Hinduism

Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life,[note 1] found most notably in India and Nepal. Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is a family of linked religious cultures bound by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, pilgrimage to sacred sites and the questioning of authority.[1] It includes various denominations each with an interwoven diversity of beliefs and practices.[1][2][note 2]

Hinduism has been called the "oldest religion" in the world,[note 3] and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law" or the "eternal way"[5] beyond human origins.[6] Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[note 4] or synthesis[7][note 5] of various Indian cultures and traditions,[8][note 6] with diverse roots[9][note 7] and no founder.[10] This "Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE,[11] after the Vedic times.[11][12] Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahimsa), patience, forbearance, self-restraint, compassion, among others.[web 1][13]

Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to), the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma (ethics/duties), Artha (prosperity/work), Kama (emotions/sexuality) and Moksha (liberation/freedom);[14][15] karma (action, intent and consequences), samsara (cycle of rebirth), and the various Yogas (paths or practices to attain moksha).[16][17] Hindu practices include rituals such as puja (worship) and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages. Some Hindus leave their social world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa (ascetic practices) to achieve moksha.[18][19]

Hindu texts are classified into Shruti ("heard") and Smriti ("remembered"). These texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga and agamic rituals and temple building, among other topics.[20] Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas.[21][22] With approximately one billion followers,[web 2] Hinduism is the world's third largest religion by population, and the majority religion in India, Nepal, Mauritius and Bali (Indonesia).

Etymology

Further information: Hindu

The word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan[23]/Sanskrit[24] word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistan and Northern India).[24][note 8] According to Gavin Flood, "The actual term 'Hindu' first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)",[24] more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I (550–486 BCE).[25] The term 'Hindu' in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.[24] Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang,[25] and 14th-century Persian text Futuhu's-salatin by 'Abd al-Malik Isami.[note 9]

Thapar states that the word Hindu is found as heptahindu in Avesta – equivalent to Rigvedic sapta sindhu, while hndstn (pronounced Hindustan) is found in a Sasanian inscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia.[33] The Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus.[34] This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus".[35][note 10]

The term Hindu was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450) and some 16th- to 18th-century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata. These texts used it to contrast Hindus from Muslims who are called Yavanas (foreigners) or Mlecchas (barbarians), with the 16th-century Chaitanya Charitamrita text and the 17th century Bhakta Mala text using the phrase "Hindu dharma".[36] It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.[37]

Definitions

Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.[38][39][40] Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.[24] The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it".[41] Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life."[42][note 1] From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term "religion". Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma (the eternal or ancient dharma).[43]

The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.[44] Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism,[45][note 11] and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.[46][note 12]

Typology

Main article: Hindu denominations

Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent.[47] Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Devi) and Smartism (five deities treated as same).[3][4] Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God, while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme.[48] Other notable characteristics include a belief in existence of ātman (soul, self), reincarnation of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living).

McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand expression of emotions among the Hindus.[49] The major kinds, according to McDaniel are, Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and is the oldest, non-literate system; Vedic Hinduism based on the earliest layers of the Vedas traceable to 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the Upanishads, including Advaita Vedanta, emphasizing knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali emphasizing introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste"; and Bhakti or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.[49]

Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.[50] The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism,", "folk religions and tribal religions," and "founded religions.[51] The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma-marga",[52] jnana-marga,[53] bhakti-marga,[53] and "heroism," which is rooted in militaristic traditions, such as Ramaism and parts of political Hinduism.[52] This is also called virya-marga.[53] According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practicing or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions" such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are salvation-focussed and often de-emphasize Brahman priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism.[54] He includes among "founded religions" Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism that are now distinct religions, syncretic movements such as Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society, as well as various Guru-ism and new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and ISKCON.[55]

Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytizing missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests.[56] Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project.[56] From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that has been at the foundation of Indology. Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.[56]

Indigenous understanding

Sanātana Dharma

See also: Sanātanī

To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life.[57] Many practitioners refer to Hinduism as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law" or the "eternal way".[58] The Sanskrit word dharma has a much deeper meaning than religion and is not its equivalent. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (Artha), fulfillment of desires (kama), and attaining liberation (moksha) are part of dharma which encapsulates the "right way of living" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfillment.[59][60]

Sanātana Dharma refers to the "eternal" duties all Hindus have to follow, regardless of class, caste, or sect, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. This is contrasted with svadharma, one's "own duty", the duties to be followed by members of a specific caste and stage of life.[web 1] According to Knott, this also

... refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history, and its truths have been divinely revealed (shruti) and passed down through the ages to the present day in the most ancient of the world's scriptures, the Veda. (Knott 1998, p. 5)

According to the Encyclopædia Britannica,

The term has also more recently been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism as a unified world religion. Sanatana dharma has thus become a synonym for the "eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, the latter conceived of as not only transcendent of history and unchanging but also as indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian.[web 1]

Hindu modernism

Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and USA,[61] raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.[62]

Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation,[63] meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements[64] and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasizing the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems.[63] This approach had a great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west.[63] Major representatives of "Hindu modernism"[65] are Raja Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.[66]

Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the Hindu Renaissance.[67] He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism."[68] Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity",[65] and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.[65] According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.[65] According to Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today."[69] Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience."[70]

This "Global Hinduism"[71] has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries[71] and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism",[71] both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions.[71] It emphasizes universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity."[71] It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation",[72] or the Pizza effect,[72] in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India.[72] This globalization of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin."[73]

Western understanding

Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[note 4] or synthesis[note 5][7] of various Indian cultures and traditions.[8][note 6] which emerged after the Vedic period, between 500[11]-200[12] BCE and c. 300 CE,[11] the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic" c.q. "Preclassical" period.[11][12]

Hinduism's tolerance to variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.[74]

Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.[75]

Diversity and unity

Diversity

Hinduism has been described as a tradition having a "complex, organic, multileveled and sometimes internally inconsistent nature."[76] Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed",[24] but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.[77] According to the Supreme Court of India,

Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".[78]

Part of the problem with a single definition of the term "Hinduism" is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder.[79] It is a synthesis of various traditions,[80] the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions."[81]

Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, of sustenance, and of the destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists, they view Hinduism more as philosophy than religion.

Sense of unity

Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.[82] Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas,[83] although there are exceptions.[84] These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus,[85][86] with Louis Renou stating that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".[85][87]

Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishaism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",[82] there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"[82] of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".[82]

Indigenous developments

The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India was already noted from the 12th century CE on.[88] Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking shape, at c. 300-600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion.[89] Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other."[90] According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other"[90] is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools,[91]

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy."[92] The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.[93] Hacker called this "inclusivism"[83] and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit".[20] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[94] and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",[95][note 13] which started well before 1800.[96] Michaels notes:

As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism [...] [S]aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609-1649) and Ramdas (1608-1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.[97]

This inclusivism[98] was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta,[99] and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.[83]

Colonial influences

See also: Orientalism

The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition"[100] was popularised by 19th-century proselytizing missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations which the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism.[100][56][101] These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Some scholars state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils,[note 14] while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Manusmriti and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature".[103][note 15] Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention.[110] He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.[110][note 16]

Beliefs

Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu, representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.

Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra (the continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action, intent and consequences), Moksha (liberation from samsara or liberation in this life), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).[17]

Purusharthas (objectives of human life)

Main article: Purusharthas

Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life: Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. These are known as the Puruṣārthas:[14][15]

Dharma (righteousness, ethics)

Main article: Ethics of Hinduism

Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism.[117] The concept Dharma includes behaviors that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible,[118] and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".[119] Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.[119] Dharma, according to Van Buitenen,[120] is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is, states Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.[120] The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states it as:

Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.
— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.4.xiv [121][122]

In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word Sanātana means 'eternal', 'perennial', or 'forever'; thus, 'Sanātana Dharma' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.[123]

Artha (livelihood, wealth)

Main article: Artha

Artha is objective and virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy and material well-being. The Artha concept includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.[124] The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.[125][126]

Kāma (sensual pleasure)

Main article: Kama

Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations.[127][128] In Hinduism, Kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing Dharma, Artha and Moksha.[129]

Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from samsara)

Main article: Moksha

Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. In one sense, Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering and saṃsāra (birth-rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle, in after life, particularly in theistic schools of Hinduism is called moksha.[130][131] In other schools of Hinduism, such as monistic, moksha is a goal achievable in current life, as a state of bliss through self-realization, of comprehending the nature of one's soul, of freedom and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".[132][133]

Karma and samsara

Main article: Karma

Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed,[134] and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect".[135][136] The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.[137] Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in past. These actions may be those in a person's current life, or, in some schools of Hinduism, possibly actions in their past lives; furthermore, the consequences may result in current life, or a person's future lives.[137][138] This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called samsara. Libration from samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.[139][140] Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.[141]

Moksha

The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from samsara, thereby ending the cycle of rebirth, sorrow and suffering.[142][143] Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul,[144] death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self.[145]

The meaning of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha a person knows their "soul, self" and identifies it as one with Brahman and everyone in all respects.[146][147] The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools, in moksha state, identify individual "soul, self" as distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven). To theistic schools of Hinduism, moksha is liberation from samsara, while for other schools such as the monistic school, moksha is possible in current life and is a psychological concept. According to Deutsche, moksha is transcendental consciousness to the latter, the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".[132][146] Moksha in these schools of Hinduism, suggests Klaus Klostermaier,[147] implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the full sense; the concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been blocked and shut out. Moksha is more than liberation from life-rebirth cycle of suffering (samsara); Vedantic school separates this into two: jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and videhamukti (liberation after death).[148][149]

Concept of God

Main articles: Ishvara and God in Hinduism

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, and atheism among others;[150][151][web 3] and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.[152]

The Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda is one of the earliest texts[153] which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being.[154][155] The Rig Veda praises various deities, none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner.[156] The hymns repeatedly refer to One Truth and Reality. The "One Truth" of Vedic literature, in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.[157]

Gods and Goddesses in Hinduism
Shiva
Durga
Lakshmi
Vishnu

Hindus believe that all living creatures have a soul. This soul – the spirit or true "self" of every person, is called the ātman. The soul is believed to be eternal.[158] According to the monistic/pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit.[159] The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realise that one's soul is identical to supreme soul, that the supreme soul is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.[160][161][162] Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual souls.[163] They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. God is called Ishvara, Bhagavan, Parameshwara, Deva or Devi, and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.[164][165][166]

The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devī in feminine form; devatā used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".[note 17] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal.[167][168] The choice is a matter of individual preference,[169] and of regional and family traditions.[169] The multitude of devas are considered as manifestations of Brahman.[note 18]

While ancient Vedic literature including Upanishads make no mention of reincarnation of God, the Puranas and the Epics relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma to society. Such an incarnation is called an avatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and include Rama (the protagonist of the Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata).

Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early Nyaya school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist/atheist,[170] but later Nyaya school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic.[171][172] Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. Samkhya,[173] Mimamsa[174] and Carvaka schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption".[175][web 4][176] Its Vaisheshika school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God.[177][178] The Yoga school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god" and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god.[179] Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious".[180] Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.[163]

Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present.[181] The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric Saiva traditions.[182]

Questioning authority

A central theme of Hinduism is the questioning of authority.[183] Narratives in the Upanishads present characters questioning persons of authority.[183] The Kena Upanishad repeatedly asks kena, 'by what' power something is the case.[183] The Katha Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticizes the teacher's inferior answers.[183] In the Shiva Purana, Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma.[183] Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata.[183] Jayadeva's Gita Govinda presents criticism via the character of Radha.[183]

Scriptures

The Rigveda is the first and most important Veda[184] and is one of the oldest religious texts. This Rigveda manuscript is in Devanagari.

The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two: Shruti and Smriti. Hindu scriptures were composed, memorized and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down.[185][186] Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.

Shruti (lit. that which is heard)[187] primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures', and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (rishis).[188] There are four Vedas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[189][190][191] The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).[192][web 5][193][194][195]

The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought, and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions.[196][197] Of the shrutis (Vedic corpus), they alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.[196][198] Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance.[199] There are 108 Muktikā Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 to 13 are variously counted by scholars as Principal Upanishads.[200][201]

The most notable of the smritis ("memory") are the epics and the Puranas. The epics consist of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism.[202] It is sometimes called Gitopanishad, then placed in the Shruti category, being Upanishadic in content.[203] The Puranas, which started to be composed from c. 300 CE onward,[204] contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The Yoga Sutras is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained a renewed popularity in the 20th century.[205]

Since the 19th century Indian modernists have re-asserted the 'Aryan origins' of Hinduism, "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements[64] and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu-modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of 'the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.[206][207] In Tantric-tradition, the Agamas refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti,[208] while Nigamas refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva.[209] In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.[210][211]

Practices

Rituals

Main articles: Yajna and Hindu wedding
A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life. A typical Hindu wedding is solemnized before Vedic fire ritual (shown).[212]

Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.[213] The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual's choice. Devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns, yoga, meditation, chanting mantras and others.[214]

Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (yajna) and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding.[215][216] Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras.[web 6]

Life-cycle rites of passage

Main article: Saṃskāra

Major life stage milestones are celebrated as sanskara (saṃskāra, rites of passage) in Hinduism.[217][218] The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally.[219] Gautama Dharmasutras composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras,[220] while Gryhasutra and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 to 16 sanskaras.[217][221] The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude.[220]

The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include[219] Garbhadhana (pregnancy), Pumsavana (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman's hair, baby shower), Jatakarman (rite celebrating the new born baby), Namakarana (naming the child), Nishkramana (baby's first outing from home into the world), Annaprashana (baby's first feeding of solid food), Chudakarana (baby's first haircut, tonsure), Karnavedha (ear piercing), Vidyarambha (baby's start with knowledge), Upanayana (entry into a school rite),[222][223] Keshanta and Ritusuddhi (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), Samavartana (graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), Vratas (fasting, spiritual studies) and Antyeshti (cremation for an adult, burial for a child).[224] In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these sanskaras are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such as Śrāddha (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practiced.[219][web 7]

Bhakti (worship)

Main articles: Puja (Hinduism), Japa, Mantra and Bhajan
Priest attending a murthi

Bhakti refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.[225][226] Bhakti marga is considered in Hinduism as one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternate means to moksha.[227] The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are Jnana marga (path of knowledge), Karma marga (path of works), Rāja marga (path of contemplation and meditation).[228][229]

Bhakti is practiced in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, japas (incantations), to individual private prayers within one's home or in a temple or near a river bank, sometimes in the presence of an idol or image of a deity.[230][231] Bhakti is sometimes practiced as a community, such as a Puja, Aarti, musical Kirtan or singing Bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees.[232][233] While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotionalism include Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva) and Shaktism (Shakti).[234] A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman in Hinduism.[235][236][note 18]

Bhakti marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalizing god.[237][238] While Bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice Bhakti, or believe in god-with-attributes (saguna Brahman).[239][240] Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god-without-attributes, and god within oneself.[241][242]

Festivals

Main article: Hindu festivals
The festival of lights- Diwali, is celebrated by Hindus all over the world.

Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava; literally: "to lift higher") are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma.[243][244] Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar Hindu calendar, many coinciding with either the full moon (Holi) or the new moon (Diwali), often with seasonal changes.[245] Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as Holi and Diwali are pan-Hindu.[245][246]

The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the Sister-Brother bond over the Raksha Bandhan (or Bhai Dooj) festival.[244][247] The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers, Puja rituals and feasts.[243][248]

Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:

Pilgrimage

Pilgrimage to Kedarnath

Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them.[249] While there are different yet similar pilgrimage routes in different parts of India, all are respected equally well, according to the universality of Hinduism. The following pilgrimage sites are most famous amongst Hindu devotees:

Person and society

Varnas

Main article: Varna (Hinduism)

Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called varnas. They are the Brahmins: Vedic teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors and kings; the Vaishyas: farmers and merchants; and the Shudras: servants and labourers.[250]

The Bhagavad Gītā links the varna to an individual's duty (svadharma), inborn nature (svabhāva), and natural tendencies (guṇa).[251] The Manusmṛiti categorises the different castes.[web 8]

Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists,[252][253] although some other scholars disagree.[254] Scholars debate whether the so-called caste system is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom.[255][web 9][note 19] And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime.[256]

A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called Varnatita or "beyond all varnas" in Vedantic works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman beyond all varnas, the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.[257]

Yoga

A statue of Shiva in yogic meditation.
Main article: Yoga

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Yoga is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind and consciousness for health, tranquility and spiritual insight. This is done through a system of postures and exercises to practise control of the body and mind.[258] Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Bhagavad Gita and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Yoga is means, and the four major marga (paths) discussed in Hinduism are: Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion), Karma Yoga (the path of right action), Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation), Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom)[259] An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others.

Symbolism

The Hindu deity Ganesha is sometimes linked to the symbol Om.[260]

Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the Brahman and Atman) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the Swastika sign represent auspiciousness,[261] and Tilaka (literally, seed) on forehead – considered to be the location of spiritual third eye,[262] marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one's participation in a ritual or rite of passage.[263] Elaborate Tilaka with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric mandala drawings, objects, idols are all part of symbolic iconography in Hinduism.[264][265]

Ahimsa, vegetarianism and other food customs

Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.[266] The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads,[267] the epic Mahabharata[268] and ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.[269]

A goshala or cow shelter at Guntur

In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of strict lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20% and 42%, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians.[270] Those who eat meat seek Jhatka (quick death) method of meat production, and dislike Halal (slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal.[271][272] The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in Himalayan regions, or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish.[273] Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions.[274] Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,[275] and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.[276]

There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood.[277] Food affects body, mind and spirit in Hindu beliefs.[278][279] Hindu texts such as Śāṇḍilya Upanishad[280] and Svātmārāma[281][282] recommend Mitahara (eating in moderation) as one of the Yamas (virtuous self restraints). The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.[283]

Some Hindus from certain sects - generally Shakta,[284] and Hindus in regions such as Bali and Nepal[285][286] practise animal sacrifice.[287] In contrast, most Hindus, including the majority of Vaishnava and Shaivite Hindus abhor it.[web 11]

Denominations

Main article: Hindu denominations
A Ganesha-centric Panchayatana ("five deities", from the Smarta tradition): Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Devi (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right). All these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them.

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination.[288] Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.[289][290] These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the soteriological outlook.[291] The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practicing more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".[292]

Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu[293] and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama.[289][294] The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful" Krishna and other Vishnu avatars.[291] These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of Kirtans and Bhajans,[289] with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.[295] Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism.[289] The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations.[289][296] Philosophically, their beliefs are rooted in the dualism sub-schools of Vedanta Hinduism.[289]

Shaivism is the denomination that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.[291] Their practices include Bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Yoga.[290][295] Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasize yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.[289] Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualize god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva.[290] Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela.[297] Shaivism has been more commonly practiced in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.[289][298]

Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother,[291] and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as Assam and Bengal.[289] Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like Parvati, the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with Tantra practices.[289][299] Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.[300]

Smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda.[289] This tradition traces its origin to the efforts of Adi Shankara, the Advaita Vedanta scholar,[289] who considered worship of God-with-attributes (saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realizing God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge).[301] The term Smartism is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts.[290] This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self's oneness with God.[289][290][302]

Institutions

Temple

Illustration of Hindu temples

A Hindu temple is a house of god(s).[303] It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism.[304] A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representing Mount Meru – reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe,[305] the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa and karma.[306][307] The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.[304] A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, rite of passage rituals, and community celebrations.[308][309]

Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs.[310] Two major styles of Hindu temples include the Gopuram-style found in south India, and Nagara-style found in north India.[311][312] Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples.[313] Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.[304]

Many temples feature one or more idols (murtis). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (darsana, a sight) in a Hindu temple.[314] In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa (Brahman), the universal essence.[304]

Ashrama

Main article: Ashrama

Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āshramas (phases or life stages; unrelated meanings include monastery).[315] The four asramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (retired) and Sannyasa (renunciation).[316]

Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life.[316] Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered as the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind.[317] Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.[318][319] The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (Ascetic), and focussed on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.[320][321]

The Ashramas system has been one facet of the Dharma concept in Hinduism.[322] Combined with four proper goals of human life (Purusartha), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation.[317] While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage.[323] Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.[324]

Monasticism

Main article: Sannyasa
A sadhu in Madurai, India.

Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.[325] A Hindu monk is called a Sanyāsī, Sādhu, or Swāmi. A female renunciate is called a Sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their simple living, renunciation of worldly desires, and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) – believed to be the ultimate goal of life.[321] Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs.[326]

History

Main article: History of Hinduism

Periodisation

James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British India (1817),[327] distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations.[327][328] This periodisation has been criticised for the misconceptions it has given rise to.[329] Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods".[330] An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:[20]

  • Pre-classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-300 CE);
  • "Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320-650 CE);
  • Late-Classical Hinduism - Puranic Hinduism (c. 650-1100 CE);

Origins

Hinduism is a fusion[335][note 4] or synthesis[11][note 5] of various Indian cultures and traditions.[11][note 6] Among the roots of Hinduism are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India,[336] itself already the product of "a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations",[337][note 21] but also the Sramana[338] or renouncer traditions[81] of northeast India,[338] and mesolithic[339] and neolithic[340] cultures of India, such as the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation,[341] Dravidian traditions,[342] and the local traditions[81] and tribal religions.[343][note 22]

This "Hindu synthesis" emerged after the Vedic period, between 500[11]-200[12] BCE and c. 300 CE,[11] the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic" c.q. "Preclassical" period, [11][12] and incorporated śramaṇic[12][344] and Buddhist influences[12][345] and the emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the smriti literature.[346][12] From northern India this "Hindu synthesis", and its societal divisions, spread to southern India and parts of Southeast Asia.[347]

Prevedic religions (until c. 1750 BCE)

The so-called Pashupati seal, Indus Valley civilization.

The earliest prehistoric religion in India that may have left its traces in Hinduism comes from mesolithic as observed in the sites such as the rock paintings of Bhimbetka rock shelters dating to a period of 30,000 BCE or older,[note 23] as well as neolithic times.[note 24] Some of the religious practices can be considered to have originated in 4000 BCE. Several tribal religions still exist, though their practices may not resemble those of prehistoric religions.[web 12]

According to anthropologist Possehl, the Indus Valley Civilization "provides a logical, if somewhat arbitrary, starting point for some aspects of the later Hindu tradition".[348] The religion of this period included worship of a Great male god, which is compared to a proto-Shiva, and probably a Mother Goddess, that may prefigure Shakti. However these links of deities and practices of the Indus religion to later-day Hinduism are subject to both political contention and scholarly dispute.[349]

Vedic period (c. 1750-500 BCE)

Main article: Vedic period

Origins and development

The Vedic period, named after the Vedic religion of the Indo-Aryans,[350][note 25] lasted from c. 1750 to 500 BCE.[352][note 26] The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists[354] who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization,[351][355][356][note 27]

During the early Vedic period (c. 1500 - 1100 BCE[354]) Vedic tribes were pastoralists, wandering around in north-west India.[359] After 1100 BCE the Vedic tribes moved into the western Ganges Plain, adapting an agrarical lifestyle.[354][360][361] Rudimentary state-forms appeared, of which the Kuru-tribe and realm was the most influential.[354][362] It was a tribal union, which developed into the first recorded state-level society in South Asia around 1000 BCE.[354] It decisively changed the Vedic heritage of the early Vedic period, collecting the Vedic hymns into collections, and developing new rituals which gained their position in Indian civilization as the orthodox srauta rituals,[354] which contributed to the so-called "classical synthesis"[363] or "Hindu synthesis".[11]

Vedic religion

The Indo-Aryans brought with them their language[364] and religion.[365][366] The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[367][368] and the Indo-Iranian religion.[369][note 28]

The Vedic religion of the later Vedic period co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults,[363][376][web 13] and was itself the product of "a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations".[337] David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilizations.[377][note 21] Their religion was further developed when they migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers,[354][379][380] further syncretising with the native cultures of northern India.[363]

This is the period when the Vedas and early Upanishads were composed. The oldest of these Vedic texts is the Rigveda, composed between c. 1500-1200 BCE,[381][382][383] though a wider approximation of c. 1700-1100 BCE has also been given.[384][385] The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads.[386]:183 Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and constitute the Vedanta (conclusion of the Veda) literature.[387]

"Second Urbanisation" (c. 500-200 BCE)

Main article: Sramana

Increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of ascetic circles and of new ideas which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.[388] These ideas led to Sramana movements, of which Mahavira (c. 549–477 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons.[386]:184

The ascetic tradition of Vedic period in part created the concept of samsara and suffering, and the concept of liberation, which became characteristic for Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism.[note 29]

These ascetic concepts were adopted by schools of Hinduism as well as other major Indian religions, but key differences between their premises defined their further development. Hinduism, for example, developed its ideas with the premise that every human being has a soul (atman, self), while Buddhism developed with the premise that there is no soul or self.[389][390][391]

The chronology of these religious concepts is unclear, and scholars contest which religion affected the other as well as the chronological sequence of the ancient texts.[392][393] Pratt notes that Oldenberg (1854-1920), Neumann (1865-1915) and Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) believed that the Buddhist canon had been influenced by Upanishads, while la Vallee Poussin thinks the influence was nihil, and "Eliot and several others insist that on some points the Buddha was directly antithetical to the Upanishads".[394][note 30]

Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 1100 CE)

After the Vedic period, between 500[11]-200[12] BCE and c. 300 CE,[11] the Vedic-Brahmanic culture spread to southern India and parts of Southeast Asia.[note 31]

Pre-classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 300 CE)

The "Hindu synthesis" or "Brahmanical synthesis"[11][12] incorporated Sramanic and Buddhist influences[12][345] and the emerging bhakti tradition into the "Brahmanical fold" via the smriti literature.[346][12] This synthesis emerged under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism.[395]

According to Embree, several other religious traditions had existed side by side with the Vedic religion. These indigenous religions "eventually found a place under the broad mantle of the Vedic religion".[396] The smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE-100 CE proclaimed the authority of the Vedas, and acceptance of the Vedas became a central criterium for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas and relied on their own Sutras (texts).[397]

The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, which belong to the smriti, were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE.[web 14] They contain stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The Bhagavad Gita was composed in this period and consolidated diverse ideas.[398]

In early centuries CE several schools of Hindu philosophy were formally written down, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[399]

"Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320–650 CE)

During the Gupta period, the first Hindu temples dedicated to the gods of the Hindu deities emerged.[400][note 32] During the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written.[402] The early Puranas, composed between 300 and 600 CE, show continuities with the Vedic religion, but also an expanded mythology of Vishnu, Shiva and Devi, which Lorenzen suggests may have been the beginnings of "medieval Hinduism".[89] The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against rakshasa.

According to P. S. Sharma, "the Gupta and Harsha periods form really, from the strictly intellectual standpoint, the most brilliant epocha in the development of Indian philosophy", as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies flourished side by side.[403]

Late-Classical Hinduism - Puranic Hinduism (c. 650–1100 CE)

After the end of the Gupta Empire, power became decentralised in India. The disintegration of central power also led to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.[404] Rural and devotional movements arose within Hinduism, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra,[404] that competed with each other, as well as with numerous sects of Buddhism and Jainism.[404][405] Buddhism declined, though many of its ideas, and even the Buddha himself, were absorbed into certain Brahmanical traditions.[406]

From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and initiatory traditions of Buddhism, Jainism or more commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts.[407] Shaivism dominated in the subcontinent and greatly expanded in southeast Asia, with elements of Shaktism subsumed within Shaivism.[408] In most kingdoms of some regions, during the 8th century CE, the royal sponsorship and pujas of Buddha was replaced by one of the Hindu gods such as Vishnu, monumental Hindu temples were built and the practice of elaborate imperial-style pujas of a Hindu god emerged.[409][note 33] Various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism.[411] The Mañjusrimulakalpa, which later came to classified under Kriyatantra, states that mantras taught in the Saiva, Garuda and Vaisnava tantras will be effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught originally by Manjushri.[412] The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra, a work associated with the Guhyasamaja tradition, prescribes acting as a Saiva guru and initiating members into Saiva Siddhanta scriptures and mandalas.[413] The Samvara tantra texts adopted the pitha list from the Saiva text Tantrasadbhava, introducing a copying error where a deity was mistaken for a place.[414]

During this period, the non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta was reformulated by Adi Shankara, who systematised the works of preceding philosophers.[415]

Islamic rule and Bhakti movement of Hinduism (c. 1200-1750 CE)

Main articles: Islam in India and Bhakti movement
Babur visits a Hindu temple.

The Islamic rule period witnessed Hindu-Muslim confrontation and violence,[416][417] but "violence did not normally characterize the relations of Muslim and Hindu."[418][419] Enslavement of non-Muslims, especially Hindus in India, was part of the Muslim raids and conquests,[420][421] but after the 14th century slavery become less common,[422] and in 1562 "Akbar abolished the practice of enslaving the families of war captives."[423] Akbar recognized Hinduism, protected Hindu temples, and abolished discriminatory Jizya (head taxes) against Hindus,[421][424] but occasionally, Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, before and after Akbar, from 12th century to 18th century, destroyed Hindu temples[425][426][note 34] and persecuted non-Muslims.

Though Islam came to Indian subcontinent in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders, it started impacting Indian religions after the 10th century, and particularly after the 12th century with the establishment and then expansion of Islamic rule.[428][429] During this period Buddhism declined rapidly, and a distinct Indo-Islamic culture emerged.[430] Under Akbar an "intriguing blend of Perso-Islamic and Rajput-Hindu traditions became manifest."[431] Nevertheless, many orthodox ulamas ("learned Islamic jurists") opposed the rapprochement of Hinduism and Islam,[431] and the two merely co-existed,[432] although there was more accommodation at the peasantry level of Indian society.[432]

According to Hardy, the Muslim rulers were not concerned with the number of converts, since the stability and continuity of their regime did not depend on the number of Muslims.[433] In general religious conversion was a gradual process, with some converts attracted to pious Muslims while others converted to Islam to gain tax relief, land grant, marriage partners, social and economic advancement,[434] or freedom from slavery.[435] In border regions such as the Punjab and eastern Bengal, the share of Muslims grew as large as 70% to 90% of the population, whereas in the heartland of Muslim rule, the upper Gangetic Plain, the Muslims constituted only 10 to 15% of the population.[note 35]

Between 14th and 18th century, Hinduism revived in certain provinces of India under two powerful states, viz. Vijayanagar and Maratha. The 14th and 15th century Southern India saw the rise of the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire, which served as a barrier against invasion by the Muslim sultanates of the north, and it fostered the reconstruction of Hindu life and administration.[web 15] Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380-6,[436] and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire,[437] helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, and helped spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedanta philosophies.[438][439] The Hindu Maratha Confederacy rose to power in 18th century and ended up overthrowing Muslim power in India[440][441]

Hinduism underwent profound changes, aided in part by teachers such as Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya.[442] Tantra disappeared in northern India, partly due to Muslim rule,[443] while the Bhakti movement grew, with followers engaging in emotional, passionate and community-oriented devotional worship, participating in saguna or nirguna Brahman ideologies.[444][445][446] According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century, "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy."[92][note 36] Michaels notes that a historicization emerged which preceded later nationalism, articulating ideas which glorified Hinduism and the past.[97]

Modern Hinduism (from c.1800)

Russian Krishnaites celebrating Ratha Yatra. In the late 20th century forms of Hinduism have grown indigenous roots in parts of Russia, significantly in Altay where Hinduism is now the religion of 2% of the population.

Hindu revivalism

With the onset of the British Raj, the colonization of India by the British, there also started a Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.[447] Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. Western orientalist searched for the "essence" of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,[448] and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a unified body of religious praxis[449] and the popular picture of 'mystical India'.[449][447] This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by Hindu reform movements as the Brahmo Samaj, which was supported for a while by the Unitarian Church,[450] together with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all religions share a common mystic ground.[451] This "Hindu modernism", with proponents like Vivekananda, Aurobindo and Radhakrishnan, became central in the popular understanding of Hinduism.[452][453][454][455][63]

Popularity in the west

Influential 20th-century Hindus were Ramana Maharshi, B.K.S. Iyengar, Paramahansa Yogananda, Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), Sri Chinmoy, Swami Rama and others who translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West and attracting followers and attention in India and abroad.

Hindu practices such as Yoga, Ayurvedic health, divination (astrology, palmistry, numerology), Tantric sexuality through Neotantra and the Kama Sutra have spread beyond Hindu communities and have been accepted by several non-Hindus:

Hinduism is attracting Western adherents through the affiliated practice of yoga. Yoga centers in the West—which generally advocate vegetarianism—attract young, well-educated Westerners who are drawn by yoga's benefits for the physical and emotional health; there they are introduced to the Hindu philosophical system taught by most yoga teachers, known as Vedanta.[456]

It is estimated that around 30 million Americans and 5 million Europeans regularly practice some form of Hatha Yoga.[457] In Australia, the number of practitioners is about 300,000.[web 16] In New Zealand the number is also around 300,000.[web 17]

Hindutva

In the 20th century, Hinduism also gained prominence as a political force and a source for national identity in India. With origins traced back to the establishment of the Hindu Mahasabha in the 1910s, the movement grew with the formulation and development of the Hindutva ideology in the following decades; the establishment of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1925; and the entry, and later success, of RSS offshoots Jana Sangha and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in electoral politics in post-independence India.[458] Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement.[459][note 37][note 38]

Demographics

Main article: Hinduism by country
Hinduism - Percentage by country

Part of a series on
Hinduism by country

Africa
Asia
Europe
North America
Oceania
South America

Hinduism is a major religion in India. Hinduism was followed by around 80.5% of the country's population of 1.21 billion (2012 estimate) (960 million adherents).[web 18] Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.9 million).[464] The majority of the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism.[465]

Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus from Hinduism by country (as of 2008):

  1.    Nepal 81.3%[web 19]
  2.  India 80.5%
  3.  Mauritius 48.5%[466]
  4.  Guyana 28%[web 20]
  5.  Fiji 27.9%[web 21]
  6.  Bhutan 25%[web 22]
  7.  Trinidad and Tobago 22.5%
  8.  Suriname 20%[web 23]
  9.  Sri Lanka 12.6%[web 24]
  10.  Bangladesh 9.6%[web 25]
  11.  Qatar 7.2%
  12.  Réunion 6.7%
  13.  Malaysia 6.3%[web 26]
  14.  Bahrain 6.25%
  15.  Kuwait 6%
  16.  Singapore 5.1%[web 27]
  17.  United Arab Emirates 5%
  18.  Oman 3%
  19.  Belize 2.3%
  20.  Seychelles 2.1%[web 28]

Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.[467]

Conversion debate

In the modern era, religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial subject. Some state the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.[468]

Religious conversion to Hinduism has a long history outside India. Merchants and traders of India, particularly from the Indian peninsula, carried their religious ideas, which led to religious conversions to Hinduism in southeast Asia.[469][470][471] Within India, archeological and textual evidence such as the 2nd century BCE Heliodorus pillar suggest that Greeks and other foreigners converted to Hinduism.[472][473] The debate on proselytization and religious conversion between Christianity, Islam and Hinduism is more recent, and started in the 19th century.[474][475][note 39]

Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the Arya Samaj launched Shuddhi movement to proselytize and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism,[478][479] while those such as the Brahmo Samaj suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion.[468] All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytization activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined.[468][478][480]

In recent decades, mainstream Hinduism schools have attempted to systematize ways to accept religious converts, with an increase in inter-religious mixed marriages.[481] The appropriateness of conversion from major religions to Hinduism, and vice versa, has been and remains an actively debated topic in India,[482][483][484] and in Indonesia.[485]

See also

Hinduism
Related systems and religions

Notes

  1. 1 2 Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "a way of life" (Sharma 2003, pp. 12–13) etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Flood 2008, pp. 1–17
  2. ↑ These denominations include Shaivism (Shiva-related), Vaishnavism (Vishnu-related), Shaktism (Shakti or Devi-related), Smarta, among others.[3][4]
  3. ↑ See:
  4. 1 2 3 Lockard 2007, p. 50: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." Lockard 2007, p. 52: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."
  5. 1 2 3 Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320-467 CE)."
  6. 1 2 3 See also:
  7. ↑ Among its roots are the Vedic religion of the late Vedic period (Flood 1996, p. 16) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans (Samuel 2010, pp. 48–53), but also the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation (Narayanan 2009, p. 11; Lockard 2007, p. 52; Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 3; Jones & Ryan 2006, p. xviii) the Sramana or renouncer traditions of north-east India (Flood 1996, p. 16; Gomez 2013, p. 42) and "popular or local traditions" (Flood 1996, p. 16).
  8. ↑ The Indo-Aryan word Sindhu means "river", "ocean".[23] It is frequently being used in the Rigveda. The Sindhu-area is part of Āryāvarta, "the land of the Aryans".
  9. ↑ There are several views on the earliest mention of 'Hindu' in the context of religion:
    1. Gavin Flood (1996) states: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century".(Flood 1996, p. 6)
    2. Arvind Sharma (2002) and other scholars state that the 7th-century Chinese scholar Xuanzang, whose 17 year travel to India and interactions with its people and religions were recorded and preserved in Chinese language, uses the transliterated term In-tu whose "connotation overflows in the religious".[25] Xuanzang describes Hindu Deva-temples of early 7th century CE, worship of Sun deity and Shiva, his debates with scholars of Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophies, monks and monasteries of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists (both Mahayana and Theravada), and the study of the Vedas along with Buddhist texts at Nalanda.[26][27][28]
    3. Arvind Sharma (2002) also mentions the use of word 'Hindu' in Islamic texts such those relating to 8th-century Arab invasion of Sindh by Muhammad ibn Qasim, Al Biruni's 11th-century text Tarikh Al-Hind, and those of the Delhi Sultanate period, where the term 'Hindu' retains the ambiguities of including all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists and of being "a region or a religion".[29]
    4. David Lorenzen (2006) states, citing Richard Eaton: "one of the earliest occurences of the word 'Hindu' in Islamic literature appears in 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work, Futuhu's-salatin, composed in the Deccan in 1350. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion".[30]
    5. David Lorenzen (2006) also mentions other non-Persian texts such as Prithvíráj Ráso by ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.[31] One of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.[32]
  10. ↑ In ancient literature the name Bharata or Bharata Vrasa was being used.(Garg 1992, p. 3)
  11. ↑ Sweetman mentions:
  12. ↑ See Rajiv Malhotra and Being Different for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia, Invading the Sacred, and Hindu studies.
  13. ↑ See also Arvind Sharma (2002), On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva. Numen Vol. 49, Fasc. 1 (2002), pp. 1-36.
  14. ↑ Pennington[102] describes the circumstances in which early impressions of Hinduism were reported by colonial era missionaries: "Missionary reports from India also reflected the experience of foreigners in a land whose native inhabitants and British rulers often resented their presence. Their accounts of Hinduism were forged in physically, politically and spiritually hostile surroundings [impoverished, famine prone Bengal - now West Bengal and Bangladesh]. Plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health, regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason, uncertain of their own social location, and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility, missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy: a fabricated Hinduism crazed by blood-lust and devoted to the service of devils."
  15. ↑ Sweetman identifies several areas in which "there is substantial, if not universal, agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism, even if the degree of this influence is debated":[104]
    1. The wish of European Orientalists "to establish a textual basis for Hinduism," akin to the Protestant culture,[104] which was also driven by a preference among the colonial powers for "written authority" rather than "oral authority."[104]
    2. The influence of Brahmins on European conceptions of Hinduism.[104]
    3. [T]he identification of Vedanta, more specifically Advaita Vedanta, as 'the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion'.[104][subnote 4][104] Several factors led to the favouring of Vedanta as the "central philosophy of the Hindus":[105]
      1. According to Niranjan Dhar's theory that Vedanta was favored because British feared French influence, especially the impact of the French Revolution; and Ronald Inden's theory that Advaita Vedanta was portrayed as 'illusionist pantheism' reinforcing the colonial stereotypical construction of Hinduism as indifferent to ethics and life-negating.[105]
      2. "The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms of Hinduism".[106]
    4. The colonial constructions of caste as being part of Hinduism.[107] According to Nicholas Dirks' theory that, "Caste was refigured as a religious system, organising society in a context where politics and religion had never before been distinct domains of social action.[subnote 5]
    5. "[T]he construction of Hinduism in the image of Christianity"[108]
    6. Anti-colonial Hindus[109] "looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a precolonial, national identity".[108][subnote 6]
  16. ↑ Many scholars have presented pre-colonial common denominators and asserted the importance of ancient Hindu textual sources in medieval and pre-colonial times:
    1. Klaus Witz[111] states that Hindu Bhakti movement ideas in the medieval era grew on the foundation of Upanishadic knowledge and Vedanta philosophies.
    2. John Henderson[112] states that "Hindus, both in medieval and in modern times, have been particularly drawn to those canonical texts and philosophical schools such as the Bhagavad Gita and Vedanta, which seem to synthesize or reconcile most successfully diverse philosophical teachings and sectarian points of view. Thus, this widely recognized attribute of Indian culture may be traced to the exegetical orientation of medieval Hindu commentarial traditions, especially Vedanta.
    3. Patrick Olivelle[113] and others[114][115][116] state that the central ideas of the Upanishads in the Vedic corpus are at the spiritual core of Hindus.
  17. ↑ For translation of deva in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 492. For translation of devatā as "godhead, divinity", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 495.
  18. 1 2
    • Lisa Hark, Lisa Hark, PH.D., R.D., Horace DeLisser, MD (7 September 2011). Achieving Cultural Competency. John Wiley & Sons. Three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of Brahman.
    • John McCannon (1 January 2006). World History Examination. Barron's Educational Series. In addition to the Brahman, Hinduism recognises literally hundreds of gods and goddesses. Thus, Hinduism is a polytheistic religion. However, Hindus consider all deities to be avatars, or incarnations of the Brahman.
    • Toropov & Buckles 2011: The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities are understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality.
    • Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff (2007). An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies. Liturgical Press. The devas are powerful spiritual beings, somewhat like angels in the West, who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. Certain devas, such as Ganesha, are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful. Note that, while Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas.
  19. ↑ Venkataraman and Deshpande: "Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.... Caste-based discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of Hindu sacred texts that divinity is inherent in all beings."[web 10]
  20. ↑ Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism":
    • Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It is the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism[subnote 7]
  21. 1 2 See:
    • David Gordo White: "[T]he religion of the Vedas was already a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations."[337]
    • Richard Gombrich: "It is important to bear in mind that the Indo-Aryans did not enter an unhabitated land. For nearly two millennia they and their culture gradually penetrated India, moving east and south from their original seat in the Punjab. They mixed with people who spoke Munda or Dravidian languages, who have left no traces of their culture beyond some archaeological remains; we know as little about them as we would about the Indo-Aryans if they had left no texts. In fact we cannot even be sure whether some of the aerchaeological finds belong to Indo-Aryans, autochthonous populations, or a mixture.
      It is to be assumed - though this is not fashionable in Indian historiography - that the clash of cultures between Indo-Aryans and autochtones was responsible for many of the changes in Indo-Aryan society. We can also assume that many - perhaps most - of the indigenous population came to be assimilated into Indo-Aryan culture.[378]
  22. ↑ Tiwari mentions the Austric and Mongoloid people.[343] See also Peopling of India for the variety of Indian people.
  23. ↑ Doniger 2010, p. 66: "Much of what we now call Hinduism may have had roots in cultures that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence. Remarkable cave paintings have been preserved from Mesolithic sites dating from c. 30,000 BCE in Bhimbetka, near present-day Bhopal, in the Vindhya Mountains in the province of Madhya Pradesh."
  24. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2006, p. xvii: "Some practices of Hinduism must have originated in Neolithic times (c. 4000 BCE). The worship of certain plants and animals as sacred, for instance, could very likely have very great antiquity. The worship of goddesses, too, a part of Hinduism today, may be a feature that originated in the Neolithic."
  25. ↑ Michaels: "They called themselves arya ("Aryans," literally "the hospitable," from the Vedic arya, "homey, the hospitable") but even in the Rgveda, arya denotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one."[351]
  26. ↑ There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.[353] Flood mentions 1500 BCE.[330]
  27. ↑ The Aryan migration theory has been challenged by some researchers,[351][357] due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity,[351] hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation[351] or transformation.[355] Nevertheless, linguistic and archaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750 BCE,[351] with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion.[358] According to Singh, "The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants."[357]
  28. ↑ According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[370] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",[370] which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[369] from the Bactria–Margiana Culture.[369] At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[371] The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, are found not in northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom.[372] The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and used Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.[372] The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the mitanni kingdom.[372] And Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.[373][374][375]
  29. ↑ Flood 2008, pp. 273–274: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history [...] Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara - the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana - the goal of human existence."
  30. ↑ Richard King notes that Radhakrishnan was a representative of Neo-Vedanta,[63] which had a specific understanding of Indian religions: "The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions, so characteristic of neo-Vedanta ideology, appears on three basic levels. First, it is apparent in the suggestion that the (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. eighth century CE) constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism. Second, in an Indian context, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to reform it from within. Finally, at a global level, neo-Vedanta colonises the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis underlying all cultural differences."[63]
  31. ↑ Samuel 2010, pp. 193–228, 339–353, specifically pp. 76–79 and p. 199
  32. ↑ Axel Michaels mentions the Durga temple in Aihole and the Visnu Temple in Deogarh.[400] George Michell notes that earlier temples were built of timber, brick and plaster, while the first stone temples appeared during the period of Gupta rule.[401]
  33. ↑ The Buddha was replaced by Vishnu as the "cosmic person" at royal courts:
    * Ronald Inden: "Before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies by which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa [...] This pattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under the Palas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland) [...] Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship."[409]
    * John Holt: "The replacement of the Buddha as the "cosmic person" within the mythic ideology of Indian kingship, as we shall see shortly, occurred at about the same time the Buddha was incorporated and subordinated within the Brahmanical cult of Visnu."[410]
  34. ↑ See also "Aurangzeb, as he was according to Mughal Records"; more links at the bottom of that page. For Muslim historian's record on major Hindu temple destruction campaigns, from 1193 to 1729 AD, see Richard Eaton (2000), Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States, Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. 11, Issue 3, pages 283-319
  35. ↑ According to Eaton (1993, Chapter 5), "in the subcontinent as a whole there is an inverse relationship between the degree of Muslim political penetration and the degree of Islamization." These numbers rule out the possibility of "conversion of the sword." It was the areas which had been least exposed to the Brahmanical fold which showed the largest numbers of Muslims.

    Forced conversion did happen, though. According to Malik (2008, p. 186) forced conversion of tribes occurred between the 10th and the 14th century, and "[f]orced conversions occurred on an even larger scale at the end of the eighteenth century in the context of increased communal conflicts as well as during the Mappila Rebellion (1921/1922)," and according to Esposito (2003, p. 303) the orthodox Sufi Islam group Suhrawardiyya "supported the forced conversion of Hindus and Buddhists."
  36. ↑ Burley (2007, p. 34): notes the tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions." Lorenzen (2006, pp. 24–33) locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus, and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other" (p. 27), which started well before 1800 (pp. 26-27). Nicholson (2010, p. 2) states that both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.
  37. ↑ This conjunction of nationalism and religion is not unique to India. The complexities of Asian nationalism are to be seen and understood in the context of colonialism, modernization and nation-building. See, for example, Anagarika Dharmapala, for the role of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lankese struggle for independence,[460] and D.T. Suzuki, who conjuncted Zen to Japanese nationalism and militarism, in defense against both western hegemony and the pressure on Japanese Zen during the Meiji Restoration to conform to Shinbutsu Bunri.[461][462]
  38. ↑ Neo-Vedanta also contributed to Hindutva ideology, Hindu politics and communalism. Yet, Rinehart emphasises that it is "clear that there isn't a neat line of causation that leads from the philosophies of Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan to the agenda of [...] militant Hindus."[463]
  39. ↑ The controversy started as an intense polemic battle between Christian missionaries and Muslim organizations in the first half of the 19th century, where missionaries such as Karl Gottlieb Pfander tried to convert Muslims and Hindus, by criticizing Qur'an and Hindu scriptures.[475][476][477] Muslim leaders responded by publishing in Muslim-owned newspapers of Bengal, and through rural campaign, polemics against Christians and Hindus, and by launching "purification and reform movements" within Islam.[474][475] Hindu leaders joined the proselytization debate, criticized Christianity and Islam, and asserted Hinduism to be a universal, secular religion.[474][478]

Subnotes

  1. ↑ Ghurye: He [Hutton] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. "The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism".(Ghurye 1980, p. 4)
  2. ↑ Tyler, in India: An Anthropological Perspective(1973), page 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself. (Sjoberg 1990, p. 43)
  3. ↑ Hopfe & Woodward 2008, p. 79: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."
  4. ↑ Sweetman cites Richard King (1999) p.128.(King 1999)
  5. ↑ Sweetman cites Dirks (2001), Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India, Princeton University Press, p. xxvii
  6. ↑ Sweetman cites Viswanathan (2003), Colonialism and the Construction of Hinduism, p.26
  7. ↑ Smart distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads.<ref name='FOOTNOTESmart200352, 83-86'>Smart 2003, p. 52, 83-86.

References

  1. 1 2 Frazier, Jessica (2011). The Continuum companion to Hindu studies. London: Continuum. pp. 1–15. ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0.
  2. ↑ Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, ISBN 978-0814658567, pages 561-563
  3. 1 2 Nath 2001, p. 31.
  4. 1 2 Flood 1996, pp. 113, 154.
  5. ↑ Bowker 2000; Harvey 2001, p. xiii; Knott 1998, p. 5
  6. ↑ Knott 1998, p. 5.
  7. 1 2 Samuel 2010, p. 193.
  8. 1 2 Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12; Flood 1996, p. 16; Lockard 2007, p. 50
  9. ↑ Narayanan 2009, p. 11.
  10. ↑ Fowler 1997, pp. 1, 7.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Larson 2009.
  13. ↑ PV Kane, Samanya Dharma, History of Dharmasastra, Vol. 2, Part 1, pages 4-5;
    Alban Widgery, The Principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 232-245
  14. 1 2 Bilimoria et al. (eds.), Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (2007), p. 103; see also John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct., 1968), pp. 315-319
  15. 1 2 Gavin Flood (1997), "The Meaning and Context of the Puruṣārthas", In The Bhagavadgītā for Our Times (Editor: Julius J. Lipner), Oxford University Press, pages 11–27, ISBN 978-0195650396
  16. ↑ Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 173-180
  17. 1 2 Brodd 2003.
  18. ↑ A Bhattacharya (2009), Applied Ethics, Center for Applied Ethics and Philosophy, Hokkaido University, ISBN 978-4990404611, pages 63-64
  19. ↑ Andrew Fort and Patricia Mumme (1996), Living Liberation in Hindu Thought, ISBN 978-0-7914-2706-4
  20. 1 2 3 Michaels 2004.
  21. ↑ RC Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, ISBN 978-0679410782, pages 1-7
  22. ↑ Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 46-52, 76-77
  23. 1 2 Flood 2008, p. 3.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Flood 1996, p. 6.
  25. 1 2 3 Arvind Sharma (2002), On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva Numen, Vol. 49, Fasc. 1, pages 2-3
  26. ↑ Stephen Gosch and Peter Stearns (2007), Premodern Travel in World History, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415229418, pages 88-99
  27. ↑ Arvind Sharma (2011), Hinduism as a Missionary Religion, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438432113, pages 5-12
  28. ↑ Bonnie Smith et al (2012), Crossroads and Cultures, Combined Volume: A History of the World's Peoples, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0312410179, pages 321-324
  29. ↑ Arvind Sharma (2002), On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva Numen, Vol. 49, Fasc. 1, pages 5-9
  30. ↑ David Lorenzen (2006), Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, ISBN 978-8190227261, page 33
  31. ↑ David Lorenzen (2006), Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, ISBN 978-8190227261, pages 32-33
  32. ↑ David Lorenzen (2006), Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, ISBN 978-8190227261, page 15
  33. ↑ Romila Thapar (2004), Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520242258, page 38
  34. ↑ Thapar 1993, p. 77.
  35. ↑ Thompson Platts 1884.
  36. ↑ O'Conell, Joseph T. (1973). "The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts". Journal of the American Oriental Society 93 (3). pp. 340–344. doi:10.2307/599467.
  37. ↑ Will Sweetman (2003), Mapping Hinduism: 'Hinduism' and the Study of Indian Religions, 1600-1776, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-931479498, pages 163, 154-168
  38. ↑ Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."
  39. ↑ Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN 978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008
  40. ↑ MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
  41. ↑ Knott, Kim (1998). Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-19-285387-5.
  42. ↑ Sharma 2003, p. 12-13.
  43. ↑ Vivekjivandas 2010, p. 1.
  44. ↑ Sweetman 2004; King 1999
  45. ↑ Sweetman 2004.
  46. ↑ Nussbaum 2009.
  47. ↑ Matthew Clarke (2011). Development and Religion: Theology and Practice. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 28.
  48. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 14.
  49. 1 2 June McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52-53 ISBN 0-19-517021-0
  50. ↑ Michaels 2004, p. 21.
  51. ↑ Michaels 2004, p. 22.
  52. 1 2 Michaels 2004, p. 23.
  53. 1 2 3 Michaels 2004, p. 24.
  54. ↑ Michaels 2004, pp. 21-22.
  55. ↑ Michaels 2004, pp. 22-23.
  56. 1 2 3 4 Ronald Inden (2001), Imagining India, Indiana University Press, ISBN 978-0253213587, pages 117-122, 127-130
  57. ↑ Insoll, Timothy (2001), Archaeology and world religion, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-22155-9
  58. ↑ Bowker 2000; Harvey 2001, p. xiii
  59. ↑ Knott, Kim (2000). Hinduism, A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press (OUP). p. 111.
  60. ↑ Paul Hacker, Dharma in Hinduism, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 34, No. 5, pages 479–496
  61. ↑ Feuerstein 2002, p. 600.
  62. ↑ Clarke 2006, p. 209.
  63. 1 2 3 4 5 6 King 1999.
  64. 1 2 Lorenzen 2002, p. 33.
  65. 1 2 3 4 Flood 1996, p. 258.
  66. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 256-261.
  67. ↑ Young, Serinity (2007). Hinduism. Marshall Cavendish. p. 87. ISBN 9780761421160. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  68. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 257.
  69. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 259.
  70. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 249.
  71. 1 2 3 4 5 Flood 1996, p. 265.
  72. 1 2 3 Flood 1996, p. 267.
  73. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 267-268.
  74. ↑ Turner 1996-A, p. 275.
  75. ↑ Ferro-Luzzi, (1991)The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism in G.D. Sontheimer and H. Kulke (ed.) Hinduism Reconsidered. Delhi: Manohar. pp. 187-95
  76. ↑ Doniger 1999, p. 434.
  77. ↑ Smith 1962, p. 65; Halbfass 1991, pp. 1–22
  78. ↑ Klostermaier 1994, p. 1
  79. ↑ Flood 1996, pp. 1, 7
  80. ↑ Lockard 2007, p. 50; Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12
  81. 1 2 3 Flood 1996, p. 16.
  82. 1 2 3 4 Halbfass 1991, p. 15.
  83. 1 2 3 Nicholson 2010.
  84. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 35.
  85. 1 2 Andrea Pinkney (2014), Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia (Editors: Bryan Turner and Oscar Salemink), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415635035, pages 31-32
  86. ↑ Jeffrey Haines (2008), Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415600293, page 80
  87. ↑ Halbfass 1991, p. 1.
  88. ↑ Nicholson 2010, p. 2; Lorenzen 2006, pp. 1–36
  89. 1 2 Lorenzen 2006, p. 36.
  90. 1 2 Lorenzen 1999, p. 648.
  91. ↑ Lorenzen 1999, p. 648,655.
  92. 1 2 Nicholson 2010, p. 2.
  93. ↑ Burley 2007, p. 34.
  94. ↑ Lorenzen 2006, p. 24-33.
  95. ↑ Lorenzen 2006, p. 27.
  96. ↑ Lorenzen 2006, p. 26-27.
  97. 1 2 Michaels 2004, p. 44.
  98. ↑ Hackel in Nicholson 2010
  99. ↑ King 2001.
  100. 1 2 King 1999, pp. 100-102.
  101. ↑ Sweetman 2004, pp. 14-15.
  102. ↑ Brian K. Pennington (2005), Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195166552, pages 76-77
  103. ↑ King 1999, p. 169.
  104. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sweetman 2004, p. 13.
  105. 1 2 Sweetman 2004, p. 13-14.
  106. ↑ Sweetman 2004, p. 14.
  107. ↑ Sweetman 2004, pp. 14-16.
  108. 1 2 Sweetman 2004, p. 15.
  109. ↑ Sweetman 2004, pp. 15-16.
  110. 1 2 Brian K. Pennington (2005), Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195166552, pages 4-5 and Chapter 6
  111. ↑ Klaus G Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120815735, pages 10-11
  112. ↑ John Henderson (2014), Scripture, Canon and Commentary, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691601724, page 120
  113. ↑ Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of Vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
  114. ↑ Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
  115. ↑ Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210
  116. ↑ Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, page 39
  117. ↑ Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in Julius Lipner (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, ISBN 978-1896209302, pp 16-21
  118. ↑ The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Dharma, The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions: "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."
  119. 1 2 Dharma, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, ISBN 978-0787650155
  120. 1 2 J. A. B. Van Buitenen, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp 33-40
  121. ↑ Charles Johnston, The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, Kshetra, ISBN 978-1495946530, page 481, for discussion: pages 478-505
  122. ↑ Paul Horsch (Translated by Jarrod Whitaker), From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol 32, pages 423–448, (2004)
  123. ↑ Swami Prabhupādā, A. C. Bhaktivedanta (1986), Bhagavad-gītā as it is, The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, p. 16, ISBN 9780892132683
  124. ↑ John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct., 1968), pp. 315-319
  125. ↑ James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pp 55-56
  126. ↑ Bruce Sullivan (1997), Historical Dictionary of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0810833272, pp 29-30
  127. ↑ Macy, Joanna (1975). "The Dialectics of Desire". Numen (BRILL) 22 (2): 145–60. doi:10.2307/3269765. JSTOR 3269765.
  128. ↑ Monier Williams, काम, kāma Monier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column
  129. ↑ See:
    • The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925), The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8;
    • A. Sharma (1982), The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology, Michigan State University, ISBN 9789993624318, pp 9-12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (Jul., 1984), pp. 140-142;
    • A. Sharma (1999), The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism, The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223-256;
    • Chris Bartley (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, Editor: Oliver Learman, ISBN 0-415-17281-0, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, pp 443
  130. ↑ R.C. Mishra, Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, Issue 1, pp 23, 27
  131. ↑ J. A. B. Van Buitenen, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp. 33-40
  132. 1 2 E. Deutsch, The self in Advaita Vedanta, in Roy Perrett (Editor), Indian philosophy: metaphysics, Volume 3, ISBN 0-8153-3608-X, Taylor and Francis, pp 343-360
  133. ↑ see:
    • Karl Potter, Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 8, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1958), pp. 49-63
    • Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp. 41-48;
    • Klaus Klostermaier, Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Jan., 1985), pp. 61-71
  134. ↑
    • Apte, Vaman S (1997), The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary (New ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, ISBN 81-208-0300-0
  135. ↑ Smith 1991, p. 64
  136. ↑ Karl Potter (1964), The Naturalistic Principle of Karma, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Apr., 1964), pp. 39-49
  137. 1 2 Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, pp xi-xxv (Introduction) and 3-37
  138. ↑ Karl Potter (1980), in Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions (O'Flaherty, Editor), University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, pp 241-267
  139. ↑ Radhakrishnan 1996, p. 254
  140. ↑ See Vivekananda, Swami (2005), Jnana Yoga, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1-4254-8288-0 pages 301-302 (8th Printing 1993)
  141. ↑ Christopher Chapple (1986), Karma and creativity, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-88706-251-2; pp 60-64
  142. ↑ Rinehart 2004, pp. 19–21
  143. ↑ J. Bruce Long (1980), The concepts of human action and rebirth in the Mahabharata, in Wendy D. O'Flaherty, Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, Chapter 2
  144. ↑ Europa Publications Staff (2003), The Far East and Australasia, 2003 - Regional surveys of the world, Routledge, p. 39, ISBN 978-1-85743-133-9
  145. ↑ Hindu spirituality - Volume 25 of Documenta missionalia, Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana, 1999, p. 1, ISBN 978-88-7652-818-7
  146. 1 2 see:
    • Karl Potter, Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 8, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1958), pp. 49-63
    • Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksha, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp. 41-48
  147. 1 2 Klaus Klostermaier, Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Jan., 1985), pp. 61-71
  148. ↑ see:
    • M. von Brück (1986), Imitation or Identification?, Indian Theological Studies, Vol. 23, Issue 2, pp 95-105
    • Klaus Klostermaier, Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Jan., 1985), pp. 61-71
  149. ↑ Andrew Fort (1998), Jivanmukti in Transformation, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-3904-6
  150. ↑ Julius J. Lipner (2010), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."
  151. ↑ Chakravarti, Sitansu (1991), Hinduism, a way of life, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., p. 71, ISBN 978-81-208-0899-7
  152. ↑ See Michaels 2004, p. xiv and Gill, N.S. "Henotheism". About, Inc. Retrieved 5 July 2007.
  153. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 226.
  154. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 226; Kramer 1986, pp. 20–21
  155. ↑
    • Original Sanskrit: Rigveda 10.129 Wikisource;
    • Translation 1: Max Muller (1859). A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Williams and Norgate, London. pp. 559–565.
    • Translation 2: Kenneth Kramer (1986). World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions. Paulist Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-8091-2781-4.
    • Translation 3: David Christian (2011). Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. University of California Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-520-95067-2.
  156. ↑ Max Muller (1878), Lectures on the Origins and Growth of Religions: As Illustrated by the Religions of India, Longmans Green & Co, pages 260-271;
    William Joseph Wilkins, Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic, p. 8, at Google Books, London Missionary Society, Calcutta
  157. ↑ HN Raghavendrachar (1944), Monism in the Vedas, The half-yearly journal of the Mysore University: Section A - Arts, Volume 4, Issue 2, pages 137-152;
    K Werner (1982), Men, gods and powers in the Vedic outlook, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, Volume 114, Issue 01, pages 14-24;
    H Coward (1995), Book Review:" The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas", Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Volume 8, Issue 1, pages 45-47, Quote: "There is little doubt that the theo-monistic category is an appropriate one for viewing a wide variety of experiences in the Hindu tradition".
  158. ↑ Monier-Williams 1974, pp. 20–37
  159. ↑ & Bhaskarananda 1994
  160. ↑ Vivekananda 1987
  161. ↑ John Koller (2012), Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415782944, pages 99-107
  162. ↑ Lance Nelson (1996), Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita, in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791427064, pages 38-39, 59 (footnote 105)
  163. 1 2 R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, ISBN 978-8180695957, pages 345-347
  164. ↑ Mircea Eliade (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691142036, pages 73-76
  165. ↑ Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967, Reprinted 1989), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 37-39, 401-403, 498-503
  166. ↑ Monier-Williams 2001
  167. ↑ Werner 1994, p. 80
  168. ↑ Renou 1964, p. 55
  169. 1 2 Harman 2004, pp. 104–106
  170. ↑ John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521126274, page 150
  171. ↑ Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0365-5, pages 209-10
  172. ↑ Reichenbach, Bruce R. (April 1989), "Karma, causation, and divine intervention", Philosophy East and West (Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press) 39 (2): 135–149 [145], doi:10.2307/1399374, retrieved 29 December 2009.
  173. ↑ Rajadhyaksha (1959), The six systems of Indian philosophy, p. 95, Under the circumstances God becomes an unnecessary metaphysical assumption. Naturally the Sankhyakarikas do not mention God, Vachaspati interprets this as rank atheism.
  174. ↑ Coward, Harold (February 2008). The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-7914-7336-8. For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them.
  175. ↑ Sen Gupta 1986, p. viii
  176. ↑ Neville, Robert (2001), Religious truth, p. 51, ISBN 978-0-7914-4778-9, Mimamsa theorists (theistic and atheistic) decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They also thought there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Veda or an independent God to validate the Vedic rituals.
  177. ↑ A Goel (1984), Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science, Sterling, ISBN 978-0865902787, pages 149-151;
    R Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674001879, page 836
  178. ↑ Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 337-338
  179. ↑ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, page 39-41;
    Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 38-39;
    Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover, ISBN 978-0486417929, pages 56-58
  180. ↑ Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 77-78
  181. ↑ Bryant 2007, p. 441.
  182. ↑ Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1-4051-3251-5, pages 200-203
  183. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Frazier, Jessica (2011). The Continuum companion to Hindu studies. London: Continuum. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0.
  184. ↑ Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest Indo-European texts.
  185. ↑ Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1-4051-3251-5, see Michael Witzel quote on pages 68-69
  186. ↑ Sargeant & Chapple 1984, p. 3
  187. ↑ Rinehart 2004, p. 68.
  188. ↑ Flood 2008, p. 4.
  189. ↑ Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 35-39
  190. ↑ A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, ISBN 978-0595384556, pages 8-14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195332612, page 285
  191. ↑ Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447016032
  192. ↑ Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages 1-5; Quote - "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul."
  193. ↑ Werner 1994, p. 166
  194. ↑ Monier-Williams 1974, pp. 25–41
  195. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1998), Upaniṣads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-282292-6, Introduction chapter
  196. 1 2 Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
  197. ↑ Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, page 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";
    Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210
  198. ↑ Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
  199. ↑ S Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads George Allen & Co., 1951, pages 17-19, Reprinted as ISBN 978-8172231248
  200. ↑ Patrick Olivelle (1998), Upaniṣhads. Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199540259, see Introduction
  201. ↑ Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Robert Hume (Translator)
  202. ↑ Sarvopaniṣado gāvo, etc. (Gītā Māhātmya 6). Gītā Dhyānam, cited in Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It Is. Archived August 15, 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  203. ↑ Thomas B. Coburn, Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 52, No. 3 (September, 1984), pp. 435-459
  204. ↑ Lorenzen 1999, p. 655.
  205. ↑ Michelis 2005.
  206. ↑ Vivekananda 1987, Vol I, pp. 6–7
  207. ↑ Harshananda 1989
  208. ↑ Jones & Bryan 2006, p. 13.
  209. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 13.
  210. ↑ Mariasusai Dhavamony (1999), Hindu Spirituality, Gregorian University and Biblical Press, ISBN 978-8876528187, pages 31-34 with footnotes
  211. ↑ David Smith (1996), The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521482349, page 116
  212. ↑ James G. Lochtefeld (2001), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8, Page 427
  213. ↑ Muesse, Mark W. (2011). The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction. Fortress Press. p. 216. ISBN 9780800697907.
  214. ↑ "Domestic Worship". Country Studies. The Library of Congress. September 1995. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
  215. ↑ A Sharma (1985), Marriage in the Hindu religious tradition. Journal Of Ecumenical Studies, 22(1), pages 69-80
  216. ↑ Shiva Bajpai (2011), The History of India - From Ancient to Modern Times, Himalayan Academy Publications (Hawaii, USA), ISBN 978-1-934145-38-8; see pages 4, 73-74
  217. 1 2 R Pandey (1969), Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments (2nd Ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0434-1
  218. ↑ David Knipe (2015), Vedic Voices: Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199397693, page 52
  219. 1 2 3 PV Kane, Samskara, Chapter VI, History of Dharmasastras, Vol II, Part I, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pages 190-417
  220. 1 2 Patrick Olivelle (2009), Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199555376, pages 90-91
  221. ↑ Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0813540689, pages 93-94
  222. ↑ For Vedic school, see: Brian Smith (1986), Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India, Numen, Vol. 33, Fasc. 1, pages 65-89
  223. ↑ For music school, see: Alison Arnold et al (1999), The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia, Vol 5, Routledge, ISBN 978-0824049461, page 459; For sculpture, crafts and other professions, see: Heather Elgood (2000), Hinduism and the religious arts, ISBN 978-0304707393, Bloomsbury Academic, pages 32-134
  224. ↑ Thomas N. Siqueira, The Vedic Sacraments, Thought, Volume 9, Issue 4, March 1935, pages 598-609, doi:10.5840/thought1935945
  225. ↑ Bhakti, Encyclopedia Britannica (2009)
  226. ↑ Karen Pechelis (2011), Bhakti Traditions, in The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies (Editors: Jessica Frazier, Gavin Flood), Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 107-121
  227. ↑ John Lochtefeld (2014), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York, ISBN 978-0823922871, pages 98-100, also see articles on karmamārga and jnanamārga
  228. ↑ John Martin Sahajananda (2014), Fully Human Fully Divine, Partridge India, ISBN 978-1482819557, page 60
  229. ↑ KN Tiwari (2009), Comparative Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802933, page 31
  230. ↑ Jan Gonda (1963), The Indian Mantra, Oriens, Vol. 16, pages 244-297
  231. ↑ JD Fowler (1996), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723608, pages 41-50
  232. ↑ Puja Encyclopedia Britannica (2015)
  233. ↑ Antoinette DeNapoli (2014), Real Sadhus Sing to God, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199940035, pages 19-24
  234. ↑ Robin Reinhart, Contemporary Hinduism: ritual, culture, and practice, ISBN 978-1-57607-905-8, pages 35-47
  235. ↑ Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903
  236. ↑ Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195644418, pages 72-75
  237. ↑ Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 22-29
  238. ↑ Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Gale Encyclopedia of Religion. Volume 2. Thompson Gale. pp. 856–857. ISBN 0-02-865735-7.
  239. ↑ Bob Robinson (2011), Hindus meeting Christians, OCMS, ISBN 978-1870345392, pages 288-295;
    Hendrick Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Cambridge: Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 978-0802840974, pages 68-69
  240. ↑ Ninian Smart (2012), The Yogi and the Devotee, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415684996, pages 52-80
  241. ↑ Jane Ardley (2015), Spirituality and Politics: Gandhian and Tibetan cases, in The Tibetan Independence Movement, Routledge, ISBN 978-1138862647, pages 98-99, also ix, 112-113;
    Helen Mitchell (2014), Roots of Wisdom: A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions, ISBN 978-1285197128, pages 188-189
  242. ↑ SN Bhavasar (2004), in Hindu Spirituality: Postclassical and Modern (Editors: K. R. Sundararajan and Bithika Mukerji), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120819375, pages 28-29
  243. 1 2 Sandra Robinson (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism (Editors: Denise Cush et al), Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712670, pages 908-912
  244. 1 2 Karen-Marie Yust (2005), Sacred Celebrations, in Nurturing Child and Adolescent Spirituality (Editor: Karen-Marie Yust), Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0742544635, page 234, see also Chapter 18
  245. 1 2 Sandra Robinson (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism (Editors: Denise Cush et al), Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712670, page 907
  246. ↑ Lynn Foulston and Stuart Abbott (2009), Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1902210438, page 155
  247. ↑ Dale Holberg et al (2000), Festival calendar of India, in Students' Britannica India, Volume 2, Encyclopedia Britannica (India), ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5, page 120, Quote: "Raksha Bandhan (also called Rakhi), when girls and women tie a rakhi (a symbolic thread) on their brothers' wrists and pray for their prosperity, happiness and goodwill. The brothers, in turn, give their sisters a token gift and promise protection."
  248. ↑ Jessica Frazier (2015), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1472511515, pages 255, 271-273
  249. ↑ The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback], Fuller 2004
  250. ↑ Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195644418, pages 132-180
  251. ↑ Hacker, Paul; Halbfass, Wilhelm (1995), Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedānta, SUNY Press, p. 264, ISBN 978-0-7914-2581-7
  252. ↑ Silverberg 1969, pp. 442–443
  253. ↑ Smelser & Lipset 2005
  254. ↑ Smith, Huston (1994). "Hinduism: The Stations of Life". The Illustrated World's Religions. New York City, USA: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-067440-7.
  255. ↑ Michaels 2004, pp. 188–197
  256. ↑ de Zwart, Frank (July 2000). "The Logic of Affirmative Action: Caste, Class and Quotas in India". Acta Sociologica 43 (3): 235–249. doi:10.1177/000169930004300304. JSTOR 4201209.
  257. ↑ P. 143 Aspects of Hindu Morality By Saral Jhingran
  258. ↑ Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses - Page 178, Suresh Chandra - 1998
  259. ↑ Bhaskarananda 1994
  260. ↑ Stephen Alter (2004), Elephas Maximus, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143031741, page 95
  261. ↑ Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 1041
  262. ↑ A David Napier (1987), Masks, Transformation, and Paradox, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520045330, page 186-187
  263. ↑ SD Sharma (2010), Rice: Origin, Antiquity and History, CRC Press, ISBN 978-1578086801, pages 68-70
  264. ↑ TA Gopinath Rao (1998), Elements of Hindu iconography, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120808782, pages 1-8
  265. ↑ JN Banerjea, The Development Of Hindu Iconography, Kessinger, ISBN 978-1417950089, pages 247-248, 472-508
  266. ↑ Monier-Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India (New Delhi, 1974 edition)
  267. ↑ Radhakrishnan, S (1929), Indian Philosophy, Volume 1, Muirhead library of philosophy (2nd ed.), London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., p. 148
  268. ↑ For ahiṃsā as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the Mahābhārata see: Brockington, John, "The Sanskrit Epics", in Flood (2003), p. 125.
  269. ↑ For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of yama as "vow of self-restraint", see: Taimni, I. K. (1961), The Science of Yoga, Adyar, India: The Theosophical Publishing House, p. 206, ISBN 81-7059-212-7
  270. ↑ Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: "Diary and poultry sector growth in India", Quote:"An analysis of consumption data originating from National Sample Survey (NSS) shows that 42 percent of households are vegetarian, in that they never eat fish, meat or eggs. The remaining 58 percent of households are less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians." "Indian consumer patterns" and "Agri reform in India". Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical. Archived June 26, 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  271. ↑ Neville Gregory and Temple Grandin (2007), Animal Welfare and Meat Production, CABI, ISBN 978-1845932152, pages 206-208
  272. ↑ Veena Das (2003), The Oxford India companion to sociology and social anthropology, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-195645820, pages 151–152
  273. ↑ Neelam Grover and Kashi N. Singh, Cultural Geography, Form and Process, Concept, ISBN 978-8180690747, page 366
  274. ↑ Maithily Jagannathan (2005), South Indian Hindu Festivals and Traditions, Abhinav, ISBN 978-8170174158, pages 53, 69; Pyong Gap Min (2010), Preserving Ethnicity through Religion in America, New York University Press, ISBN 978-0814795866, page 1
  275. ↑ Walker 1968:257
  276. ↑ Richman 1988:272
  277. ↑ Williams, Raymond. An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. 1st. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. 159
  278. ↑ Narayanan, Vasudha. "The Hindu Tradition". In A Concise Introduction to World Religions, ed. Willard G. Oxtoby and Alan F. Segal. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007
  279. ↑ Rosen, Steven. Essential Hinduism. 1st. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2006. Page 188
  280. ↑ KN Aiyar (1914), Thirty Minor Upanishads, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1164026419, Chapter 22, pages 173-176
  281. ↑ Hatha Yoga Pradipika verse 1.58-63, pages 19-21
  282. ↑ Lorenzen, David (1972). The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas. University of California Press. pp. 186–190. ISBN 978-0520018426.
  283. ↑ Christopher Key Chapple (2009), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 641-643
  284. ↑ Harold F., Smith (1 January 2007), "12", Outline of Hinduism, Read Books, ISBN 1-4067-8944-5
  285. ↑ Fuller Christopher John (2004), "4", The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India (Revised and Expanded ed.), Princeton University Press, p. 83, ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5
  286. ↑ Gouyon Anne; Bumi Kita Yayasan (30 September 2005), "The Hiden Life of Bali", The natural guide to Bali: enjoy nature, meet the people, make a difference, Equinox Publishing (Asia) Pte Ltd, p. 51, ISBN 979-3780-00-2, retrieved 12 August 2010
  287. ↑ Fuller C. J. (26 July 2004), "4 Sacrifice", The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback] (Revised ed.), Princeton University Press, p. 83, ISBN 0-691-12048-X
  288. ↑ Werner 1994, p. 73
  289. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 "The Four Denominations of Hinduism". Himalayan Academy. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
  290. 1 2 3 4 5 Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, ISBN 978-0814658567, pages 562-563
  291. 1 2 3 4 SS Kumar (2010), Bhakti - the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag Münster, ISBN 978-3643501301, pages 35-36
  292. ↑ Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, pages 371-375
  293. ↑ sometimes with Lakshmi, the spouse of Vishnu; or, as Narayana and Sri; see: Guy Beck (2006), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791464168, page 65 and Chapter 5
  294. ↑ "Iskcon". Retrieved 7 February 2014.
  295. 1 2 Edwin Bryant and Maria Ekstrand (2004), The Hare Krishna Movement, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231122566, pages 38-43
  296. ↑ Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, ISBN 978-0814658567, pages 1441, 376
  297. ↑ James Lochtefeld (2010), God's Gateway: Identity and Meaning in a Hindu Pilgrimage Place, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195386141
  298. ↑ Natalia Isaeva (1995), From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791424490, pages 141-145
  299. ↑ Massimo Scaligero (1955), The Tantra and the Spirit of the West, East and West, Vol. 5, No. 4, pages 291-296
  300. ↑ History: Hans Koester (1929), The Indian Religion of the Goddess Shakti, Journal of the Siam Society, Vol 23, Part 1, pages 1-18;
    Modern practices: June McDaniel (2010), Goddesses in World Culture, Volume 1 (Editor: Patricia Monaghan), ISBN 978-0313354656, Chapter 2
  301. ↑ William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 17, 2015)
  302. ↑ Murray Milner (1994), Status and Sacredness, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195084894, pages 194-197
  303. ↑ George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226532301, Chapter 4, pages 61-65
  304. 1 2 3 4 Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3, pages 1-16
  305. ↑ Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3, pages 161-169
  306. ↑ Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3, pp. 346-357 and 423-424
  307. ↑ Klaus Klostermaier, The Divine Presence in Space and Time - Murti, Tirtha, Kala; in A Survey of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4, State University of New York Press, pp. 268-277.
  308. ↑ Burton Stein, "The Economic Function of a Medieval South Indian Temple", The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 19 (February 1960), pages 163-176
  309. ↑ George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226532301, pages 58-65
  310. ↑ Alice Boner (1990), Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period, ISBN 978-8120807051, see Introduction and pp. 36-37.
  311. ↑ "Gopura". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
  312. ↑ "Nagara". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
  313. ↑ Meister, Michael W. (1981). "Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhāgā and Kansuān". Archives of Asian Art 34: 56–73. JSTOR 20111117.
  314. ↑ Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple, Vol. 1, ISBN 81-208-0223-3, pages 8-9
  315. ↑ Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Ashrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, OCLC 466428084, pages 1-29, 84-111
  316. 1 2 RK Sharma (1999), Indian Society, Institutions and Change, ISBN 978-8171566655, page 28
  317. 1 2 Alban Widgery (1930), The Principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, 40(2): 232-245
  318. ↑ Albertina Nugteren (2005), Belief, Bounty, And Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004146013, pages 13-21
  319. ↑ Saraswathi et al (2010), Reconceptualizing Lifespan Development through a Hindu Perspective, in Bridging Cultural and Developmental Approaches to Psychology (Editor: Lene Arnett Jensen), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195383430, page 280-286
  320. ↑ S. Radhakrishnan (1922), The Hindu Dharma, International Journal of Ethics, 33(1): 1-22
  321. 1 2 DP Bhawuk (2011), The Paths of Bondage and Liberation, in Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7, pages 93-110
  322. ↑ Alban Widgery (1930), The Principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, 40(2): 237-239
  323. ↑ Barbara Holdrege (2004), Dharma, in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0–415–21527–7, page 231
  324. ↑ Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Ashrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195344783
  325. ↑ Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 112
  326. ↑ Michaels 2004, p. 316
  327. 1 2 Khanna 2007, p. xvii.
  328. ↑ Misra 2004, p. 194.
  329. ↑ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 7.
  330. 1 2 Flood 1996, p. 21.
  331. ↑ Smart 2003, p. 52.
  332. ↑ Michaels 2004, p. 36.
  333. ↑ Michaels 2004, p. 38.
  334. ↑ Muesse 2003, p. 14.
  335. ↑ Lockard 2007, p. 50.
  336. ↑ Samuel 2010, pp. 41–42; Flood 1996, p. 16
  337. 1 2 3 White 2006, p. 28.
  338. 1 2 Gomez 2013, p. 42.
  339. ↑ Doniger 2010, p. 66.
  340. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2006, p. xvii.
  341. ↑ Narayanan 2009, p. 11; Lockard 2007, p. 52; Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 3; Jones & Ryan 2006, p. xviii
  342. ↑ Tiwari 2002, p. v; Lockard 2007, p. 52; Zimmer 1951, pp. 218–219; Larson 1995, p. 81
  343. 1 2 Tiwari 2002, p. v.
  344. ↑ Fuller 2004, p. 88.
  345. 1 2 Cousins 2010.
  346. 1 2 Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 13.
  347. ↑ Samuel 2010, p. 193-228, 339-353, specifically p.76-79 and p.199.
  348. ↑ Possehl 2002, p. 154.
  349. ↑ Possehl 2002, p. 141–156.
  350. ↑ Singh 2008, p. 185.
  351. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Michaels 2004, p. 33.
  352. ↑ Michaels 2004, p. 32.
  353. ↑ Witzel 1995, p. 3-4.
  354. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Witzel 1995.
  355. 1 2 Flood 1996, p. 30-35.
  356. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 5.
  357. 1 2 Singh 2008, p. 186.
  358. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 33.
  359. ↑ Samuel 2010, p. 41-48.
  360. ↑ Samuel 2010, p. 41-93.
  361. ↑ Stein 2010, p. 48-49.
  362. ↑ Samuel 2010, p. 61-93.
  363. 1 2 3 Samuel 2010.
  364. ↑ Samuel 2010, p. 53-56.
  365. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 30.
  366. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 5-7.
  367. ↑ B. S. Ahloowalia (2009). Invasion of the Genes Genetic Heritage of India. Strategic Book Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60860-691-7.
  368. ↑ Roger D. Woodard (18 August 2006). Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. University of Illinois Press. pp. 242–. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4.
  369. 1 2 3 Beckwith 2009, p. 32.
  370. 1 2 Anthony 2007, p. 462.
  371. ↑ Anthony 2007, p. 454-455.
  372. 1 2 3 Anthony 2007, p. 49.
  373. ↑ Anthony 2007, p. 50.
  374. ↑ Flood 2008, p. 68.
  375. ↑ Melton & Baumann 2010, p. 1412.
  376. ↑ Basham 1989, p. 74-75.
  377. ↑ White, David Gordon (2003). Kiss of the Yogini. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-226-89483-5.
  378. ↑ Gombrich 1996, p. 35-36.
  379. ↑ Samuel 2010, p. 48-51, 61-93.
  380. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 8-10.
  381. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 37.
  382. ↑ Witzel 1995, p. 4.
  383. ↑ Anthony 2007, p. 454.
  384. ↑ Oberlies 1998 p.158
  385. ↑ Lucas F. Johnston, Whitney Bauman (2014). Science and Religion: One Planet, Many Possibilities. Routledge. p. 179.
  386. 1 2 Neusner, Jacob (2009), World Religions in America: An Introduction, Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 978-0-664-23320-4
  387. ↑ Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (2010), Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, ABC-CLIO, p. 1324, ISBN 978-1-59884-204-3
  388. ↑ Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, p. 82, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0
  389. ↑ KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-8120806191, pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards;
    Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791422175, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";
    Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 2, at Google Books, pages 2-4
    Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now
  390. ↑ John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".
  391. ↑ For the impact of "soul exists" concept in later Hinduism, see Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 3, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages 3-4; Quote - "(...) Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert that the soul does not exist. There are four sects among the followers of Buddha: 1. Madhyamicas who maintain all is void; 2. Yogacharas, who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas, who affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4. Vaibhashikas, who agree with later (Sautranticas) except that they contend for immediate apprehension of exterior objects through images or forms represented to the intellect."
  392. ↑ Richard King (1995), Ācārya, Gauḍapāda - Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2513-8, pages 51-58
  393. ↑ Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, Chapter 1
  394. ↑ Pratt, James Bissett (1996), The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage, Asian Educational Services, p. 90, ISBN 978-81-206-1196-2
  395. ↑ Nath 2001, p. 21.
  396. ↑ Embree 1988, p. 277.
  397. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 14.
  398. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 20.
  399. ↑ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi
  400. 1 2 Michaels 2004, p. 40.
  401. ↑ Michell 1977, p. 18.
  402. ↑ Nath 2001, p. 19.
  403. ↑ Sharma, Peri Sarveswara (1980). Anthology of Kumārilabhaṭṭa's Works. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. p. 5.
  404. 1 2 3 Michaels 2004, p. 42.
  405. ↑ Inden 1998, p. 67.
  406. ↑ Vinay Lal, Buddhism's Disappearance from India
  407. ↑ Sanderson, Alexis (2009), "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo, Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pages 41-43.
  408. ↑ Sanderson, Alexis (2009), "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo, Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pages 44-47
  409. 1 2 Inden 1978, pp. 39-45, 55, 67.
  410. ↑ John Holt (2014), The Buddhist Visnu, Columbia University Press, p. 12,15
  411. ↑ Sanderson, Alexis. "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism,edited by Shingo Einoo. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pp. 124.
  412. ↑ Sanderson, Alexis. "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism,edited by Shingo Einoo. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pp. 129-131.
  413. ↑ Sanderson, Alexis. "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism,edited by Shingo Einoo. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pp. 144-145.
  414. ↑ Huber, Toni (2008). The holy land reborn : pilgrimage & the Tibetan reinvention of Buddhist India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-226-35648-8.
  415. ↑ Nakamura 2004, p. 680.
  416. ↑ Gaborieau 1985.
  417. ↑ Novetzke 2013, p. 138-140.
  418. ↑ Larson 1995, p. 110, quoting Peter Hardy
  419. ↑ Eaton 2000a, p. 62: "A dangerously plausible picture of fanaticism, vandalism and villainy on the part of the Indo-Muslim conquerors and rulers" has been built up in recent times. "This picture has been based largely on Persian material first translated by the British rulers, and used to create a favourable comparison of the British rule with their Islamic predecessors."
  420. ↑ Wink 1991, p. 14-16, 61-62, 172-174(p. 62) Their [slaves who were Sindians and Indians] number can only be guessed but was not large and definitely was dwarfed by the export of slaves from India during the Ghaznavid and Ghurid raids in northern India in the eleventh to thirteenth centuries." "From the Kanauj campaign of 1018 until the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by Aybak in 1206 a vast stream of perhaps more than several hundred thousands of Indian slaves reached Ghazna, and hence were traced to other parts of the Islamic world. In the thirteenth century Delhi developed into a considerable slave market. (...) Timur's capture of Delhi in 1398-9 provided the last massive haul of Hindu slaves by an invader, and after the fourteenth century slavery in India generally declined in scale."
  421. 1 2 Eaton 2006, pp. 11-12.
  422. ↑ Wink 1991, p. 62.
  423. ↑ Eaton 2006, p. 11: "In 1562 Akbar abolished the practice of enslaving the families of war captives; his son Jahangir banned sending of slaves from Bengal as tribute in lieu of cash, which had been the custom since the 14th century. These measures notwithstanding, the Mughals actively participated in slave trade with Central Asia, deporting rebels and subjects who had defaulted on revenue payments, following precedents inherited from Delhi Sultanate".
  424. ↑ Grapperhaus 2009, p. 118.
  425. ↑ Ayalon 1986, p. 271.
  426. ↑ Avari 2013, p. 115: citing a 2000 study, writes "Aurangzeb was perhaps no more culpable than most of the sultans before him; they desecrated the temples associated with Hindu power, not all temples. It is worth noting that, in contrast to the traditional claim of hundreds of Hindu temples having been destroyed by Aurangzeb, a recent study suggests a modest figure of just fifteen destructions."

    In contrast to Avari, the historian Abraham Eraly estimates Aurangzeb era destruction to be significantly higher; "in 1670, all temples around Ujjain were destroyed"; and later, "300 temples were destroyed in and around Chitor, Udaipur and Jaipur" among other Hindu temples destroyed elsewhere in campaigns through 1705.[427]

    The persecution during the Islamic period targeted non-Hindus as well. Avari writes, "Aurangzeb's religious policy caused friction between him and the ninth Sikh guru, Tegh Bahadur. In both Punjab and Kashmir the Sikh leader was roused to action by Aurangzeb's excessively zealous Islamic policies. Seized and taken to Delhi, he was called upon by Aurangzeb to embrace Islam and, on refusal, was tortured for five days and then beheaded in November 1675. Two of the ten Sikh gurus thus died as martyrs at the hands of the Mughals. (Avari (2013), page 155)
  427. ↑ Abraham Eraly (2000), Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0141001432, pages 398-399
  428. ↑ Basham 1999.
  429. ↑ Smith 1999, p. 381-384.
  430. ↑ Larson 1995, p. 109.
  431. 1 2 Larson 1995, p. 111.
  432. 1 2 Larson 1995, p. 112.
  433. ↑ Hardy 1977.
  434. ↑ Malik 2008, p. 183-187.
  435. ↑ Avari 2013, pp. 66-70: "Many Hindu slaves converted to Islam and gained their liberty."
  436. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mādhava Āchārya". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  437. ↑ Cynthia Talbot (2001), Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195136616, pages 185–187, 199–201
  438. ↑ Paul Hacker, Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta (Editor: Wilhelm Halbfass), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791425824, pages 29–30
  439. ↑ R. Blake Michael (1992), The Origins of Vīraśaiva Sects, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807761, pages 60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8
  440. ↑ "Bal Gangadhar Tilak". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  441. ↑ http://www.britannica.com/place/India/Political-and-economic-decentralization-during-the-Mughal-decline#toc46985
  442. ↑ Basham 1999
  443. ↑ Flood 2006, p. 34.
  444. ↑ Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 3-4, 15-28
  445. ↑ J.T.F. Jordens, "Medieval Hindu Devotionalism" in & Basham 1999
  446. ↑ Karine Schomer and WH McLeod, (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120802773, pages 1-3
  447. 1 2 King 2002.
  448. ↑ King 2002, p. 118.
  449. 1 2 King 1999-B.
  450. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 114.
  451. ↑ King 2002, p. 119-120.
  452. ↑ King 2002, p. 123.
  453. ↑ Muesse 2011, p. 3-4.
  454. ↑ Doniger 2010, p. 18.
  455. ↑ Jouhki 2006, p. 10-11.
  456. ↑ Changing the Game: Why the Battle for Animal Liberation Is So Hard and How We Can Win It By Norm Phelps
  457. ↑ P. 250 Educational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine: The a to Z Healing Arts Guide and Professional Resource Directory By Douglas A. Wengell
  458. ↑ Ram-Prasad, C (2003). "Contemporary political Hinduism". In Flood, Gavin. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 526–550. ISBN 0-631-21535-2.
  459. ↑ Rinehart 2004, p. 196-197.
  460. ↑ McMahan 2008.
  461. ↑ Sharf 1993.
  462. ↑ Sharf 1995.
  463. ↑ Rinehart 2004, p. 198.
  464. ↑ "Peringatan".
  465. ↑ "Vietnam". State.gov. 2002-10-22. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
  466. ↑ "Resident population by religion and sex" (PDF). Statistics Mauritius. p. 68. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
  467. ↑ Pew Research (2015), The Future of World Religions, Washington DC;
    John Schwarz (2015), What's Christianity All About?, Wipf and Stock Publishers, ISBN 978-1498225373, page 176
  468. 1 2 3 Arvind Sharma (2011), Hinduism as a Missionary Religion, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438432113, pages 31-53
  469. ↑ Jan Gonda, The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions at Google Books, pages 1-47
  470. ↑ Richadiana Kartakusama (2006), Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective (Editors: Truman Simanjuntak et al.), Yayasan Obor Indonesia, ISBN 979-2624996, pp. 406-419
  471. ↑ Reuter, Thomas (September 2004). Java's Hinduism Revivial. Hinduism Today.
  472. ↑ A Sharma (2012), Hinduism as a Missionary Religion, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438432120, page 84
  473. ↑ Peter Wick and Volker Rabens (2013), Religions and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange Between East and West, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004255289, page 70 with footnotes 13 and 14
  474. 1 2 3 Rafiuddin Ahmed (1992), Muslim-Christian Polemics, in Religious Controversy in British India: Dialogues in South Asian Languages (Editor: Kenneth Jones), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791408278, pages 93-120
  475. 1 2 3 Ayesha Jalal (2010), Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674047365, pages 117-146
  476. ↑ Martin Parsons (2006), Unveiling God: Contextualising Christology for Islamic Culture, William Carey Press, ISBN 978-0878084548, pages 4-15, 19-27
  477. ↑ Avril Powell (1976), Maulānā Raḥmat Allāh Kairānawī and Muslim-Christian Controversy in India in the Mid-19th Century, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (New Series), Volume 108, Issue 01, pages 42-63; Avril Powell (1995), Contested gods and prophets: discourse among minorities in late nineteenth‐century Punjab, Renaissance and Modern Studies, Volume 38, Issue 1, pages 38-59
  478. 1 2 3 CS Adcock (2014), The Limits of Tolerance: Indian Secularism and the Politics of Religious Freedom, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199995448, pages 1-35, 115-168
  479. ↑ Harold Coward (1987), Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887065729, pages 49-60
  480. ↑ Gauri Viswanathan (1998), Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, and Belief, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691058993, pages 153-176
  481. ↑ SS Subramuniyaswami (2000), How to become a Hindu, 2nd Edition, Himalayan Academy, ISBN 0945497822, pages 115-118
  482. ↑ Sebastian Kim (2005), In Search of Identity: Debates on Religious Conversion in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195677126, pages 1-29
  483. ↑ Muhammad Khalid Masud (2005), Islamic Legal Interpretation: Muftis and Their Fatwas, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0195979114, pages 193-203
  484. ↑ Ankur Barua (2015), Debating 'Conversion' in Hinduism and Christianity, Routledge, ISBN 978-1138847019, Chapters 2 and 8
  485. ↑ Robert Hefner (2003), Hinduism in Modern Indonesia (Editor: Martin Ramstedt), Routledge Curzon, ISBN 978-0700715336, pages 93-108

Sources

Printed sources

Web-sources

  1. 1 2 3 "The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica", sanatana dharma, Encyclopedia Britannica
  2. ↑ "The Global Religious Landscape - Hinduism". A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010. The pew foundation. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
  3. ↑ Ninian Smart (2007). "Polytheism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 5 July 2007.
  4. ↑ Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra I.92.
  5. ↑ "Swami Shivananda's mission". Retrieved 25 June 2007.
  6. ↑ "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955". Archived from the original on 5 June 2007. Retrieved 25 June 2007.
  7. ↑ "Life-Cycle Rituals". Country Studies: India. The Library of Congress. September 1995. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
  8. ↑ Manu Smriti Laws of Manu 1.87-1.91
  9. ↑ V, Jayaram. "The Hindu Caste System". Hinduwebsite. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
  10. ↑ Venkataraman, Swaminathan; Deshpande, Pawan. "Hinduism: Not Cast In Caste". Hindu American Foundation. Retrieved 28 November 2012.
  11. ↑ "Religious or Secular: Animal Slaughter a Shame". The Hindu American foundation. 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
  12. ↑ PHILTAR, Division of Religion and Philosophy, University of Cumbria, Tribal Religions of India
  13. ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica, yaksha
  14. ↑ "Itihasas". ReligionFacts. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
  15. ↑ "Vijayanagar". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  16. ↑ "Yoga Therapy in Australia" by Leigh Blashki, M.H.Sc. Archived April 3, 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  17. ↑ "The Growing Global Interest In Yoga" Monday 16 April 2012 Archived February 13, 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ↑ "The World Factbook".
  19. ↑ 2011 Nepal Census Report
  20. ↑ "The World Factbook".
  21. ↑ "The World Factbook".
  22. ↑ "Bhutan". U.S. Department of State.
  23. ↑ "Suriname". U.S. Department of State.
  24. ↑ Department of Census and Statistics,The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011
  25. ↑ "SVRS 2010" (PDF). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2012.
  26. ↑ "The World Factbook".
  27. ↑ Singapore Department of Statistics (12 January 2011). "Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  28. ↑ "The World Factbook".

Further reading

Scholarly
Origins
Texts
Native

External links

Research on Hinduism

Audio on Hinduism

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Monday, February 15, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.