2 Pallas

2 Pallas

An ultraviolet image of Pallas showing its flattened shape, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2007
Discovery
Discovered by Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers
Discovery date 28 March 1802
Designations
MPC designation (2) Pallas
Pronunciation /ˈpæləs/ PAL-əs
Named after
 Pallas Athena
asteroid belt
(Pallas family)
Adjectives Palladian /pæˈleɪdiən/ [1]
Orbital characteristics[2][3]
Epoch 2014-Dec-09 (JD 2457000.5)
Aphelion 3.412605509 AU (510.4 Gm)
Perihelion 2.13060671 AU (318.9 Gm)
2.77160611 AU (414.7 Gm)
Eccentricity 0.23127363
4.614296176 yr (1685.371678 d)
17.65 km/s
78.228704°
Inclination 34.840998° to ecliptic
34.21° to invariable plane[4]
173.096248°
309.930328°
Satellites none
Proper orbital elements[5]
2.7709176 AU
0.2812580
33.1988686°
78.041654 deg / yr
4.61292 yr
(1684.869 d)
Precession of perihelion
 −1.335344 arcsec / yr
Precession of the ascending node
 −46.393342 arcsec / yr
Physical characteristics
Dimensions 550±8 × 516±6 × 476±6 km[6]
512±6 km (mean)[6]
(8.3±0.2)×105 km2[lower-alpha 1][7]
Volume (7.1±0.3)×107 km3[lower-alpha 1][8]
Mass (2.11±0.26)×1020 kg[lower-alpha 2][9]
Mean density
 3.0±0.5 g/cm3[lower-alpha 3]
≈ 0.21 m/s² (average)[lower-alpha 4]
0.022 g
≈ 0.33 km/s[lower-alpha 4]
7.8132214±0.000002 h
(0.32555089±0.00000008 d)[6]
Equatorial rotation velocity
 65 m/s[lower-alpha 1]
84°±5°[6]
Albedo 0.159 (geometric)[10]
Temperature ≈ 164 K
max: ≈ 265 K (−8 °C)
Spectral type
 B-type asteroid[3][11]
6.49[12] to 10.65
4.13[10]
0.629″ to 0.171″[13]

Pallas, minor-planet designation 2 Pallas, is the second asteroid to have been discovered (after Ceres), and is one of the largest asteroids in the Solar System. With an estimated 7% of the mass of the asteroid belt, it is the third-most-massive asteroid, being 10–30% less massive than Vesta.[14] It is 512 kilometers (318 mi) in diameter, somewhat smaller than Vesta. It is likely a remnant protoplanet.

When Pallas was discovered by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers on 28 March 1802, it was counted as a planet, as were other asteroids in the early 19th century. The discovery of many more asteroids after 1845 eventually led to their reclassification.

Pallas's surface is most likely composed of a silicate material; its spectrum and estimated density resemble carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. With an orbital inclination of 34.8°, Pallas's orbit is unusually highly inclined to the plane of the asteroid belt, and its orbital eccentricity is nearly as large as that of Pluto, making Pallas relatively inaccessible to spacecraft.[lower-alpha 5][16]

It was formerly considered a possible dwarf planet for its size, but it is no longer considered such because its shape departs significantly from an ellipsoid.[6]

History

Discovery

On the night of April 5, 1779, Charles Messier recorded Pallas on a star chart he used to track the path of a comet (now known as C/1779 A1 (Bode)) that he observed in the spring of 1779, but apparently assumed it was nothing more than a star.[17]

In 1801, the astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi discovered an object which he initially believed to be a comet. Shortly thereafter he announced his observations of this object, noting that the slow, uniform motion was uncharacteristic of a comet, suggesting it was a different type of object. This was lost from sight for several months, but was recovered later that year by the Baron von Zach and Heinrich W. M. Olbers after a preliminary orbit was computed by Carl Friedrich Gauss. This object came to be named Ceres, and was the first asteroid to be discovered.[18][19]

A few months later, Olbers was again attempting to locate Ceres when he noticed another moving object in the vicinity. This was the asteroid Pallas, coincidentally passing near Ceres at the time. The discovery of this object created interest in the astronomy community. Before this point it had been speculated by astronomers that there should be a planet in the gap between Mars and Jupiter. Now, unexpectedly, a second such body had been found.[20] When Pallas was discovered, some estimates of its size were as high as 3,380 km in diameter.[21] Even as recently as 1979, Pallas was estimated to be 673 km in diameter, 26% greater than the currently accepted value.[22]

Size comparison of several objects with potential for dwarf planet status under the IAU's 2006 draft proposal on the definition of planet.[23] Pallas is second from the right, bottom row.

The orbit of Pallas was determined by Gauss, who found the period of 4.6 years was similar to the period for Ceres. Pallas has a relatively high orbital inclination to the plane of the ecliptic.[20]

Later observations

In 1917, the Japanese astronomer Kiyotsugu Hirayama began to study asteroid motions. By plotting the mean orbital motion, inclination and eccentricity of a set of asteroids, he discovered several distinct groupings. In a later paper he reported a group of three asteroids associated with Pallas, which became named the Pallas family, after the largest member of the group.[24] Since 1994 more than 10 members of this family have been identified, and these have semi-major axes between 2.50–2.82 AU and inclinations of 33–38°.[25] The validity of this grouping was confirmed in 2002 by a comparison of their spectra.[26]

Pallas has been observed occulting stars several times, including the best observed of all asteroid occultation events on 29 May 1983, when careful occultation timing measurements were taken by 140 observers. These resulted in the first accurate measurements of its diameter.[27][28] During the occultation of 29 May 1979 the discovery of a possible tiny satellite with a diameter of about 1 km was reported, which was never confirmed. In 1980, speckle interferometry was reported as indicating a much larger satellite with a diameter of 175 km, whose existence was later refuted.[29]

Radio signals from spacecraft in orbit around Mars and/or on its surface have been used to estimate the mass of Pallas from the tiny perturbations induced by it onto the motion of Mars.[30]

The Dawn team was granted viewing time on the Hubble Space Telescope in September 2007 for a once-in-twenty-year opportunity to view Pallas at closest approach, to obtain comparative data for Ceres and Vesta.[31][32]

Naming

2 Pallas is named after Pallas Athena (Ancient Greek: Παλλάς Ἀθηνᾶ), an alternate name for the goddess Athena.[33][34] In some mythologies Athena killed Pallas, then adopted her friend's name out of mourning.[35] (There are several male characters of the same name in Greek mythology, but the first asteroids were invariably given female names.)

Pallas is a Greek name and some other languages use variant versions of it for the asteroid: in Italian, Pallade, Russian Pallada, Spanish Palas, and Arabic Bālās, for example. In Chinese, however, the asteroid has a different name, 智神星 zhìshénxīng (which means "the wisdom-god(dess) star"), even though the Chinese call the goddess Pallas herself by the Greek name (帕拉斯 pàlāsī).

The stony-iron Pallasite meteorites are not connected to the Pallas asteroid, being instead named after the German naturalist Peter Simon Pallas. The chemical element palladium, on the other hand, was named after the asteroid, which had been discovered just before the element.[36]

As with other asteroids, the astronomical symbol for Pallas is a disk with its discovery number, ②. It also has an older, more iconic symbol, ⚴ ( or sometimes  ).[lower-alpha 6]

Orbit and rotation

The animation illustrates Pallas's near-18:7 resonance pattern with Jupiter. The motion of Pallas is shown in a reference frame that rotates about the Sun (i.e. the center dot) with a period equal to Jupiter's orbital period. Accordingly, Jupiter's orbit appears almost stationary as the pink ellipse at top left. Mars's motion is orange, and the Earth–Moon system is blue and white. The orbit of Pallas is green when above the ecliptic and red when below. The near-18:7 resonance pattern with Jupiter only marches clockwise: it never halts or reverses course (i.e. no libration).

Pallas has unusual dynamic parameters for such a large body. Its orbit is highly inclined and moderately eccentric, despite being at the same distance from the Sun as the central part of the asteroid belt. Furthermore, Pallas has a very high axial tilt of 84°, with its north pole pointing towards ecliptic coordinates (β, λ) = (30°, −16°) with a 5° uncertainty in the Ecliptic J2000.0 reference frame.[6] This means that every Palladian summer and winter, large parts of the surface are in constant sunlight or constant darkness for a time on the order of an Earth year, with areas near the poles experiencing continuous sunlight for as long as two years.[6]

Near resonances

Pallas is in a, likely coincidental, near-1:1 orbital resonance with Ceres.[37] Pallas also has a near-18:7 resonance (91,000-year period) and an approximate 5:2 resonance (83-year period) with Jupiter.[38]

Transits of planets from Pallas

From Pallas, Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Earth can occasionally appear to transit, or pass in front of, the Sun. Earth last did so in 1968 and 1998, and will next transit in 2224. Mercury did in October 2009. The last and next by Venus are in 1677 and 2123, and for Mars they are in 1597 and 2759.[39]

Physical characteristics

False-color image of Pallas
Size comparison: the first 10 asteroids profiled against the Moon. Pallas is number two.
Lightcurve model of Pallas.

Both Vesta and Pallas have assumed the title of second-largest asteroid from time to time.[40] At 512±3 km in diameter,[6] Pallas is slightly smaller than Vesta (525.4±0.2 km[41]). The mass of Pallas is only 84%+7%
−13% that of Vesta, 22% that of Ceres[14] and about 0.3% that of the Moon.

Pallas is farther from Earth and has a much lower albedo than Vesta, and hence is dimmer as seen from Earth. Indeed, the much smaller 7 Iris marginally exceeds Pallas in mean opposition magnitude.[42] Pallas's mean opposition magnitude is +8.0, which is well within the range of 10×50 binoculars, but, unlike Ceres and Vesta, it will require more-powerful optical aid to view at small elongations, when its magnitude can drop as low as +10.6. During rare perihelic oppositions, Pallas can reach a magnitude of +6.4, right on the edge of naked-eye visibility.[12] During late February 2014 Pallas shone with magnitude 6.96.[43]

Based on spectroscopic observations, the primary component of the material on Pallas's surface is a silicate containing little iron and water. Minerals of this type include olivine and pyroxene, which are found in CM chondrules.[44] The surface composition of Pallas is very similar to the Renazzo carbonaceous chondrite (CR) meteorites, which are even lower in hydrous minerals than the CM type.[45] The Renazzo meteorite was discovered in Italy in 1824 and is one of the most primitive meteorites known.[46] Pallas's visible and near-infrared spectrum is almost flat, being slightly brighter in towards the blue. There is only one clear absorption band in the 3-micron part, which suggests an anhydrous component mixed with hydrated CM-like silicates.[6]

Very little is known of Pallas's surface features. Hubble images from 2007, with a resolution around 70 kilometres (43 mi) per pixel, show pixel-to-pixel variation, but Pallas's albedo of 0.12 placed such features at the lower end of detectability. There is little variability between lightcurves obtained through visible-light and infrared filters, but there are significant deviations in the ultraviolet, suggesting large surface or compositional features near 285° (75° west longitude). Pallas's rotation appears to be prograde.[31]

Pallas is thought to have undergone at least some degree of thermal alteration and partial differentiation,[31] which suggests that it is a remnant protoplanet. During the planetary formation stage of the Solar System, objects grew in size through an accretion process to approximately this size. Many of these objects were incorporated into larger bodies, which became the planets, whereas others were destroyed in collisions with other protoplanets. Pallas and Vesta are likely survivors from this early stage of planetary formation.[47]

Pallas was on a "watchlist" of objects possibly meeting a provisional definition of "planet" in an early draft of the IAU's 2006 definition of planet.[48]

Satellites

It has been suggested that Pallas has a moon. A moon about 1 kilometer in diameter was suggested based on occultation data from an occultation on 29 May 1978, and another one separated from Pallas by 750 kilometers and 175 kilometers in diameter itself was suggested in 1980, but later shown incorrect in 1983 occultation observations.[49] Considering the level at which Pallas has been studied and observed since it was discovered, it is unlikely that there are any large moons orbiting Pallas.

Exploration

Pallas has not been visited by spacecraft and there are no plans for exploration of Pallas by spacecraft. A flyby after the Dawn probe's visits to 4 Vesta and 1 Ceres was discussed but was not possible.[50]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 Calculated using the known dimensions assuming an ellipsoid.
  2. ↑ 1.06 ± 0.13 × 10−10 M☉
  3. ↑ Calculated by dividing the listed mass by the listed volume
  4. 1 2 Calculated using the mean radius
  5. ↑ Pallasite meteorites are not named after the asteroid, but after the scientist who characterized them. They do not necessarily share their origin with Pallas.[15]
  6. ↑ Unicode value U+26B4

References

  1. ↑ "Palladian". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  2. ↑ "Introduction to astorb.dat". Ftp.lowell.edu. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
  3. 1 2 "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 2 Pallas". Retrieved 12 September 2009.
  4. ↑ "The MeanPlane (Invariable plane) of the Solar System passing through the barycenter". 3 April 2009. Archived from the original on 14 May 2009. Retrieved 10 April 2009. (produced with Solex 10 Archived 29 April 2009 at WebCite written by Aldo Vitagliano; see also invariable plane). Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  5. ↑ "AstDyS-2 Pallas Synthetic Proper Orbital Elements". Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Carry, B.; et al. (2009). "Physical properties of (2) Pallas" (PDF). Icarus. 205: 460–472. Bibcode:2010Icar..205..460C. arXiv:0912.3626 Freely accessible. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.08.007. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
  7. ↑ Surface-area calculation using Wolfram Alpha
  8. ↑ Volume calculation using Wolfram Alpha
  9. ↑ Baer, James; Steven R. Chesley (2008). "Astrometric masses of 21 asteroids, and an integrated asteroid ephemeris" (PDF). Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007. 100 (2008): 27–42. Bibcode:2008CeMDA.100...27B. doi:10.1007/s10569-007-9103-8. Retrieved 11 November 2008.
  10. 1 2 Tedesco, E. F.; Noah, P. V.; Noah, M.; Price, S. D. (2004). "IRAS Minor Planet Survey. IRAS-A-FPA-3-RDR-IMPS-V6.0.". NASA Planetary Data System. Archived from the original on 17 January 2010. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
  11. ↑ Neese, C., ed. (2005). "Asteroid Taxonomy. EAR-A-5-DDR-Taxonomy-V5.0.". NASA Planetary Data System. Archived from the original on 17 January 2010. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
  12. 1 2 Menzel, Donald H.; Pasachoff, Jay M. (1983). A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. p. 391. ISBN 0-395-34835-8.
  13. ↑ Calculated with JPL Horizons for 1608-Feb-15
  14. 1 2 Pitjeva, E. V. (2005). "High-Precision Ephemerides of Planets—EPM and Determination of Some Astronomical Constants" (PDF). Solar System Research. 39 (3): 176. Bibcode:2005SoSyR..39..176P. doi:10.1007/s11208-005-0033-2.
  15. ↑ Anonymous (5 November 2007). "Pre-Dawn: The French-Soviet VESTA mission". Space Files. Retrieved 28 June 2008.
  16. ↑ Anonymous. "Space Topics: Asteroids and Comets, Notable Comets". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 28 June 2008.
  17. ↑ René Bourtembourg (2012). "Messier’s Missed Discovery of Pallas in April 1779". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 43 (2): 209–214. doi:10.1177/002182861204300205.
  18. ↑ Hoskin, Michael (26 June 1992). "Bode's Law and the Discovery of Ceres". Observatorio Astronomico di Palermo "Giuseppe S. Vaiana". Retrieved 5 July 2007.
  19. ↑ Forbes, Eric G. (1971). "Gauss and the Discovery of Ceres". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 2: 195–199. Bibcode:1971JHA.....2..195F.
  20. 1 2 "Astronomical Serendipity". NASA JPL. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
  21. ↑ Hilton, James L. (16 November 2007). "When did asteroids become minor planets?". U.S. Naval Observatory. Archived from the original on 21 September 2007. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
  22. ↑ Hilton, James L. "Asteroid Masses and Densities" (PDF). U.S. Naval Observatory. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
  23. ↑ O. Gingerich (2006). "The Path to Defining Planets" (PDF). Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and IAU EC Planet Definition Committee chair. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2007. Retrieved 13 March 2007.
  24. ↑ Kozai, Yoshihide (29 November – 3 December 1993). "Kiyotsugu Hirayama and His Families of Asteroids (invited)". Proceedings of the International Conference. Sagamihara, Japan: Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Bibcode:1994ASPC...63....1K. Retrieved 8 January 2007.
  25. ↑ Faure, Gérard (20 May 2004). "Description of the System of Asteroids". Astrosurf.com. Archived from the original on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
  26. ↑ Foglia, S.; Masi, G. (1999). "New clusters for highly inclined main-belt asteroids". The Minor Planet Bulletin. 31: 100–102. Bibcode:2004MPBu...31..100F. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
  27. ↑ Drummond, J. D.; Cocke, W. J. (1989). "Triaxial ellipsoid dimensions and rotational pole of 2 Pallas from two stellar occultations". Icarus. 78 (2): 323–329. Bibcode:1989Icar...78..323D. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(89)90180-2.
  28. ↑ Dunham, D. W.; et al. (1990). "The size and shape of (2) Pallas from the 1983 occultation of 1 Vulpeculae". Astronomical Journal. 99: 1636–1662. Bibcode:1990AJ.....99.1636D. doi:10.1086/115446.
  29. ↑ Johnston, William Robert (5 March 2007). "Other Reports of Asteroid/TNO Companions". Johnson's Archive. Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 14 March 2007.
  30. ↑ Pitjeva, E. V. (2004). "Estimations of masses of the largest asteroids and the main asteroid belt from ranging to planets, Mars orbiters and landers". 35th COSPAR Scientific Assembly. Held 18–25 July 2004, in Paris, France. p. 2014. Bibcode:2004cosp.meet.2014P.
  31. 1 2 3 Schmidt, B.E.; Thomas, P.C.; Bauer, J.M.; Li, J.-Y.; McFadden, L.A.; Parker, J.M.; Rivkin, A.S.; Russell, C.T.; Stern, S.A. (2008). "Hubble takes a look at Pallas: Shape, size, and surface" (PDF). 39th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (Lunar and Planetary Science XXXIX). Held 10–14 March 2008, in League City, Texas. 1391: 2502. Bibcode:2008LPI....39.2502S. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-24.
  32. ↑ Staff (24 October 2007). "Hubble Images of Asteroids Help Astronomers Prepare for Spacecraft Visit". JPL/NASA. Retrieved 27 October 2007.
  33. ↑ James, Andrew (1 September 2006). "Pallas". Southern Astronomical Delights. Retrieved 29 March 2007.
  34. ↑ "Athena". Encyclopædia Britannica (1911 ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (Tim Starling). Retrieved 16 August 2008.
  35. ↑ Dietrich, Thomas (2005). The Origin of Culture and Civilization: The Cosmological Philosophy of the Ancient Worldview Regarding Myth, Astrology, Science, and Religion. Turnkey Press. p. 178. ISBN 0-9764981-6-2.
  36. ↑ "Palladium". Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
  37. ↑ Goffin, E. (2001). "New determination of the mass of Pallas". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 365 (3): 627–630. Bibcode:2001A&A...365..627G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20000023.
  38. ↑ Taylor, D. B. (1982). "The secular motion of Pallas". Royal Astronomical Society. 199: 255–265. Bibcode:1982MNRAS.199..255T. doi:10.1093/mnras/199.2.255.
  39. ↑ "Solex by Aldo Vitagliano". Archived from the original on 29 April 2009. Retrieved 19 March 2009. (numbers generated by Solex)
  40. ↑ "Notable Asteroids". The Planetary Society. 2007. Archived from the original on 16 April 2007. Retrieved 17 March 2007.
  41. ↑ Russell, C. T.; et al. (2012). "Dawn at Vesta: Testing the Protoplanetary Paradigm". Science. 336 (6082): 684–686. Bibcode:2012Sci...336..684R. PMID 22582253. doi:10.1126/science.1219381.
  42. ↑ Odeh, Moh'd. "The Brightest Asteroids". Jordanian Astronomical Society. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
  43. ↑ Calculated with JPL Horizons for 2014-Feb-24
  44. ↑ Feierberg, M. A.; Larson, H. P.; Lebofsky, L. A. (1982). "The 3 Micron Spectrum of Asteroid 2 Pallas". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 14: 719. Bibcode:1982BAAS...14..719F.
  45. ↑ Sato, Kimiyasu; Miyamoto, Masamichi; Zolensky, Michael E. (1997). "Absorption bands near 3 m in diffuse reflectance spectra of carbonaceous chondrites: Comparison with asteroids". Meteoritics. 32 (4): 503–507. Bibcode:1997M&PS...32..503S. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.1997.tb01295.x.
  46. ↑ "Earliest Meteorites Provide New Piece in Planetary Formation Puzzle.". Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council. 20 September 2005. Archived from the original on 6 May 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2006.
  47. ↑ McCord, T. B.; McFadden, L. A.; Russell, C. T.; Sotin, C.; Thomas, P. C. (2006). "Ceres, Vesta, and Pallas: Protoplanets, Not Asteroids". Transactions of the American Geophysical Union. 87 (10): 105. Bibcode:2006EOSTr..87..105M. doi:10.1029/2006EO100002.
  48. ↑ Rincon, Paul (16 August 2006). "Planets plan boosts tally to 12". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 March 2007. Retrieved 17 March 2007.
  49. ↑ Johnston, Robert. "Other Reports of Asteroid/TNO Companions". www.johnstonsarchive.net. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
  50. ↑ Perozzi, Ettore; Rossi, Alessandro; Valsecchi, Giovanni B. (2001). "Basic targeting strategies for rendezvous and flyby missions to the near-Earth asteroids". Planetary and Space Science. 49 (1): 3–22. Bibcode:2001P&SS...49....3P. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00124-0.
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