeera's Kabul headquarters and damaged the BBC's and Associated Press' offices; no journalists died as a result of the US bombing. https://cpj.org/2002/03/attacks-on-the-press-2001-afghanistan.php
International reactions
Public opinion in 2001
When the invasion began in October 2001, polls indicated that about 88% of Americans and about 65% of Britons backed military action.[413]
A large-scale 37-nation poll of world opinion carried out by Gallup International in late September 2001 found that large majorities in most countries favored a legal response, in the form of extradition and trial, over a military response to 9/11: only three countries out of the 37 surveyed – the U.S., Israel and India – did majorities favor military action. In the other 34 countries surveyed, the poll found many clear majorities that favored extradition and trial instead of military action: in the United Kingdom (75%), France (67%), Switzerland (87%), Czech Republic (64%), Lithuania (83%), Panama (80%) and Mexico (94%).[414][415]
An Ipsos-Reid poll conducted between November and December 2001 showed that majorities in Canada (66%), France (60%), Germany (60%), Italy (58%), and the UK (65%) approved of U.S. airstrikes while majorities in Argentina (77%), China (52%), South Korea (50%), Spain (52%), and Turkey (70%) opposed them.[416]
Development of public opinion
In a 47-nation June 2007 survey of global public opinion, the Pew Global Attitudes Project found international opposition to the war. Out of the 47 countries surveyed, 4 had a majority that favored keeping foreign troops: the U.S. (50%), Israel (59%), Ghana (50%), and Kenya (60%). In 41, pluralities wanted NATO troops out as soon as possible.[417] In 32 out of 47, clear majorities wanted war over as soon as possible. Majorities in 7 out of 12 NATO member countries said troops should be withdrawn as soon as possible.[417][418]
A 24-nation Pew Global Attitudes survey in June 2008 similarly found that majorities or pluralities in 21 of 24 countries want the U.S. and NATO to remove their troops from Afghanistan as soon as possible. Only in three out of the 24 countries – the U.S. (50%), Australia (60%), and Britain (48%) – did public opinion lean more toward keeping troops there until the situation has stabilized.[419][420]
Following that June 2008 global survey, however, public opinion in Australia and Britain diverged from that in the U.S. A majority of Australians and Britons now want their troops home. A September 2008 poll found that 56% of Australians opposed continuation of their country's military involvement.[421][422][423] A November 2008 poll found that 68% of Britons wanted their troops withdrawn within the next 12 months.[424][425][426]
In the U.S., a September 2008 Pew survey found that 61% of Americans wanted U.S. troops to stay until the situation has stabilized, while 33% wanted them removed as soon as possible.[427] Public opinion was divided over Afghan troop requests: a majority of Americans continued to see a rationale for the use of military force in Afghanistan.[428] A slight plurality of Americans favored troop increases, with 42%–47% favoring some troop increases, 39%–44% wanting reduction, and 7–9% wanting no changes. Just 29% of Democrats favored troop increases while 57% wanted to begin reducing troops. Only 36% of Americans approved of Obama's handling of Afghanistan, including 19% of Republicans, 31% of independents, and 54% of Democrats.[429]
In a December 2009 Pew Research Center poll, only 32 percent of Americans favored increasing U.S. troops in Afghanistan, while 40 percent favored decreasing them. Almost half of Americans, 49 percent, believed that the U.S. should "mind its own business" internationally and let other countries get along the best they can. That figure was an increase from 30 percent who said that in December 2002.[430]
An April 2011 Pew Research Center poll showed little change in American views, with about 50% saying that the effort was going very well or fairly well and only 44% supporting NATO troop presence in Afghanistan.[431]
Protests, demonstrations and rallies
The war has been the subject of large protests around the world starting with the large-scale demonstrations in the days leading up to the invasion and every year since. Many protesters consider the bombing and invasion of Afghanistan to be unjustified aggression.[432][433] The deaths of Afghan civilians caused directly and indirectly by the U.S. and NATO bombing campaigns is a major underlying focus of the protests.[434] In January 2009, Brave New Foundation launched Rethink Afghanistan, a national campaign for non-violent solutions in Afghanistan built around a documentary film by director and political activist Robert Greenwald.[435] Dozens of organizations planned (and eventually held) a national march for peace in Washington, D.C. on 20 March 2010.[436][437]
Human rights abuses
Multiple accounts document human rights violations in Afghanistan.[438]
Taliban
According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in Afghanistan in 2009.[328] The Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIGRC) called the Taliban's terrorism against the Afghan civilian population a war crime.[58] According to Amnesty International, the Taliban commit war crimes by targeting civilians, including killing teachers, abducting aid workers and burning school buildings. Amnesty International said that up to 756 civilians were killed in 2006 by bombs, mostly on roads or carried by suicide attackers belonging to the Taliban.[439]
NATO has alleged that the Taliban have used civilians as human shields. As an example, NATO pointed to the victims of NATO air strikes in Farah province in May 2009, during which the Afghan government claims up to 150 civilians were killed. NATO stated it had evidence the Taliban forced civilians into buildings likely to be targeted by NATO aircraft involved in the battle. A spokesman for the ISAF commander said: "This was a deliberate plan by the Taliban to create a civilian casualty crisis. These were not human shields; these were human sacrifices. We have intelligence that points to this."[440] according to the U.S. State Department, the Taliban committed human rights violations against women in Afghanistan.[441]
White phosphorus use
White phosphorus has been condemned by human rights organizations as cruel and inhumane because it causes severe burns. White phosphorus burns on the bodies of civilians wounded in clashes near Bagram were confirmed. The U.S. claims at least 44 instances in which militants have used white phosphorus in weapons or attacks.[442] In May 2009, the U.S. confirmed that Western military forces in Afghanistan use white phosphorus to illuminate targets or as an incendiary to destroy bunkers and enemy equipment.[443][444] U.S. forces used white phosphorus to screen a retreat in the Battle of Ganjgal when regular smoke munitions were not available.[445]
Environmental legacy
Since 1979 landmines, shells, bombs, and other unexploded ordnance have been left behind. In 2015 the NATO's International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was replaced by the U.S.-led "Resolute Support" The director of the Mine Action Coordination Centre for Afghanistan (MACCA). ISAF stressed it had never used landmines.
See also
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Lists: |
Footnotes
References
- ↑ Scott, Shane (22 June 2008). "Inside a 9/11 Mastermind's Interrogation". The New York Times.
- ↑ "Operation Enduring Freedom Fast Facts". CNN. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
- ↑ "The elite force who are ready to die". the Guardian. 27 October 2001.
- ↑ Neville, Leigh, Special Forces in the War on Terror (General Military), Osprey Publishing, 2015 ISBN 978-1472807908, p.48
- ↑ "Pakistan's 'fanatical' Uzbek militants". BBC. 11 June 2014.
- ↑ "Pakistan's militant Islamic groups". BBC. 13 January 2002.
- ↑ "Evaluating the Uighur Threat". the long war journal. 9 October 2008.
- ↑ Start of the Taliban insurgency after the fall of the Taliban regime.
- ↑ "Role of Pakistan in afghan war".
- ↑ "Taliban storm Kunduz city". The Long War Journal. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
- 1 2 The Taliban's new leadership is allied with al Qaeda, The Long War Journal, 31 July 2015
- ↑ Gibbons-Neff, Thomas. "Russia is sending weapons to Taliban, top U.S. general confirms". The Washington Post. Retrieved 5 August 2017.
- ↑ "Central Asian groups split over leadership of global jihad". The Long War Journal. 24 August 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
- 1 2 3 "'Afghan Taliban leader Mullah Omar is dead'". The Express Tribune. 29 July 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
- 1 2 "Mullah Najibullah: Too Radical for the Taliban". Newsweek. 30 August 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2015.
- ↑ "The Afghan National Security Forces Beyond 2014: Will They Be Ready?" (PDF). Centre for Security Governance. February 2014.
- 1 2 "The continuing US war in Afghanistan". World Socialist Web Site. 30 December 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- 1 2 Akmal Dawi. "Despite Massive Taliban Death Toll No Drop in Insurgency". Voanews.com. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
- ↑ Rassler, Don; Vahid Brown (14 July 2011). "The Haqqani Nexus and the Evolution of al-Qaida" (PDF). Harmony Program. Combating Terrorism Center. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ↑ Reuters. "Sirajuddin Haqqani dares US to attack N Waziristan, by Reuters, Published: September 24, 2011". Tribune. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- ↑ Perlez, Jane (14 December 2009). "Rebuffing U.S., Pakistan Balks at Crackdown". The New York Times.
- ↑ "Afghanistan after the Western Drawdown". Google books. 16 January 2015. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
- ↑ Bill Roggio (26 April 2011). "How many al Qaeda operatives are now left in Afghanistan? – Threat Matrix". Longwarjournal.org. Archived from the original on 6 July 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- ↑ "Al Qaeda in Afghanistan Is Attempting A Comeback". The Huffington Post. 21 October 2012. Archived from the original on 10 December 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- ↑ "In Afghanistan, al-Qaeda is working more closely with the Taliban, Pentagon says". the Washington post. 6 May 2016.
- ↑ "War-related Death, Injury, and Displacement in Afghanistan and Pakistan 2001–2014" (PDF). brown.edu. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
- ↑ Morello, Carol; Loeb, Vernon (6 December 2001). "Friendly fire kills 3 GIs". Post-Gazette. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
- ↑ Terry McCarthy/Kunduz (18 November 2001). "A Volatile State of Siege After a Taliban Ambush". Time. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
- ↑ John Pike (9 December 2001). "VOA News Report". Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ "US Bombs Wipe Out Farming Village". Rawa.org. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ "British soldier dies three years after Afghanistan shooting". BBC News.
- 1 2 "OEF: Afghanistan: Fatalities By Year". icasualties.org. 9 September 2005. Retrieved 14 September 2013.
- ↑ OPERATION ENDURING FREEDOM (OEF) U.S. CASUALTY STATUS FATALITIES as of: December 30, 2014, 10 a.m. EDT Archived 6 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ "Number of Afghanistan UK Military and Civilian casualties (7 October 2001 to 30 November 2014)" (PDF). www.gov.uk. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
- ↑ "Over 2,000 Canadians were wounded in Afghan mission: report". National Post. Retrieved 2012-02-01.
- 1 2 "U.S. Department of Labor – Office of Workers' Compensation Programs (OWCP) – Defense Base Act Case Summary by Nation". Dol.gov. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- 1 2 T. Christian Miller (23 September 2009). "U.S. Government Private Contract Worker Deaths and Injuries". Projects.propublica.org. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ↑ Iraj. "Deadliest Year for the ANSF: Mohammadi". Retrieved 17 July 2015.
- ↑ Crawford, Neta (August 2016). "Update on the Human Costs of War for Afghanistan and Pakistan, 2001 to mid-2016" (PDF). brown.edu. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
- ↑
- "U.S. War in Afghanistan: 1999–Present". cfr.org. Council on Foreign Relations. 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- "U.S. War in Afghanistan". NBCNews.com. NBC News Digital. 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- Lamothe, Dan (6 January 2015). "This new graphic shows the state of the U.S. war in Afghanistan". Washington post. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- Matt Doeden; Blake Hoena (1 January 2014). War in Afghanistan: An Interactive Modern History Adventure. Capstone. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4765-5221-7.
- Michael Cox; Doug Stokes (9 February 2012). US Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-19-958581-6.
- Robert M. Cassidy () (2004). Peacekeeping in the Abyss: British and American Peacekeeping Doctrine and Practice After the Cold War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-275-97696-5.
- ↑ David P. Auerswald; Stephen M. Saideman (5 January 2014). NATO in Afghanistan: Fighting Together, Fighting Alone. Princeton University Press. pp. 87–88. ISBN 978-1-4008-4867-6.
- ↑ Peter Dahl Thruelsen, From Soldier to Civilian: DISARMAMENT DEMOBILISATION REINTEGRATION IN AFGHANISTAN, DIIS REPORT 2006:7, 12, supported by Uppsala Conflict Database Project, Uppsala University.
- ↑ Maloney, S (2005). Enduring the Freedom: A Rogue Historian in Afghanistan. Washington, D.C: Potomac Books Inc.
- ↑ Darlene Superville and Steven R. Hurst. "Updated: Obama speech balances Afghanistan troop buildup with exit pledge". cleveland.com. Associated Press. and Arkedis, Jim (23 October 2009). "Why Al Qaeda Wants a Safe Haven". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
- ↑ These are America's 9 longest foreign wars, washingtonpost.com.
- ↑ America's longest war comes to an end (sort of), msnbc.com.
- ↑ Obama Welcomes End Of The Longest War In American History, huffingtonpost.com.au
- ↑ The Longest War in American History Is Officially Over, slate.com.
- ↑ Editor's Notebook: Afghan War Now Country's Longest, abcnews.go.com.
- ↑ "Indictment #S(9) 98 Cr. 1023" (PDF). United States District Court, Southern District of New York.
- 1 2 "Bush rejects Taliban offer to hand Bin Laden over". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
- 1 2 Vulliamy, Ed; Wintour, Patrick; Traynor, Ian; Ahmed, Kamal (7 October 2001). "After the September Eleventh Terrorist attacks on America, "It's time for war, Bush and Blair tell Taliban – We're ready to go in – PM|Planes shot at over Kabul"". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- 1 2 "Canada in Afghanistan: 2001". National Post. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
- 1 2 3 Felbab-Brown, V (2012). "Slip-Sliding on a Yellow Brick Road: Stabilization Efforts in Afghanistan". Stability: International Journal of Security and Development. 1 (1): 4–19. doi:10.5334/sta.af.
- 1 2 Rubin, Alyssa J. (22 December 2009). "NATO Chief Promises to Stand by Afghanistan". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- 1 2 "The Taliban Resurgence in Afghanistan".
- 1 2 Rothstein, Hy S (15 August 2006). Afghanistan: and the troubled future of unconventional warfare By Hy S. Rothstein. ISBN 978-81-7049-306-8.
- 1 2 "AIHRC Calls Civilian Deaths War Crime". Tolonews. 13 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 June 2011.
- ↑ Starkey, Jerome (30 September 2010). "Karzai's Taliban talks raise spectre of civil war warns former spy chief". The Scotsman. Edinburgh.
- ↑ "Ten Stories the world should know more about, 2007". www.un.org. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
- ↑ Vira, Varun; Cordesman, Anthony (25 July 2011). "Pakistan: Violence versus Stability: A Net Assessment". Center for Strategic and International Studies.
- ↑ "International Security Assistance Force (ISAF): Key Facts and Figures" (PDF). nato.int. 4 March 2011. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
- ↑ "A timeline of US troops in Afghanistan since 2001". CNS News. 15 October 2015. Retrieved 2017-07-19.
- ↑ KURTZLEBEN, DANIELLE (6 July 2016). "CHART: How The U.S. Troop Levels In Afghanistan Have Changed Under Obama". npr.org. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
- ↑ Walsh, Declan; Nordland, Rod (10 September 2013). "Pakistan May Release Taliban Commander to Aid Afghan Peace Talks". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ↑ DeYoung, Karen (27 May 2014). "Obama to leave 9,800 U.S. troops in Afghanistan". The Washington Post. Retrieved 29 May 2014.
- ↑ Rogers, Simon; Chalabi, Mona (10 August 2010). "Afghanistan civilian casualties". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- 1 2 "U.S. formally ends the war in Afghanistan" (online). CBA News. Associated Press. 28 December 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
- ↑ Sune Engel Rasmussen in Kabul (28 December 2014). "Nato ends combat operations in Afghanistan". Kabul: The Guardian. The Guardian. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- 1 2 Walsh, Eric (9 February 2017). "Trump speaks with Afghan leader, U.S. commander calls for more troops". Reuters. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
- 1 2 "Troop Contributing Nations" (PDF). Resolute Support Mission. May 2017.
- 1 2 Crawford, Neta (August 2016). "Update on the Human Costs of War for Afghanistan and Pakistan, 2001 to mid-2016" (PDF). brown.edu. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
- ↑ "Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978–2001" (PDF). Afghanistan Justice Project. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2013.
- 1 2 "Afghanistan: Further Information on Fear for Safety and New Concern: Deliberate and Arbitrary Killings: Civilians in Kabul". Amnesty International. 16 November 1995. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
- ↑ "Afghanistan: escalation of indiscriminate shelling in Kabul". International Committee of the Red Cross. 1995.
- 1 2 3 Marcela Grad (1 March 2009). Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader. Webster University Press. p. 310.
- ↑ "II. BACKGROUND". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 2 November 2008.
- 1 2 Amin Saikal. Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival (2006 1st ed.). I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., London New York. p. 352. ISBN 1-85043-437-9.
- 1 2 "Documents Detail Years of Pakistani Support for Taliban, Extremists". National Security Archive. 2007. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
- ↑ Video on YouTube
- 1 2 3 Coll 2004, p. 14.
- ↑ "The Taliban's War on Women: A Health and Human Rights Crisis in Afghanistan" (PDF). Physicians for Human Rights. 1998.
- ↑ Maley, William (2009). The Afghanistan wars. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-230-21313-5.
- 1 2 Peter Tomsen said that up until 9/11, Pakistani military and ISI officers, along with thousands of regular Pakistani armed forces personnel, had been involved in the fighting in Afghanistan.Tomsen, Peter (2011). Wars of Afghanistan. PublicAffairs. p. 322. ISBN 978-1-58648-763-8.
- ↑ Video on YouTube
- ↑ Tomsen, Peter (2011). Wars of Afghanistan. PublicAffairs. p. 565. ISBN 978-1-58648-763-8.
- ↑ Coll 2004, p. 558.
- ↑ "The lost lion of Kabul". The New Statesman. 2011.
- 1 2 Newsday (October 2001). "Taliban massacres outlined for UN". Chicago Tribune.
- 1 2 Newsday (2001). "Confidential UN report details mass killings of civilian villagers". newsday.org. Archived from the original on 18 November 2002. Retrieved 12 October 2001.
- ↑ Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (February 1999). "Afghanistan: Situation in, or around, Aqcha (Jawzjan province) including predominant tribal/ethnic group and who is currently in control".
- ↑ "Incitement of Violence Against Hazaras by Governor Niazi". Afghanistan: the Massacre in Mazar-I Sharif. Human Rights Watch. November 1998. Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 27 December 2007.
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- ↑ Craig, Tim (12 February 2015). "U.S. forces, Afghan troops arrest Taliban militants wanted for school massacre". Washington Post. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- ↑ Stewart, Phil (20 February 2015). "New Defense Secretary Ash Carter goes to Afghanistan to ensure 'lasting success' as US troops withdraw". Business Insider. Reuters. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- ↑
- Rampton, Roberta (11 February 2015). "Obama administration weighs Afghan request to slow withdrawal of U.S. troops". Reuters. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- Ryan, Missy (10 February 2015). "White House weighs adjusting Afghan exit plan to slow withdrawal of troops". Washington Post. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- Eberspacher, Sarah (21 February 2015). "New Defense Secretary Carter says U.S. may slow Afghan troop withdrawal". The Week. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- Gul, Ayaz (21 February 2015). "New Pentagon Chief in Kabul Talks With Afghan President". Voice of America. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- "U.S. commander proposes slower Afghan withdrawal". The Japan Times. Agence France-Presse. 13 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- ↑ Adam Ashton (24 February 2015). "Army to send headquarters group to Kandahar in first sign of revision to Afghan withdrawal plan". McClatchy. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑
- Gary Walts (26 February 2015). "Fort Drum brigade prepares for deployment to Afghanistan". The Post-Standard. Syracuse Media Group. Associated Press. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- Tan, Michelle (27 February 2015). "Army announces new Afghanistan deployments". ArmyTimes. Gannett. Retrieved 28 February 2015.
- ↑ Lederman, Josh (24 March 2015). "White House: US to slow troop withdrawal from Afghanistan". Associated Press. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
- ↑ "Russia closes NATO supply corridor to Afghanistan". The Washington Times. 19 May 2015.
- 1 2 "UN: Taliban Responsible for 76% of Deaths in Afghanistan". The Weekly Standard. 10 August 2010.
- ↑ "Afghanistan: Attack on Logar hospital kills dozens". BBC News. 25 June 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ↑ "Afghan civilian deaths rise, insurgents responsible for most casualties – UN". U.N. News Centre. 14 July 2011. Retrieved 6 August 2011.
- ↑ Damien Pearse and agencies (4 February 2012). "Afghan civilian death toll reaches record high". Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
- ↑ Civilian casualties in Afghanistan up 14 per cent last year, says new UN report UN.org.
- ↑ Afghanistan, Opinion survey 2009, by ICRC and Ipsos
- ↑
- Body Count – Casualty Figures after 10 Years of the "War on Terror" – Iraq Afghanistan Pakistan" (PDF), by IPPNW, PGS and PSR, First international edition (March 2015)
- Gabriela Motroc (7 April 2015). "U.S. War on Terror has reportedly killed 1.3 million people in a decade". Australian National Review.
- "220,000 killed in US war in Afghanistan 80,000 in Pakistan: report". Daily Times. 30 March 2015.
- ↑ Kristof, Nicholas D., "A Merciful War", The New York Times, 1 February 2002. "Now aid is pouring in and lives are being saved on an enormous scale. UNICEF, for example, has vaccinated 734,000 children against measles over the last two months, in a country where virtually no one had been vaccinated against the disease in the previous 10 years. Because measles often led to death in Afghanistan, the vaccination campaign will save at least 35,000 children's lives each year. ... Heidi J. Larson of UNICEF says that if all goes well, child and maternal mortality rates will drop in half in Afghanistan over the next five years. That would mean 112,000 fewer children and 7,500 fewer pregnant women dying each year."
- ↑ UNHCR country operations profile – Afghanistan unhcr.org
- ↑ Afghan Refugees, Costs of War, http://costsofwar.org/article/afghan-refugees, 2012
- 1 2 Numbers taken from UNHCR, "2011 UNHCR Country Operations Profile—Afghanistan", http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e486eb6
- 1 2 2013 UNHCR country operations profile – Afghanistan, http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e486eb6.html
- ↑ Afghans fleeing war find misery in urban slums Feb. 2012, Amnesty International
"Afghan refugees abandoned by their own government, report finds: About half a million Afghans who fled homes because of violence are living in desperate conditions, says Amnesty", The Guardian, 23 February 2012 - 1 2 Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2010). Opium: uncovering the politics of the poppy. Harvard University Press. pp. 52ff.
- ↑ Thourni, Francisco E. (2006). Frank Bovenkerk, ed. The Organized Crime Community: Essays in Honor of Alan A. Block. Springer. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-387-39019-2.
- ↑ Lyman, Michael D. (2010). Drugs in Society: Causes, Concepts and Control. Elsevier. p. 309. ISBN 978-1-4377-4450-7.
- ↑ "Is Afghanistan's Drug Trade Paying Al Qaeda?". ABC News. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ↑ "Afghanistan riddled with drug ties". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ↑ "Afghan opium fuels 'global chaos'". BBC News. 21 October 2009. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- ↑ ISAF Spokesman Discusses Progress in Afghanistan Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. International Security Assistance Force/NATO. 25 July 2011.
- ↑ Successes and challenges in Afghan girls' education BBC News. 11 October 2012.
- ↑ Gary D. Solis (15 February 2010). The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War. Cambridge University Press. pp. 301–303. ISBN 978-1-139-48711-5.
- ↑ Rod Nordland (10 February 2011). "Afghan Rights Groups Shift Focus to Taliban". The New York Times. p. A6. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ↑ Kegley, Charles W.; Shannon L Blanton (2011). World Politics: Trend and Transformation. Cengage. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-495-90655-1.
- ↑ Spencer Ackerman (19 February 2013). "Afghanistan Gets Safer for Civilians as U.N. Warns Taliban of 'War Crimes'". Wired. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
"This is a war crime and people will be held responsible in the future for this war crime," said Ján Kubiš, the U.N.'s man in Afghanistan.
- 1 2 3 "Afghanistan: Harrowing accounts emerge of the Taliban’s reign of terror in Kunduz". Amnesty International. 1 October 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
- ↑ Harding, Luke (14 September 2002). "Afghan Massacre Haunts Pentagon". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
- ↑ "Starved, hurt and buried alive in Afghanistan". Independent Online. 2 May 2002. Archived from the original on 7 August 2009. Retrieved 7 August 2009.
- ↑ Dasht-e-Leili Photos; Sheberghan Prison and Pit Locations at Dasht-e-Leili, Physicians for Human Rights, Retrieved 19 February 2012
- ↑ "As possible Afghan war-crimes evidence removed, U.S. silent". McClatchy Newspapers. 12 November 2008. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008.
- ↑ "US blocked probes into Afghan prisoner killings". AFP. 10 July 2009. Archived from the original on 20 January 2014.
- ↑ Weigl, Andrea (14 February 2007). "Passaro will serve 8 years for beating". The News and Observer. Archived from the original on 19 April 2013.
- ↑ Dunbar, Elizabeth (14 February 2007). "Passaro Sentenced To 8-plus Years". Star News. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
- ↑ Tim Golden (20 May 2005). "In U.S. Report, Brutal Details of 2 Afghan Inmates' Deaths". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 November 2010.
- ↑ White, Josh (12 March 2005). "2 Died After '02 Beatings by U.S. Soldiers". The Washington Post. Retrieved 14 September 2007.
- ↑ Golden, Tim (22 May 2005). "Army Faltered in Investigating Detainee Abuse". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 September 2007.
- ↑ Barbara Starr (10 September 2010). "Army: 12 soldiers killed Afghans, mutilated corpses". CNN. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
- ↑ "Additional charges filed in Afghan civilians' deaths". Seattle Times. 24 August 2010. Archived from the original on 29 August 2010. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
- ↑ Hal Bernton (8 September 2010). "Stryker soldiers allegedly took corpses' fingers". Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 12 September 2010. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
- ↑ "US military drops 'kill team' charges against soldier". The Guardian. London. 4 February 2012.
- ↑ "Marine convicted of Afghan murder named". BBC News. 5 December 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ↑ "Marine guilty of Afghanistan murder". BBC News. 8 November 2013. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
- ↑ "Royal Marine Alexander Blackman to be free in weeks after new sentence". BBC. 28 March 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
- ↑ "Army drops one charge against soldier accused in Afghan massacre". Reuters. 1 June 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
- 1 2 "No one asked their names". Al Jazeera. 19 March 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
- ↑ Taimoor Shah; Graham Bowley (12 March 2012). "An Afghan Comes Home to a Massacre". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
- ↑ Jack Healy (23 August 2013). "Soldier Sentenced to Life Without Parole in Deaths of Afghan Civilians". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
- ↑ Cooper, Helene (21 June 2011). "Cost of Wars a Rising Issue as Obama Weighs Troop Levels". The New York Times.
- ↑ "Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan and Anti-Terrorism Operations". Journalist's Resource.org.
- ↑ "Analysis of the FY2011 Defense Budget" (PDF). Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- ↑ Norton-Taylor, Richard (30 May 2013). "Afghanistan war has cost Britain more than £37bn, new book claims". The Guardian. London.
- ↑ Carlotta Gall (1 October 2008). "Insurgents in Afghanistan Are Gaining, Petraeus Says". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 October 2008.
- ↑ "Afghanistan: Changing the Frame, Changing the Game. Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center". Belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ↑ "Research – CPI – Overview". Transparency.org. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ↑ Lupick, Travis (12 November 2009). "Suspended Afghan MP Malalai Joya wants NATO's mission to end". Straight.com. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- 1 2 "Discussion Papers" (PDF). Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- 1 2 "Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Conference 2010, Amrullah Saleh speech". 2010.
- ↑ 2010 Terrorism Conference. Vimeo. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
- ↑ O'Hanlon, Michael E. "A Bright Spot Among Afghan Woes", The Brookings Institution, 19 May 2010.
- ↑ What Mr. Obama changed. The Washington Post. 3 December 2009.
- ↑ Al Pessin (9 December 2009). "Afghan Forces Could Start to Lead Soon, Big Challenges Remain". Voice of America. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Cahn, Dianna (9 December 2009). "Troops fear corruption outweighs progress of Afghan forces". Stripes.com. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ "U.S. trainers bemoan Afghan corruption". UPI.com. 9 December 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ "Illiteracy undermines Afghan army – Air Force News, news from Iraq". Air Force Times. 14 September 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ "U.S. surge is big, Afghan army is crucial". MSNBC. Associated Press. 5 December 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ "Corruption, indiscipline slow Afghan training". Army Times. 11 October 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ "Training Afghanistan troops gets tough for U.S. troops as trust issues worsen". Daily News. New York. 13 December 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ Filkins, Dexter (2 December 2009). "With Troop Pledge, New Demands on Afghans". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
- ↑ http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=4939. Retrieved 28 December 2009. Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ "For U.S., Vast Challenge To Expand Afghan Forces". NPR. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- 1 2 Nordland, Rod (2 February 2010). "With Raw Recruits, Afghan Police Buildup Falters". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ↑ Burns, Robert, (Associated Press), "AP IMPACT: An insider attack: Trust cost 2 lives", Yahoo! News, 5 December 2012
- ↑ "Kabul residents relish new freedoms". CNN. 14 November 2001. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
Barbers too were doing brisk business as young men with trimmed beards and bare faces walked the streets listening to music from roadside stalls, no longer fearing imprisonment. Yet relief at the fall of the Taliban in Kabul does not mean residents are now completely relaxed. Scenes of joy mask concerns that the alliance's capture of the city will again result in the ethnic infighting that ravaged Kabul before the Taliban capture in 1996.
- ↑ Clark, Kate. "BBC News | MIDDLE EAST | Kabul women keep the veil". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-02-26.
- ↑ "WPO Poll: Afghan Public Overwhelmingly Rejects al-Qaeda, Taliban" (PDF). 30 January 2006. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
Equally large percentages endorse the US military presence in Afghanistan. Eighty-three percent said they have a favorable view of "the US military forces in our country" (39% very favorable). Just 17% have an unfavorable view.
- ↑ "WPO Poll: Afghan Public Overwhelmingly Rejects al Qaeda, Taliban" (PDF). 30 January 2006. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
Perhaps most telling, 82% said that overthrowing the Taliban government was a good thing for Afghanistan, with just 11% saying it was a bad thing. In the war zone, 71% endorsed the Taliban's overthrow while 16% saw it as a bad thing; in the north, 18% saw it as a bad thing. These views were held by large majorities of all ethnic groups, including the large Pashtun and Tajik groups and the smaller Uzbek and Hazara groups.
- ↑ "WPO Poll: Afghan Public Overwhelmingly Rejects al-Qaeda, Taliban" (PDF). 30 January 2006. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
This general support for US military presence and for the overthrow of the Taliban government is also reflected in some of the most positive ratings of the United States found in the world. Eighty-one percent said that they have a favorable view of the US (40% very favorable), with just 16% giving an unfavorable rating. In the war zone, one in four (26%) had an unfavorable view of the US, but 73% were favorable.
- ↑ "WPO Poll: Afghan Public Overwhelmingly Rejects al-Qaeda, Taliban" (PDF). 30 January 2006. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
Afghans do not, however, feel positively about Pakistan in general and specifically believe that, contrary to its claims, it is not pursuing the Taliban. Asked, "Do you think the Pakistan government is allowing the Taliban to operate in Pakistan, or is seriously trying to stop the Taliban from operating in Pakistan?" only 21% said they thought that Pakistan is seriously trying to stop the Taliban from operating in Pakistan, while two out of three (66%) said they believe the government is allowing the Taliban to operate in Pakistan...Asked their general opinion of Pakistan, 63% of Afghans said they have an unfavorable view (70% in the war zone). Just 13% said they have a favorable view.
- ↑ "Permanent U.S. bases? Afghans see an election issue". International Herald Tribune. 27 April 2005. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ "Afghan Poll 2009" (PDF). BBC News. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ "Gallup poll". Gallup.com. 30 September 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ Gopal, Anand (1 December 2009). "Karzai Aides, Tribal Leaders Say Surge Is Wrong Strategy". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ Trofimov, Yaroslav (11 September 2010). "Karzai Divides Afghanistan in Reaching Out to Taliban". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ↑ epaper.orlandosentinel.com
- ↑ "Afghan Futures: A National Public Opinion Survey" (PDF). 29 January 2015. p. 4. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
Seventy-seven percent support the presence of U.S. forces; 67 percent say the same of NATO/ISAF forces more generally. Despite the country's travails, eight in 10 say it was a good thing for the United States to oust the Taliban in 2001. And many more blame either the Taliban or al Qaeda for the country's violence, 53 percent, than blame the United States, 12 percent. The latter is about half what it was in 2012, coinciding with a sharp reduction in the U.S. deployment.
- ↑ AEI 2008.
- ↑ "World Opinion Opposes the Attack on Afghanistan". Globalpolicy.org. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ↑ "Strange Victory: A critical appraisal of Operation Enduring Freedom and the Afghanistan war".
- ↑ AEI 2008, p. 157.
- 1 2 "47-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey p.24, p.116" (PDF). Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ Survey Reports (27 June 2007). "Global Unease With Major World Powers". Pewglobal.org. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ Survey Reports (12 June 2008). "June 2008 Pew Global Attitudes Project Survey". Pewglobal.org. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ Survey Reports (12 June 2008). "24-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Project Survey p.8, p.29". Pewglobal.org. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ "Australians lose faith in Afghan war effort". Archived from the original on 3 October 2008.
- ↑ "Government losing support for Afghanistan campaign".
- ↑ Flitton, Daniel (30 September 2008). "Opposition mounts against Afghan war". The Age. Australia.
- ↑ "Britons call for troop withdrawal". BBC News. 13 November 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ "Most Britons wanted troops out of Afghanistan: poll". Google. 12 November 2008. Archived from the original on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ "Britons Would Leave Afghanistan in 2009". Angus-reid.com. 22 November 2008. Archived from the original on 10 January 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ Views on Iraq and Afghanistan Archived 9 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ "Public Divided Over Afghan Troop Requests, But Still Sees Rationale for War". Pew Research Center Publications. 5 November 2009.
- ↑ "In U.S., More Support for Increasing Troops in Afghanistan". Gallup.com. 25 November 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ↑ "U.S. Seen as Less Important, China as More Powerful: Overview – Pew Research Center for the People & the Press". People-press.org. 3 December 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ "Goal of Libyan Operation Less Clear to Public". Pew Research Center. 5 April 2011.
- ↑ Adams, Harold J. Protesters oppose sending more troops to Afghanistan. Archived 14 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Louisville Courier-Journal. 6 December 2009.
- ↑ "Anti-war protesters arrested outside West Point". Wcax.com. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ "Anti-war protesters arrested outside West Point". Poughkeepsie Journal. 2 December 2009. Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ↑ Stelter, Brian (23 March 2009). "Released on Web, a Film Stays Fresh". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
- ↑ "20 March – Anti-War March on Washington:". Pephost.org. Archived from the original on 25 January 2010. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ↑ Janie Lorber (20 March 2010). "Saturday Word: Health Care (and Finance)". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ↑ "Enduring Freedom:Abuses by U.S. Forces in Afghanistan". 2004.
- ↑ "Taliban attack civilians to spread fear: Amnesty". Reuters. 24 April 2007. Archived from the original on 14 May 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
- ↑ Carter, Sara A.; Gertz, Bill (12 May 2009). "Afghan commander's aide blames deaths on Taliban". Washington Times. p. 1. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
- ↑ "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices". 2003.
- ↑ Straziuso, Jason (11 May 2009). "U.S.: Afghan Militants Use White Phosphorus". guardian.co.uk. London. Associated Press. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
- ↑ "EXCLUSIVE – Afghan girl's burns show horror of chemical strike". Reuters India. 8 May 2009. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
- ↑ Chivers, C. J. (19 April 2009). "Pinned Down, a Sprint to Escape Taliban Zone". New York Times. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
- ↑ Jonathan S. Landay. "'We're pinned down:' 4 U.S. Marines die in Afghan ambush". McClatchy.
Sources
- Coll, Steve (2004). Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-59420-007-6.
- Girardet, Edward (2011). Killing the Cranes: A Reporter's Journey Through Three Decades of War in Afghanistan (3 August 2011 ed.). Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 416.
- 911 Commission (20 September 2004). "National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States". Archived from the original on 11 February 2010. Retrieved 17 February 2010.
- Risen, James (4 September 2008). State of War: The Secret History of the CIA and the Bush Administration. Simon & Schuster UK. ISBN 978-1-84737-511-7.
- Auerswald, David P. & Stephen M. Saideman, eds. NATO in Afghanistan: Fighting Together, Fighting Alone (Princeton U.P. 2014) This book breaks down the history of the U.S. effort in Afghanistan down by deployed commander. Also useful in this fashion are Kaplan, "The Insurgents", and "A Different Kind of War."
- Stewart, Richard W. (2004). Operation Enduring Freedom. BG John S. Brown. United States Army. p. 46. Archived from the original on 2007-12-14.
- AEI (24 July 2008). "America and the War on Terror". AEI Public Opinion Study. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015.
- Call, Steve (15 January 2010). Danger Close. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-60344-304-3.
- Woodward, Bob (27 September 2010). Obama's Wars. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-7251-3.
Further reading
- "Duty: Memoirs of a Secretary at War". by Robert Gates. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014.
- "U.S. War in Afghanistan". Council on Foreign Relations. 2014.
External links
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