List of Ebola outbreaks

Ebola virus

This List of Ebola outbreaks records the known occurrences of Ebola hemorrhagic fever. Pathogens of the disease are the five ebolaviruses recognized by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses: Ebola virus (EBOV), Sudan virus (SUDV), Reston virus (RESTV), Taï Forest virus (TAFV), and Bundibugyo virus (BDBV).[1][2][3][4][5] RESTV has caused the illness only in primates.[6][7]

Transmission between natural reservoirs and humans is rare, and outbreaks of Ebola virus disease are often traceable to a single case where an individual has handled the carcass of a gorilla, chimpanzee, or duiker.[8] The virus then spreads person-to-person, especially within families, hospitals, and during some mortuary rituals where contact among individuals becomes more likely.[9]

Learning from failed responses, such as during the 2000 Uganda outbreak, the World Health Organization (WHO) established its Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network, and other public health measures were instituted in areas at high risk. Field laboratories were established to confirm cases, instead of shipping samples to South Africa.[10] Outbreaks are closely followed by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Special Pathogens Branch) as well.[11]

Nigeria was the first country in western Africa to successfully curtail the virus, and its procedures have served as a model for other countries to follow.[12][13][14]

Events

Major or massive cases

Larger outbreaks[15]
Year Country[note 1] Virus Human cases Human deaths Case fatality rate Description
1976  Sudan SUDV 284 151 53% Occurred in Nzara (the source town), Maridi, Tumbura, and Juba between June and November 1976. The index cases were workers in a cotton factory. The disease was spread mainly by close contact with an acute case, usually associated with nursing a patient. Many medical care personnel were infected.[16]
1976  Zaire EBOV 318 280 88% Occurred in Yambuku and surrounding areas in August. It spread through personal contact and by use of contaminated needles and syringes in hospitals and clinics.[17]
1979  Sudan SUDV 34 22 65% Occurred in Nzara and Maridi. This was a recurrent outbreak at the same site as the 1976 Sudan epidemic.[18]
1994  Gabon EBOV 52 31 60% Occurred in Makokou and gold-mining camps deep in the rain forest. Until 1995, this was incorrectly classified as solely a yellow fever outbreak.[19]
1995  Zaire EBOV 315 254 81% Occurred in Kikwit and surrounding areas. Traced to a patient who worked in a forest adjoining the city. The epidemic spread through families and hospital admissions.[20][21]
1996  Gabon EBOV 37 21 57% Occurred in the Mayibout area between January and April. A chimpanzee found dead in the forest was eaten by people hunting for food. Nineteen people who were involved in the butchery of the animal became ill. Other cases occurred in family members.[19]
1996–1997  Gabon EBOV 60 45 75% Occurred in the Booué area with transport of patients to Libreville between July 1996 and January 1997. The index case-patient was a hunter who lived in a forest camp. The disease was spread by close contact with infected persons. A dead chimpanzee found in the forest at the time was determined to be infected.[19]
2000–2001  Uganda SUDV 425 224 53% Occurred in the Gulu, Masindi, and Mbarara districts of Uganda. The three greatest risks associated with Sudan virus infection were attending funerals of case-patients, having contact with case-patients in one's family, and providing medical care to case-patients without using adequate personal protective measures.[22]
2001–2002  Gabon
 Republic of the Congo		 EBOV 135 107 79% Occurred on both sides of the border between Gabon and the Republic of the Congo (RC) between October 2001 and July 2002. First reported occurrence of Ebola virus disease in the RC.[23]
2002–2003  Republic of the Congo EBOV 143 128 90% Occurred in the districts of Mbomo and Kelle in the Cuvette-Ouest Department between December 2002 and April 2003.[24]
2003  Republic of the Congo EBOV 35 29 83% Occurred in Mbomo and Mbandza villages located in Mbomo district, Cuvette-Ouest Departement, between November and December.[25]
2004  Sudan SUDV 17 7 41% Occurred in Yambio county in Western Equatoria of southern Sudan. This outbreak was concurrent with an outbreak of measles in the same area, and several suspected EVD cases were reclassified later as measles cases.[26]
2007  Democratic Republic of the Congo EBOV 264 187 71% Occurred in Kasai-Occidental province. The outbreak was declared over on 20 November. The last confirmed case was on 4 October, and the last death was on 10 October.[27]
2007–2008  Uganda BDBV 149 37 25% This was the first recognition of BDBV. Occurred in the Bundibugyo District in western Uganda between December 2007 and January 2008.[2][3][4]
2008–2009  Democratic Republic of the Congo EBOV 32 14 45% Occurred in the Mweka and Luebo health zones of the Kasai-Occidental province between December 2008 and February 2009.[28]
2012  Uganda SUDV 24 17 71% Occurred in the Kibaale District between June and August.[29]
2012  Democratic Republic of the Congo BDBV 77 36 47% Occurred in the Orientale Province between June and November.[15][30]
2013–2016 Widespread:
 Liberia
 Sierra Leone
 Guinea
Limited and local:
 Nigeria
 Mali
 United States
 Senegal
 Spain
 United Kingdom
 Italy		 EBOV 28,616[31] 11,310 70-71% (General) [32][33][34][note 2]
57-59% (Among hospitalized patients)[35] 		This was the most severe Ebola outbreak recorded in regards to both the number of human cases and fatalities. It began in Guéckédou, Guinea, in December 2013 and spread abroad.[36][37][32]:pages 1481–95 Although the epidemic is no longer out of control, flare-ups of the disease have continued into 2016, and the WHO has warned that this may continue for some time.[38]
2014  Democratic Republic of the Congo EBOV 66[39] 49[39] 74% Occurred in Équateur province. Outbreak detected 24 August and, as of 28 October 2014, the WHO said that twenty days had passed since the last reported case was discharged and no new contacts were being followed.[39][40] Declared over on 15 November 2014.[41]

Minor or single cases

Year Country[note 1] Virus Human cases Human deaths Description
1976  United Kingdom SUDV or EBOV[note 3] 1 0 Laboratory infection by accidental stick of contaminated needle.[42][43]
1977  Zaire EBOV 1 1 Noted retroactively in the village of Tandala.[43][44][45]
1989–1990  Philippines RESTV 3[note 4] 0 High mortality among crab-eating macaques in a primate facility responsible for exporting animals in the USA.[46] Three workers in the facility developed antibodies but did not get sick.[47]
1989  United States RESTV 0 0 RESTV was introduced into quarantine facilities in Virginia and Pennsylvania by monkeys imported from the Philippines. No human cases.[48]
1990  United States RESTV 4[note 4] 0 Monkeys imported from the Philippines introduced RESTV into quarantine facilities in Virginia and Texas. Four humans developed antibodies but did not get sick.[49]
1992  Italy RESTV 0 0 RESTV was introduced into quarantine facilities in Siena by monkeys imported from the same facility in the Philippines as the 1989 and 1990 US outbreaks. No human cases resulted.[50]
1994  Côte d'Ivoire[note 5] TAFV 1 0 First and thus far only recognition of TAFV. Approximately one week after conducting necropsies on infected western chimpanzees in Taï National Park, a scientist contracted the virus and developed symptoms similar to those of dengue fever. She was discharged from a Swiss hospital two weeks later and fully recovered after six weeks.[51]
1995  Côte d'Ivoire 1 0 One person, who fled the civil war in neighboring Liberia, was identified as an Ebola case in Gozon.[52][53]
1996  South Africa EBOV 2 1 A medical professional traveled from Gabon to Johannesburg, South Africa, in October 1996 after having treated Ebola virus-infected patients. He was hospitalized, and the nurse that took care of him became infected and died.[54]
1996  United States RESTV 0 0 RESTV was introduced into a quarantine facility in Texas by monkeys imported from the same facility in the Philippines as the 1989 and 1990 US outbreaks. No human cases resulted.[55]
1996  Philippines RESTV 0 0 RESTV was identified at a monkey export facility in the Philippines. No human cases resulted.[56]
1996  Russia EBOV 1 1 Laboratory contamination.[57]
2004  Russia EBOV 1 1 Laboratory contamination.[58]
2008  Philippines RESTV 6[note 4] 0 First recognition of RESTV in pigs. Strain closely similar to earlier strains. Occurred in November. Six workers from the pig farm and slaughterhouse developed antibodies but did not become sick.[59][60]
2015  Philippines RESTV 0 0 On 6 September 2015, the Philippines health secretary reported an outbreak of RESTV in a primates research and breeding facility. Twenty-five workers subsequently tested negative for the virus.[61]
2017  Democratic Republic of the Congo 8 [62] 4[62]

On 11 May 2017, the Ministry of Public Health for the Democratic Republic of the Congo notified the WHO of an Ebola outbreak in the Likati health zone (LHZ) in Bas-Uele province, which is in the northern part of the country. The suspected infections have been reported from Nambwa, Mouma, and Ngay. The LHZ borders the Central African Republic, making this outbreak a moderate risk to the region.[63]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 In accordance with the sovereignty at the time.
  2. ↑ The mortality rate (death/case ratio) recorded in Liberia up to 26 August 2014 was 70 percent.[33] However, the general estimated case fatality rate (70.8 percent) for this ongoing epidemic differs from the ratio of the number of deaths divided by that of cases due to the estimation method used. Current infections have not run their course, and the estimate may be poor if reporting is biased towards severe cases.
  3. ↑ The Centers for Disease Control chronology notes this infection as "Sudan virus", whereas the 1977 British Medical Journal (BMJ) article refers to it as "Ebola virus". In 1977, there was No a distinction between different ebolaviruses. The BMJ article notes only that the patient received "convalescent serum from the Sudan" following similar serum from Zaire.
  4. 1 2 3 All cases were asymptomatic.
  5. ↑ The case was repatriated to Switzerland for medical treatment.[51]

References

  1. ↑ "Filoviridae: Current Taxonomy (2015)". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
  2. 1 2 Towner, J. S.; Sealy, T. K.; Khristova, M. L.; Albariño, C. S. G.; Conlan, S.; Reeder, S. A.; Quan, P. L.; Lipkin, W. I.; Downing, R.; Tappero, J. W.; Okware, S.; Lutwama, J.; Bakamutumaho, B.; Kayiwa, J.; Comer, J. A.; Rollin, P. E.; Ksiazek, T. G.; Nichol, S. T. (2008). Basler, Christopher F., ed. "Newly Discovered Ebola Virus Associated with Hemorrhagic Fever Outbreak in Uganda" (Full free text). PLOS Pathogens. 4 (11): e1000212. PMC 2581435 Freely accessible. PMID 19023410. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000212.
  3. 1 2 "Uganda: Deadly Ebola Outbreak Confirmed - UN". UN News Service. 30 November 2007. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  4. 1 2 "End of Ebola outbreak in Uganda" (Press release). World Health Organization. 20 February 2008. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  5. ↑ Schoepp, Randal J.; Olinger, Gene G. (2014). "Chapter 7: Filoviruses". In Liu, Dongyou. Manual of Security Sensitive Microbes and Toxins. CRC Press. p. 66. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
  6. ↑ Spickler, Anna (August 2016) [First published December 2014]. "Ebolavirus and Marburgvirus Infections" (PDF). Center for Food Security & Public Health. www.cfsph.iastate.edu. Ames, Iowa, U.S.: Iowa State University. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
  7. ↑ "About Ebola Virus Disease". CDC. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  8. ↑ Peterson, A. T.; Bauer, J. T.; Mills, J. N. (January 2004). "Ecologic and geographic distribution of filovirus disease.". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 10 (1): 40–7. PMC 3322747 Freely accessible. PMID 15078595. doi:10.3201/eid1001.030125.
  9. ↑ "Questions and Answers about Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 25 March 2009. Archived from the original on 6 May 2009. Retrieved 31 May 2009.
  10. ↑ Cohen, J. (2004). "Containing the Threat—Don't Forget Ebola" (Free full text). PLOS Medicine. 1 (3): e59. PMC 539049 Freely accessible. PMID 15630468. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0010059.
  11. ↑ "Mission Statement". National Center for Infectious Diseases & Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 31 October 2007.
  12. ↑ Matt Schiavenza (14 October 2014). "Why Nigeria Was Able to Beat Ebola, but Not Boko Haram". The Atlantic. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
  13. ↑ "US sends experts to study Nigeria's anti-Ebola strategies". The Punch. 3 October 2014. Archived from the original on 3 October 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
  14. ↑ "US sends medical experts to study how Nigeria tamed Ebola". Vanguard. 2 October 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
  15. 1 2 "Outbreaks Chronology: Ebola Virus Disease". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology; Viral Special Pathogens Branch), National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases. 20 October 2016 [Last updated 14 April 2016]. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
  16. ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2395561/
  17. ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2395567/
  18. ↑ Baron, Roy C.; McCormick, Joseph B.; Zubeir, Osman A. (1983). "Ebola virus disease in southern Sudan: hospital dissemination and intrafamilial spread" (PDF). Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 61 (6): 997–1003. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
  19. 1 2 3 Georges, Alain-Jean; Leroy, Eric M.; Renaut, André A.; Benissan, Carol Tevi; Nabias, René J.; Ngoc, Minh Trinh; Obiang, Paul I.; Lepage, J. P. M.; Bertherat, Eric J.; Bénoni, David D.; Wickings, E. Jean; Amblard, Jacques P.; Lansoud-Soukate, Joseph M.; Milleliri, J. M.; Baize, Sylvain; Georges-Courbot, Marie-Claude (1999). "Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever Outbreaks in Gabon, 1994–1997: Epidemiologic and Health Control Issues". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 179: S65–S75. PMID 9988167. doi:10.1086/514290. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
  20. ↑ Khan, Ali S.; Tshioko, F. Kweteminga; Heymann, David L.; Le Guenno, Bernard; Nabeth, Pierre; Kerstiëns, Barbara; Fleerackers, Yon; Kilmarx, Peter H.; Rodier, Guenael R.; Nkuku, Okumi; Rollin, Pierre E.; Sanchez, Anthony; Zaki, Sherif R.; Swanepoel, Robert; Tomori, Oyetowl; Nichol, Stuart T.; Peters, C. J.; Muyembe-Tamfum, J. J.; Ksiazek, Thomas G. (1999). "The Reemergence of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 179: S76–S86. PMID 9988168. doi:10.1086/514306. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
  21. ↑ Roels, T. H.; Bloom, A. S.; Buffington, J.; Muhungu, G. L.; MacKenzie, W. R.; Khan, A. S.; Ndambi, R.; Noah, D. L.; Rolka, H. R.; Peters, C. J.; Ksiazek, T. G. (1999). "Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995: Risk Factors for Patients without a Reported Exposure". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 179: S92. PMID 9988170. doi:10.1086/514286. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
  22. ↑ Okware, S. I.; Omaswa, F. G.; Zaramba, S.; Opio, A.; Lutwama, J. J.; Kamugisha, J.; Rwaguma, E. B.; Kagwa, P.; Lamunu, M. (2002). "An outbreak of Ebola in Uganda". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 7 (12): 1068–1075. PMID 12460399. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00944.x.
  23. ↑ "Outbreak(s) of Ebola haemorrhagic fever, Congo and Gabon, October 2001-July 2002". Canada Communicable Disease Report. 29 (15). Public Health Agency of Canada. 1 August 2003: 223–228. PMID 15571171. Archived from the original on 25 November 2007. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  24. ↑ Formenty, P.; Libama, F.; Epelboin, A.; Allarangar, Y.; Leroy, E.; Moudzeo, H.; Tarangonia, P.; Molamou, A.; Lenzi, M.; Ait-Ikhlef, K.; Hewlett, B.; Roth, C.; Grein, T. (2003). "Outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in the Republic of the Congo, 2003: a new strategy?" (PDF). Médecine Tropicale: Revue du Corps de Santé Colonial (in French). 63 (3): 291–295. PMID 14579469.
  25. ↑ "Ebola haemorrhagic fever in the Republic of the Congo - Update 6". World Health Organization. 6 January 2004.
  26. ↑ "Outbreak of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Yambio, south Sudan, April - June 2004". Weekly Epidemiological Record. 80 (43): 370–375. 2005. PMID 16285261.
  27. ↑ "Outbreak news. Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever, Democratic Republic of the Congo--update". Weekly Epidemiological Record. 82 (40): 345–346. 2007. PMID 17918654.
  28. ↑ Global Alert and Response (17 February 2009). "End of Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo". Disease Outbreak News. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
  29. ↑ World Health Organization (4 October 2012). "End of Ebola outbreak in Uganda". Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
  30. ↑ Centers For Disease Control. "Outbreak Postings". Centers for Disease Control. Retrieved 2014-07-11.
  31. ↑ "Ebola data and statistics". World Health Organisation. Retrieved 9 June 2016.
  32. 1 2 WHO Ebola Response Team (23 September 2014). "Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa — The First 9 Months of the Epidemic and Forward Projections". New England Journal of Medicine. Retrieved 23 September 2014.
  33. 1 2 "Case Fatality Rate for ebolavirus". Ebola data and statistics. 2015. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
  34. ↑ "Ebola response roadmap - Situation report - 31 December 2014" (PDF). World Health organization. 31 December 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2015. The reported case fatality rate in the three intensetransmission countries among all cases for whom a definitive outcome is known is 71 percent.
  35. ↑ "Ebola Situation report". Ebola data and statistics. World Health Organization. 12 January 2015. Retrieved 28 January 2015. ... [I]s between 57% and 59% in the 3 intense-transmission countries, with no detectable improvement since the onset of the epidemic.
  36. ↑ "Tracing Ebola's Breakout to an African 2-Year-Old". New York Times. 9 August 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
  37. ↑ Toll in West Africa Ebola Epidemic Reaches 2,630, Says WHO." Fox News. FOX News Network, 18 September 2014. Web. 19 September 2014.
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  39. 1 2 3 "EBOLA RESPONSE ROADMAP SITUATION REPORT UPDATE" (PDF). World Health organization. 29 October 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  40. ↑ "Update on the Ebola virus disease in DRC, No. 5, 30 August 2014". UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. 30 August 2014. Retrieved 2014-09-02.
  41. ↑ "Congo declares its Ebola outbreak over". reuters. 15 November 2014. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
  42. ↑ Emond, R. T. D.; Evans, Brandon; Bowen, E. T. W.; Lloyd, G. (1977). "A case of Ebola virus infection" (PDF). British Medical Journal. 2 (6081): 541–544. PMC 1631428 Freely accessible. PMID 890413. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.6086.541.
  43. 1 2 "Outbreaks Chronology: Ebola Virus Disease". United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 14 April 2016. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
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  46. ↑ Hayes, C. G.; Burans, J. P.; Ksiazek, T. G.; Del Rosario, R. A.; Miranda, M. E.; Manaloto, C. R.; Barrientos, A. B.; Robles, C. G.; Dayrit, M. M.; Peters, C. J. (1992). "Outbreak of fatal illness among captive macaques in the Philippines caused by an Ebola-related filovirus". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 46 (6): 664–671. PMID 1621890.
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  48. ↑ Jahrling, P. B.; Geisbert, T. W.; Dalgard, D. W.; Johnson, E. D.; Ksiazek, T. G.; Hall, W. C.; Peters, C. J. (1990). "Preliminary report: isolation of Ebola virus from monkeys imported to USA". Lancet. 335 (8688): 502–505. PMID 1968529. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(90)90737-P.
  49. ↑ Centers for Disease Control (1990). "Update: filovirus infection in animal handlers". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 39 (13): 221. PMID 2107388.
  50. ↑
  51. 1 2 Le Guenno, B.; Formenty, P.; Wyers, M.; Gounon, P.; Walker, F.; Boesch, C. (1995). "Isolation and partial characterisation of a new strain of Ebola virus". Lancet. 345 (8960): 1271–1274. PMID 7746057. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(95)90925-7.
  52. ↑
  53. ↑ Ch ippaux J. P. (2014). "Outbreaks of Ebola virus disease in Africa: the beginnings of a tragic saga". Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases. 20: 44. PMC 4197285 Freely accessible. PMID 25320574. doi:10.1186/1678-9199-20-44.
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  55. ↑ Rollin, P. E.; Williams, R. J.; Bressler, D. S.; Pearson, S.; Cottingham, M.; Pucak, G.; Sanchez, A.; Trappier, S. G.; Peters, R. L.; Greer, P. W.; Zaki, S.; Demarcus, T.; Hendricks, K.; Kelley, M.; Simpson, D.; Geisbert, T. W.; Jahrling, P. B.; Peters, C. J.; Ksiazek, T. G. (1999). "Ebola (Subtype Reston) Virus among Quarantined Nonhuman Primates Recently Imported from the Philippines to the United States". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 179: S108–S114. PMID 9988173. doi:10.1086/514303.
  56. ↑ Miranda, M. E.; Ksiazek, T. G.; Retuya, T. J.; Khan, A. S.; Sanchez, A.; Fulhorst, C. F.; Rollin, P. E.; Calaor, A. B.; Manalo, D. L.; Roces, M. C.; Dayrit, M. M.; Peters, C. J. (1999). "Epidemiology of Ebola (Subtype Reston) Virus in the Philippines, 1996". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 179: S115–S119. PMID 9988174. doi:10.1086/514314.
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  62. 1 2 "External Situation Report 25" (PDF). Regional Office for Africa. Ebola Virus Disease − Democratic Republic of the Congo. World Health Organization. 22 June 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
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