Uvular trill
Not to be confused with Alveolar trill.
Voiced uvular trill
| Uvular trill | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ʀ | |||
| IPA number | 123 | ||
| Encoding | |||
| Entity (decimal) |
ʀ | ||
| Unicode (hex) | U+0280 | ||
| X-SAMPA |
R\ | ||
| Kirshenbaum |
r" | ||
| Braille |
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| Sound | |||
 source · help | |||
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The uvular trill is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʀ⟩, a small capital letter R. This consonant is one of several collectively called guttural R.
Features
Features of the uvular trill:
- Its manner of articulation is trill, which means it is produced by directing air over the articulator so that it vibrates.
- Its place of articulation is uvular, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue (the dorsum) at the uvula.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
Distribution of guttural R (e.g. [ʁ ʀ χ]) in Continental Europe at the end of the 20th century.[1]
not usual
only in some educated speech
usual in educated speech
general
There are two main theories regarding the origination of the uvular trill in European languages. According to one theory, the uvular trill originated in Standard French around the seventeenth century, spreading to standard varieties of German, Danish, Portuguese, as well as in parts of Dutch, Norwegian, and Swedish; it is also present in other areas of Europe, but it is not clear if such pronunciations are due to French influence.[2] In most cases, varieties have shifted this to a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ] or a voiced uvular approximant [ʁ̞].
The other main theory posits that the uvular R originated within Germanic languages through a process where the alveolar R was weakened and then replaced by an imitation of the alveolar R (vocalisation).[3] As counterevidence against the "French origin" theory, it is stipulated that there are many signs that the uvular R existed in certain German dialects long before the 17th century.
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afrikaans | Parts of the former Cape Province[4] | rooi | [ʀoːi̯] | 'red' | May be a fricative [ʁ] instead.[4] See Afrikaans phonology |
| Catalan | Some northern dialects[5] | córrer | [koˈʀe] | 'to run' | See Catalan phonology |
| Dutch[6][7][8][9] | Belgian Limburg[10][11] | rood |  [ʀo:t] |
'red' | More commonly a tap.[12] Uvular pronunciations appear to be gaining ground in the Randstad.[13] Realization of /r/ varies considerably among dialects. See Dutch phonology |
| Central Netherlands[14] | |||||
| Randstad[14] | |||||
| Southern Netherlands[14] | |||||
| Flemish Brabant[11] | More commonly a tap.[12] It is one of the least common realizations of /r/ in these areas.[15] See Dutch phonology | ||||
| Northern Netherlands[14] | |||||
| West Flanders[11] | |||||
| English | Cape Flats dialect[16] | red | [ʀɛd] | 'red' | Possible realization of /r/; may be [ɹ ~ ɹ̝ ~ ɾ ~ r] instead.[16] |
| Northumbrian dialect[17] | More often a fricative.[17] Dialectal "Northumbrian Burr", mostly found in eastern Northumberland, declining. See English phonology | ||||
| Sierra Leonean[17] | More often a fricative.[17] | ||||
| French[18] | rendez-vous | [ʀɑ̃devu] |
'appointment' | Dialectal. More commonly an approximant or a fricative [ʁ]. See French phonology | |
| German | Standard[19] | rot | [ˈʀoːt] |
'red' | In free variation with a voiced uvular fricative and approximant. See German phonology |
| Hebrew | ירוק | [jaˈʀok] | 'green' | May also be a fricative or approximant. See Modern Hebrew phonology | |
| Italian[20] | Northern dialects[21] | raro | [ˈʀäːʀo] | 'rare' | Some speakers, especially in Parma. May also be a fricative [ʁ] or a labiodental approximant [ʋ].[21] |
| Judaeo-Spanish | mujer | [muˈʒɛʀ] | 'woman', 'wife' | ||
| Luxembourgish | Older speakers[22] | Mauer | [ˈmɑ̝ʊ̯əʀ] | 'wall' | Realized as [ə ~ ɐ] by younger speakers.[22] See Luxembourgish phonology |
| Standard[23] | Rou | [ʀəu̯] | 'silence' | Pre-vocalic allophone of /ʀ/; less often realized as a fricative [ʁ].[22] See Luxembourgish phonology | |
| Occitan | Eastern | garric | [ɡaʀi] | 'oak' | Contrasts with alveolar trill ([ɡari] 'cured') |
| Provençal | parts | [paʀ] | 'parts' | See Occitan phonology | |
| Southern Auvergnat | garçon | [ɡaʀˈsu] | 'son' | ||
| Southeastern Limousin | filh | [fʲiʀ] | |||
| Portuguese | European[24] | rarear | [ʀəɾiˈaɾ] | 'to get scarcer' | Alternates with other uvular forms and the older alveolar trill. See Portuguese phonology |
| Fluminense[25] | mercado | [me̞ʀˈkaðu] | 'market', 'fair' | Tendency to be replaced by fricative pronunciations. In coda position, it is generally in free variation with [x], [χ], [ʁ], [ħ] and [h] before non-voicing environments | |
| Sulista[25] | repolho | [ʀe̞ˈpoʎ̟ʊ] | 'cabbage' | ||
| Romani | Some dialects | rom | [ʀom] | 'man' | Allophone of a descendant of the Indic retroflex set, so often transcribed /ɽ/. A coronal flap, approximant or trill in other dialects; in some it merges with /r/ |
| Selkup | Northern dialects | [ˈqaʀlɪ̈] | 'sledge' | Allophone of /q/ before liquids | |
| Sioux | Lakota[26][27] | ǧí | [ʀí] | 'it's brown' | Allophone of /ʁ/ before /i/ |
| Sotho | Regional variant | moriri | [moʀiʀi] | 'hair' | Imported from French missionaries. See Sesotho phonology |
| Swedish | Southern[28] | räv | [ʀɛːv] | 'fox' | See Swedish phonology |
| Yiddish | Standard[29] | בריק | [bʀɪk] | 'bridge' | More commonly a flap [ʀ̆]; can be alveolar [ɾ ~ r] instead.[29] See Yiddish phonology |
Voiced uvular raised non-sonorant trill
| Voiced uvular raised non-sonorant trill | |
|---|---|
| ʀ̝ | |
| IPA number | 123 429 |
| Encoding | |
| X-SAMPA |
R\_r |
Features
Features of the voiced uvular raised non-sonorant trill:
- Its manner of articulation is fricative trill, which means it is a non-sibilant fricative and a trill pronounced simultaneously.
- Its place of articulation is uvular, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue (the dorsum) at the uvula.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
It is phonemic in the Maastrichtian and Weert dialects of Limburgish, though in neither of these does it contrast with a plain uvular trill.[30][31]
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Danish[32] | rød | [ʀ̝ɶð̞] | 'red' | Word-initial allophone of /ʁ/, used only sometimes when emphasising a word.[32] Otherwise a continuant, described variously as uvular [ʁ] and pharyngeal [ʕ]. See Danish phonology | |
| Dutch | Belgian[33] | sturen | [ˈstÿːʀ̝ə(n)] | 'to send' | Only when following a vowel, otherwise it is voiceless.[34] Realization of /r/ varies considerably among dialects. See Dutch phonology |
| Limburgish | Maastrichtian[30] | drei | [dʀ̝ɛi̯] | 'three' | Either uvular [ʀ̝] or pre-uvular [ʀ̝˖].[30][31] |
| Weert dialect[31] | drej | [dʀ̝æj] | |||
| Portuguese | Lisbon[32] | ritmo | [ˈʀ̝it̪mu] | 'rhythm' | Common realization of word-initial /ʀ/.[32] See Portuguese phonology |
| West Flemish | Bruges dialect[35] | onder | [ˈuŋəʀ̝] | 'under' | A trill with little friction. An alveolar [r] is used in the neighbouring rural area.[35] |
See also
References
- ↑ Map based on Trudgill (1974:220) and (for Italy) Canepari (1999:486)
- ↑ Trudgill (1974:221), citing Moulton (1952), Ewert (1963), and Martinet (1969)
- ↑ Bisiada (2009).
- 1 2 Donaldson (1993), p. 15.
- ↑ Wheeler (2005), pp. 24.
- ↑ Booij (1999), p. 8.
- ↑ Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 42, 54, 77, 165, 199–200.
- ↑ Goeman & van de Velde (2001), pp. 91–92, 94–97, 99–104.
- ↑ Verstraten & van de Velde (2001), pp. 45–46, 51, 53–55, 58.
- ↑ Verhoeven (2005), pp. 243 and 245.
- 1 2 3 Verstraten & van de Velde (2001), p. 52.
- 1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), p. 42.
- ↑ Collins & Mees (2003), p. 209.
- 1 2 3 4 Verstraten & van de Velde (2001), p. 54.
- ↑ Verstraten & van de Velde (2001), pp. 52 and 54.
- 1 2 Finn (2004), p. 976.
- 1 2 3 4 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 236.
- ↑ Grevisse & Goosse (2008), pp. 22–36.
- ↑ Hall (1993), p. 89.
- ↑ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 225.
- 1 2 Canepari (1999), pp. 98–101.
- 1 2 3 Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 68.
- ↑ Gilles & Trouvain (2013), pp. 67–68.
- ↑ Mateus & d'Andrade (2000), p. 11.
- 1 2 Acoustic analysis of vibrants in Brazilian Portuguese (Portuguese)
- ↑ Rood & Taylor (1996).
- ↑ Lakota Language Consortium (2004). Lakota letters and sounds.
- ↑ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:225–226)
- 1 2 Kleine (2003:263)
- 1 2 3 Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), p. 156.
- 1 2 3 Heijmans & Gussenhoven (1998), p. 108.
- 1 2 3 4 Grønnum (2005), p. 157.
- ↑ Tops (2009), pp. 25, 30-32, 63, 80-88, 97-100, 105, 118, 124-127, 134-135, 137-138 and 140-141.
- ↑ Tops (2009), p. 83.
- 1 2 Hinskens & Taeldeman (2013), p. 167.
Bibliography
- Bisiada, Mario (2009), "[R] in Germanic Dialects — Tradition or Innovation?", Vernacular 1: 84–99
- Booij, Geert (1999), The phonology of Dutch, Oxford University Press
- Canepari, Luciano (1999) [1992], Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana [Handbook of Italian Pronunciation] (in Italian) (2 ed.), Bologna: Zanichelli, ISBN 88-08-24624-8
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003), The Phonetics of English and Dutch, Fifth Revised Edition (PDF), ISBN 9004103406
- Donaldson, Bruce C. (1993), "1. Pronunciation", A Grammar of Afrikaans, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1–35, ISBN 9783110134261
- Ewert, A. (1963), The French Language, London: Faber
- Finn, Peter (2004), "Cape Flats English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive, A handbook of varieties of English, 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 934–984, ISBN 3-11-017532-0
- Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
- Goeman, Ton; van de Velde, Hans (2001), "Co-occurrence constraints on /r/ and /ɣ/ in Dutch dialects", in van de Velde, Hans; van Hout, Roeland, 'r-atics, Brussels: Etudes & Travaux, pp. 91–112, ISSN 0777-3692
- Grevisse, Maurice; Goosse, André (2008), Le Bon Usage (14th ed.), De Boeck et Larcier
- Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, ISBN 87-500-3865-6
- Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association (University of Nijmegen, Centre for Language Studies) 29: 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526
- Hall, Tracy Alan (1993), "The phonology of German /ʀ/", Phonology 10 (1): 83–105, doi:10.1017/S0952675700001743, JSTOR 4615428
- Heijmans, Linda; Gussenhoven, Carlos (1998), "The Dutch dialect of Weert" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association 28: 107–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006307
- Hinskens, Frans; Taeldeman, Johan, eds. (2013), Dutch, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018005-3
- Kleine, Ane (2003), "Standard Yiddish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 33 (2): 261–265, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001385
- Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19814-8.
- Martinet, A. (1969), Le Français sans fard, Paris: Presses Universitaires
- Mateus, Maria Helena; d'Andrade, Ernesto (2000), The Phonology of Portuguese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-823581-X
- Moulton, W.G. (1952), "Jacob Böhme's uvular r", Journal of English and Germanic philology 51: 83–89
- Rood, David S.; Taylor, Allan R. (1996), "Sketch of Lakhota, a Siouan Language, Part I", Handbook of North American Indians 17, Smithsonian Institution, pp. 440–482
- Tops, Evie (2009), Variatie en verandering van de /r/ in Vlaanderen, Brussels: VUBPress, ISBN 9789054874713
- Trudgill, Peter (1974), "Linguistic change and diffusion: Description and explanation in sociolinguistic dialect", Language in Society 3 (2): 215–246, doi:10.1017/S0047404500004358
- Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 35 (2): 243–247, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002173
- Verstraten, Bart; van de Velde, Hans (2001), "Socio-geographical variation of /r/ in standard Dutch", in van de Velde, Hans; van Hout, Roeland, 'r-atics, Brussels: Etudes & Travaux, pp. 45–61, ISSN 0777-3692
- Wheeler, Max W. (2005), The Phonology Of Catalan, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925814-7
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