Voiced alveolar fricative
The voiced alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents these sounds depends on whether a sibilant or non-sibilant fricative is being described.
- The symbol for the alveolar sibilant is ⟨z⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is z. The IPA letter ⟨z⟩ is not normally used for dental or postalveolar sibilants unless modified by a diacritic (⟨z̪⟩ and ⟨z̠⟩ respectively).
- The IPA symbol for the alveolar non-sibilant fricative is derived by means of diacritics; it can be ⟨ð̠⟩ or ⟨ɹ̝⟩.
| Dental | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| retracted | retroflex | palato- alveolar |
alveolo -palatal | |||
| sibilant | z̪ | z͇ | z̠ | ʐ | ʒ | ʑ |
| non-sibilant | ð | ð̠/ð͇/ɹ̝ | ɻ̝ | |||
Voiced alveolar sibilant
| Voiced alveolar fricative#Voiced alveolar sibilant | |
|---|---|
| z | |
| IPA number | 133 |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) |
z |
| Unicode (hex) | U+007A |
| X-SAMPA |
z |
| Kirshenbaum |
z |
| Braille |
 |
| Sound | |
 source · help | |
| Voiced laminal dentalized alveolar sibilant | |
|---|---|
| z̪ | |
| z̟ |
| Voiced alveolar retracted sibilant | |
|---|---|
| z̠ | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) |
z̺ |
| Unicode (hex) | U+007A U+033A |
The voiced alveolar sibilant is common across European languages but is relatively uncommon cross-linguistically compared to the voiceless variant. Only about 28% of the world's languages contain a voiced dental or alveolar sibilant. Moreover, 85% of the languages with some form of [z] are languages of Europe, Africa or Western Asia.
In the eastern half of Asia, the Pacific and the Americas, [z] is very rare as a phoneme. The presence of [z] in a given language always implies the presence of a voiceless [s].
Features
Features of the voiced alveolar fricative:
- Its manner of articulation is sibilant fricative, which means it is generally produced by channeling air flow along a groove in the back of the tongue up to the place of articulation, at which point it is focused against the sharp edge of the nearly clenched teeth, causing high-frequency turbulence.
- There are at least three specific variants of [z]:
- Dentalized laminal alveolar (commonly called "dental"), which means it is articulated with the tongue blade very close to the upper front teeth, with the tongue tip resting behind lower front teeth. The hissing effect in this variety of [z] is very strong.[1]
- Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. According to Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) about half of English speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation.
- Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. Acoustically, it is close to [ʒ] or laminal [ʐ].
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
Dentalized laminal alveolar
Non-retracted alveolar
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | зы |  [ˈzə] | 'one' | ||
| Albanian | zjarr | [zjar] | 'fire' | ||
| Arabic | Standard[29] | زائِر | [ˈzaːʔir] | 'visitor' | See Arabic phonology |
| Assyrian Neo-Aramaic | [ziɡa] | 'bell' | |||
| Breton | iliz | [iliz] | 'church' | ||
| Chechen | зурма / zurma | [zuɾma] | 'music' | ||
| Dutch | Standard[30] | zee | [zeː] | 'sea' | See Dutch phonology |
| Friesland | ezel | [ˈeɪ̯zəɫ] | 'donkey' | It is always devoiced if word initially. See Dutch phonology | |
| English | zoo | [zuː] | 'zoo' | Absent from some Scottish and Asian dialects. See English phonology | |
| Georgian[31] | ზარი | [ˈzɑɾi] | 'bell' | ||
| Greek | Athens dialect[32] | ζάλη/záli | [ˈz̻ali] | 'dizziness' | See Modern Greek phonology |
| Hebrew | זאב | [zeˈʔev] | 'wolf' | See Modern Hebrew phonology | |
| Hindi | ज़मीन | [zəmiːn] | 'land' | See Hindustani phonology | |
| Italian | Marked accents of Emilia-Romagna[33] | caso | [ˈkäːz̺ʲo] | 'case' | Palatalized apical;[33] may be [ʐ] or [ʒ] instead.[33] See Italian phonology |
| Japanese[34] | 全部/zenbu | [zembɯ] | 'everything' | See Japanese phonology | |
| Kabardian | зы | [ˈzə] | 'one' | ||
| Kalaw Lagaw Ya | zilamiz | [zilʌmiz] | 'go' | ||
| Kashmiri | ज़ानुन/زانُن | [zaːnun] | 'to know' | ||
| Malay | zaman | [zaman] | 'period' | ||
| Maltese | żelu | [zelu] | 'zeal' | ||
| Marathi | जर | [zər] | 'if' | See Marathi phonology. | |
| Occitan | Limousin | jòune | [ˈzɒwne] | 'young' | See Occitan phonology |
| Portuguese[35] | casa | [ˈkazɐ] | 'house' | See Portuguese phonology | |
| Punjabi | ਜ਼ਿੰਦਗੀ | [zɪnˈd̪əgi] | 'life' | ||
| Spanish | Andalusian | comunismo | [ko̞muˈnizmo̞] | 'Communism' | Allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants, when it is not debuccalized to [h ~ ɦ]. Present in dialects which realize /s/ as a non-retracted alveolar fricative. Before /d/ it is dental [z̪]. |
| Latin American | |||||
| Mexican | zapato | [zäˈpät̪o̞] | 'shoe' | Some northern dialects. Corresponds to /s/ in other Mexican dialects, and to /θ/ in Peninsular Spanish. See Spanish phonology | |
| Swahili | lazima | [lɑzimɑ] | 'must' | ||
| Urdu | زمین | [zəmiːn] | 'land' | See Hindustani phonology | |
| West Frisian[36] | sizze | [ˈs̺ɪz̺ə] | 'to say' | Apical.[36] It never occurs in word-initial positions. See West Frisian phonology | |
| Yi | ꍂ/ssy | [zɿ˧] | 'generation' | ||
| Yiddish | zien | [zin] | 'son' | ||
| Zapotec | Tilquiapan[37] | guanaz | [ɡʷanaz] | '?' | |
Retracted alveolar
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Catalan[38][39] | zel | [ˈz̺ɛɫ] | 'zeal' | Apical. See Catalan phonology | |
| Galician | mesmo | [ˈme̞z̺mo̞] | 'same' | Apical. Allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants. Before /d/ it is pronounced dentally [z̺]. | |
| Greek[40] | μάζα/máza | [ˈmɐz̠ɐ] | 'mass' | See Modern Greek phonology | |
| Italian | Central Italy[41] | caso | [ˈkäːz̠o] | 'case' | Present in Lazio north of Cape Linaro,[41] most of Umbria[41] (save Perugia and the extreme south)[41] and Le Marche south of the Potenza.[41] |
| Northern Italy[42][43] | Apical.[44] Present in many areas north of the La Spezia–Rimini Line.[45][46] See Italian phonology | ||||
| Sicily[41] | Present south and west of a line drawn from Syracuse to Cefalù.[41] | ||||
| Low German[47] | |||||
| Maldivian | zaraafaa | [z̺aˈraːfaː] | 'giraffe' | ||
| Mirandese | eisistir | [e̞jz̺is̺ˈtiɾ] | 'to exist' | Apical. Mirandese and neighboring Portuguese dialects were the only surviving oral tradition to preserve all seven mediaeval Ibero-Romance sibilants: ⟨ch⟩ /tʃ/, ⟨x⟩ /ʃ/, ⟨g⟩/⟨j⟩ /ʒ/, ⟨c⟩/⟨ç⟩ /s̪/, ⟨z⟩ /z̪/, ⟨s⟩/-⟨ss⟩- /s̺/, -⟨s⟩- /z̺/ | |
| Occitan | Gascon | casèrna | [kaz̺ɛrno] | 'barracks' | See Occitan phonology |
| Languedocien | véser | [bez̺e] | 'to see' | ||
| Portuguese | European, inland northern | Apical. Contrasts with non-retracted /z/. See Portuguese phonology | |||
| European, coastal northern | Merges with non-retracted /z/. See Portuguese phonology | ||||
| Spanish | Andean | mismo | [ˈmiz̺mo̞] | 'same' | Apical. Allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants. Before /d/ it is pronounced dentally [z̺]. See Spanish phonology |
| Castilian | |||||
| Paisa Region | |||||
Variable
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dutch | Netherlandic | zee | [zeɪ̯] | 'sea' | Laminal alveolar, varies between non-retracted and retracted. See Dutch phonology |
| German | Standard[48] | sauber | [ˈzäʊ̯bɐ] | 'clean' | Varies between dentalized laminal, non-retracted laminal and non-retracted apical.[48] See Standard German phonology |
| Italian | Standard[49] | caso | [ˈkäːzo] | 'case' | Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[49] See Italian phonology |
| Ticino[44] | Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[50] Both variants may be labiodentalized.[44] See Italian phonology | ||||
Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative
| Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative | |
|---|---|
| ð̠ | |
| ð͇ | |
| ɹ̝ | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) |
ð̠ |
| Unicode (hex) | U+00F0 U+0320 |
The voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that aren't palatalized), it can represent this sound as in a number of ways including ⟨ð̠⟩ or ⟨ð͇⟩ (retracted or alveolarized ⟨ð⟩, respectively), or ⟨ɹ̝⟩ (constricted ⟨ɹ⟩).
Features
- Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
- Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Czech[51] | čtyři | [ˈt͡ʃtɪɹ̝ɪ] | 'four' | May be a trill fricative[51] or a tap fricative instead.[52] It contrasts with /r/ and /ʒ/. See Czech phonology | |
| Danish[53] | Few speakers[54] | ved | [ʋɪð̠] | 'at' | Laminal.[53] Allophone of /d/ in the syllable coda; a lot more often realized as an approximant.[54] See Danish phonology |
| Dutch[55] | kaart | [kaːð̠t] | 'card' | One of many possible realizations of /r/; distribution unclear. See Dutch phonology | |
| English | Scouse[56] | maid | [meɪð̠] | 'maid' | Allophone of /d/. See English phonology |
| South African[57][58] | round | [ɹ̝æʊ̯nd] | 'round' | Apical,[58] present in some urban dialects.[57] See English phonology | |
| Icelandic[59][60] | bróðir | [ˈproːð̠ir] | 'brother' | Usually apical,[59][60] may be closer to an approximant. See Icelandic phonology | |
| Italian | Bologna[44] | caso | [ˈkäːð̠o] | 'case' | Laminal; a hypercorrective variant of /z/ for some young speakers. Either non-sibilant, or "not sibilant enough".[44] See Italian phonology |
| Sicily[61] | terra | [ˈt̪ɛɹ̝ä] | 'earth' | Apical; corresponds to /rr/ in standard Italian.[61] See Italian phonology | |
| Swedish | Central Standard[62][63] | vandrare | [ˈvän̪ːˈd̪ɹ̝äɹə] | 'wanderer' | Allophone of /r/ around the Stockholm area. See Swedish phonology |
See also
References
- 1 2 Puppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977:149), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:154)
- ↑ Qafisheh (1977), pp. 2, 9-10.
- ↑ Kozintseva (1995), p. 7.
- ↑ Axundov (1983), pp. 115, 136, 139-142.
- ↑ Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.
- ↑ Klagstad Jr. (1958), p. 46.
- ↑ Lin (2001), p. 22.
- ↑ Palková (1994), p. 228.
- ↑ "english speech services | Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE". Retrieved 2 December 2015.
- 1 2 Adams (1975), p. 288.
- ↑ Fougeron & Smith (1999), p. 79.
- ↑ Szende (1999), p. 104.
- ↑ Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia".
- ↑ Kara (2002), p. 10.
- ↑ Kara (2003), p. 11.
- ↑ Nau (1998), p. 6.
- ↑ Lunt (1952), p. 1.
- ↑ Rocławski (1976), pp. 149.
- ↑ Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.
- ↑ Chew (2003), p. 67.
- ↑ Kordić (2006), p. 5.
- ↑ Landau et al. (1999), p. 66.
- ↑ Pretnar & Tokarz (1980:21)
- ↑ Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154.
- ↑ S. Buk, J. Mačutek, A. Rovenchak (2008). "Some properties of the Ukrainian writing system" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.
- ↑ Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38 and 39.
- ↑ Sjoberg (1963), p. 11.
- ↑ Thompson (1987), pp. 5 and 7.
- ↑ Thelwall (1990), p. 37.
- ↑ Gussenhoven (1992), p. 45.
- ↑ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
- ↑ Adams (1975), p. 283.
- 1 2 3 Canepari (1992), p. 73.
- ↑ Okada (1991), p. 94.
- ↑ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
- 1 2 Sipma (1913), p. 16.
- ↑ Merrill (2008), p. 108.
- ↑ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
- ↑ Torreblanca (1988), p. 347.
- ↑ Arvaniti (2007), p. 12.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Adams (1975), p. 286.
- ↑ Adams (1975), pp. 285-286.
- ↑ Canepari (1992), p. 71-72.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Canepari (1992), p. 72.
- ↑ Canepari (1992), p. 71.
- ↑ Adams (1975), p. 285.
- ↑ Adams (1975), p. 289.
- 1 2 Mangold (2005), p. 50.
- 1 2 Canepari (1992), p. 68.
- ↑ Canepari (1992), pp. 68 and 72.
- 1 2 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 228-230 and 233.
- ↑ Šimáčková, Podlipský & Chládková (2012), p. 226.
- 1 2 Jespersen (1897-1899:?), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:144)
- 1 2 Bauer et al. (1980:?), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:144): "Only in a very distinct Danish - as from the stage of the Royal Theater - do we get a fricative."
- ↑ Collins & Mees (2003:199). Authors don't say where exactly it is used.
- ↑ Watson (2007), pp. 352-353.
- 1 2 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 236.
- 1 2 Ogden (2009), p. 92.
- 1 2 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 144-145.
- 1 2 Pétursson (1971:?), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:145)
- 1 2 Canepari (1992), pp. 64-65.
- ↑ Engstrand (1999), pp. 141.
- ↑ Engstrand (2004), p. 167.
Bibliography
- Adams, Douglas Q. (1975), "The Distribution of Retracted Sibilants in Medieval Europe", Language (Linguistic Society of America) 51 (2): 282–292, doi:10.2307/412855, JSTOR 412855
- Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics 8: 97–208, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv
- Axundov, Ağamusa (1983), Azərbaycan dilinin fonetikasi, Baku
- Bauer, Laurie; Dienhart, John M.; Hartvigson, Hans H.; Jakobsen, Leif Kvistgaard (1980), American English Pronunciation: Supplement, Comparison with Danish., Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel, OCLC 54869978
- Bertinetto, Marco; Loporcaro, Michele (2005), "The sound pattern of Standard Italian, as compared with the varieties spoken in Florence, Milan and Rome", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 35 (2): 131–151, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002148
- Canepari, Luciano (1992), Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana [Handbook of Italian Pronunciation] (in Italian), Bologna: Zanichelli, ISBN 88-08-24624-8
- Carbonell, Joan F.; Llisterri, Joaquim (1992), "Catalan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 22 (1–2): 53–56, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004618
- Chew, Peter A. (2003), A computational phonology of Russian, Universal Publishers
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003), The Phonetics of English and Dutch, Fifth Revised Edition (PDF), ISBN 9004103406
- Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223
- Engstrand, Olle (2004), Fonetikens grunder (in Swedish), Lund: Studenlitteratur, ISBN 91-44-04238-8
- Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
- Fougeron, Cecile; Smith, Caroline L (1999), "French", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–76, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
- Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), "Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 22 (2): 45–47, doi:10.1017/S002510030000459X
- Honeybone, P (2001), "Lenition inhibition in Liverpool English", English Language and Linguistics 5 (2): 213–249, doi:10.1017/S1360674301000223
- Jespersen, Otto (1897–1899), Fonetik, Copenhagen: Det Schubotheske Forlag
- Kara, Dávid Somfai (2002), Kazak, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783895864704
- Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003), Kyrgyz, Lincom Europa, ISBN 3895868434
- Klagstad Jr., Harold L. (1958), The Phonemic System of Colloquial Standard Bulgarian, American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages, pp. 42–54
- Kordić, Snježana (2006), Serbo-Croatian, Languages of the World/Materials; 148, Munich & Newcastle: Lincom Europa, ISBN 3-89586-161-8
- Kozintseva, Natalia (1995), Modern Eastern Armenian, Lincom Europa, p. 52, ISBN 3895860352
- Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19814-8.
- Landau, Ernestina; Lončarić, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999), "Croatian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–69, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
- Lin, Hua (2001), A Grammar of Mandarin Chinese, Lincom Europa, ISBN 3-89586-642-3
- Lunt, Horace G. (1952), Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language, Skopje
- Maddieson, Ian (1984), Patterns of Sound, Camebridge University Press
- Mangold, Max (2005), Das Aussprachewörterbuch, Duden, ISBN 9783411040667
- Marotta, Giovanna; Barth, Marlen (2005), "Acoustic and sociolingustic aspects of lenition in Liverpool English" (PDF), Studi Linguistici e Filologici Online 3 (2): 377–413
- Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
- Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344
- Nau, Nicole (1998), Latvian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 3-89586-228-2
- Ogden, Richard (2009), An Introduction to English Phonetics, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd., ISBN 978-0-7486-2540-6
- Okada, Hideo (1991), "Phonetic Representation:Japanese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 21 (2): 94–97, doi:10.1017/S002510030000445X
- Padluzhny, Ped (1989), Fanetyka belaruskai litaraturnai movy, ISBN 5-343-00292-7
- Palková, Zdena (1994), Fonetika a fonologie češtiny, ISBN 978-8070668436
- Pandeli, H; Eska, J; Ball, Martin; Rahilly, J (1997), "Problems of phonetic transcription: the case of the Hiberno-English slit-t", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 27: 65–75, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005430
- Pétursson, Magnus (1971), "Étude de la réalisation des consonnes islandaises þ, ð, s, dans la prononciation d'un sujet islandais à partir de la radiocinématographie", Phonetica 33: 203–216, doi:10.1159/000259344
- Pretnar, Tone; Tokarz, Emil (1980), Slovenščina za Poljake: Kurs podstawowy języka słoweńskiego, Katowice: Uniwersytet Śląski
- Puppel, Stanisław; Nawrocka-Fisiak, Jadwiga; Krassowska, Halina (1977), A handbook of Polish pronunciation for English learners, Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe
- Qafisheh, Hamdi A. (1977), A short reference grammar of Gulf Arabic, Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, ISBN 0-8165-0570-5
- Rocławski, Bronisław (1976), Zarys fonologii, fonetyki, fonotaktyki i fonostatystyki współczesnego języka polskiego, Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego
- Šewc-Schuster, Hinc (1984), Gramatika hornjo-serbskeje rěče, Budyšin: Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina
- Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659
- Šimáčková, Šárka; Podlipský, Václav Jonáš; Chládková, Kateřina (2012), "Czech spoken in Bohemia and Moravia" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association 42 (2): 225–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000102
- Sipma, Pieter (1913), Phonology & grammar of modern West Frisian, London: Oxford University Press
- Sjoberg, Andrée F. (1963), Uzbek Structural Grammar
- Szende, Tamás (1999), "Hungarian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 104–107, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
- Thelwall, Robin (1990), "Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 20 (2): 37–41, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266
- Thompson, Laurence C. (1987), A Vietnamese Reference Grammar, ISBN 0-8248-1117-8
- Torreblanca, Máximo (1988), "Latín Basium, Castellano Beso, Catalán Bes, Portugués Beijo", Hispanic Review (University of Pennsylvania Press) 56 (3): 343–348, doi:10.2307/474023, JSTOR 474023
- Watson, Kevin (2007), "Liverpool English" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association 37 (3): 351–360, doi:10.1017/s0025100307003180
- Wheeler, Max W. (2005), The Phonology Of Catalan, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-925814-7
- Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet (PDF), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Friday, February 12, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.