Turkey vulture

Turkey vulture
At Santa Teresa County Park, San Jose, California, US
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Cathartiformes
Family: Cathartidae
Genus: Cathartes
Species: C. aura
Binomial name
Cathartes aura
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Range of C. aura      Summer only range     Year-round range

The turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), also known in some North American regions as the turkey buzzard (or just buzzard), and in some areas of the Caribbean as the John crow or carrion crow,[2] is a vulture that is the most widespread of the New World vultures.[3] One of three species in the genus Cathartes of the family Cathartidae, the turkey vulture ranges from southern Canada to the southernmost tip of South America. It inhabits a variety of open and semi-open areas, including subtropical forests, shrublands, pastures, and deserts.[1]

Like all New World vultures, it is not closely related to the Old World vultures of Europe, Africa, and Asia. The two groups strongly resemble each other because of convergent evolution; natural selection often leads to similar body plans in animals that adapt independently to the same conditions.

The turkey vulture is a scavenger and feeds almost exclusively on carrion.[4] It finds its food using its keen eyes and sense of smell, flying low enough to detect the gases produced by the beginnings of the process of decay in dead animals.[4] In flight, it uses thermals to move through the air, flapping its wings infrequently. It roosts in large community groups. Lacking a syrinx—the vocal organ of birds—its only vocalizations are grunts or low hisses.[5] It nests in caves, hollow trees, or thickets. Each year it generally raises two chicks, which it feeds by regurgitation.[6] It has very few natural predators.[7] In the United States, the vulture receives legal protection under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.[8]

Taxonomy

In flight over Florida

The turkey vulture received its common name from the resemblance of the adult's bald red head and its dark plumage to that of the male wild turkey, while the name "vulture" is derived from the Latin word vulturus, meaning "tearer," and is a reference to its feeding habits.[9] The word buzzard is used by North Americans to refer to this bird, yet in the Old World that term refers to members of the genus Buteo.[10] The generic term Cathartes means "purifier" and is the Latinized form from the Greek kathartēs/καθαρτης.[11] The turkey vulture was first formally described by Linnaeus as Vultur aura in his Systema Naturae in 1758, and characterised as V. fuscogriseus, remigibus nigris, rostro albo ("brown-gray vulture, with black wings and a white beak").[12] It is a member of the family Cathartidae, along with the other six species of New World vultures, and included in the genus Cathartes, along with the greater yellow-headed vulture and the lesser yellow-headed vulture. Like other New World vultures, the turkey vulture has a diploid chromosome number of 80.[13]

The taxonomic placement of the turkey vulture and the remaining six species of New World vultures has been in flux.[14] Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles, the New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world. Some earlier authorities suggested that the New World vultures were more closely related to storks.[15] More recent authorities maintained their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures[16] or place them in their own order, Cathartiformes.[17]

However, recent genetic studies have made it clear that neither New World or Old World vultures are close to falcons, nor are New World vultures close to storks.[18] Both are basal members of the clade Afroaves,[19] with Old World vultures comprising several groups within the family Accipitridae, also containing eagles, kites, and hawks,[20][21] while New World vultures in Cathartiformes are a sister group to Accipitriformes[19] (containing the osprey and secretarybird along with Accipitridae[21]).

There are five subspecies of turkey vulture:

Description

Sounds of a turkey vulture
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A large bird, it has a wingspan of 160–183 cm (63–72 in), a length of 62–81 cm (24–32 in), and weight of 0.8 to 2.3 kg (1.8 to 5.1 lb).[26][27][28] Birds in the northern limit of the species' range average larger in size than the vulture from the neotropics. 124 birds from Florida averaged 2 kg (4.4 lb) while 65 and 130 birds from Venezuela were found to average 1.22 and 1.45 kg (2.7 and 3.2 lb), respectively.[29][30][31] It displays minimal sexual dimorphism; sexes are identical in plumage and in coloration, although the female is slightly larger.[32] The body feathers are mostly brownish-black, but the flight feathers on the wings appear to be silvery-gray beneath, contrasting with the darker wing linings.[26] The adult's head is small in proportion to its body and is red in color with few to no feathers. It also has a relatively short, hooked, ivory-colored beak.[33] The irises of the eyes are gray-brown; legs and feet are pink-skinned, although typically stained white. The eye has a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid.[34]

The two front toes of the foot are long and have small webs at their bases.[35] Tracks are large, between 9.5 and 14 cm (3.7 and 5.5 in) in length and 8.2 and 10.2 cm (3.2 and 4.0 in) in width, both measurements including claw marks. Toes are arranged in the classic, anisodactyl pattern.[36] The feet are flat, relatively weak, and poorly adapted to grasping; the talons are also not designed for grasping, as they are relatively blunt.[3] In flight, the tail is long and slim. The black vulture is relatively shorter-tailed and shorter-winged, which makes it appear rather smaller in flight than the turkey vulture, although the body masses of the two species are roughly the same. The nostrils are not divided by a septum, but rather are perforate; from the side one can see through the beak.[37] It undergoes a molt in late winter to early spring. It is a gradual molt, which lasts until early autumn.[6] The immature bird has a gray head with a black beak tip; the colors change to those of the adult as the bird matures.[38] Captive longevity is not well known. As of 2015 there are two captive birds over 40 years old: the Gabbert Raptor Center on the University of Minnesota campus is home to a turkey vulture named Nero with a confirmed hatch year of 1974,[39] and another female bird, named Richard, lives at the Lindsay Wildlife Museum in Walnut Creek, CA. Richard hatched in 1974 and arrived at the museum later that year.[40] The oldest wild captured banded bird was 16 years old.[4]

Leucistic (sometimes mistakenly called "albino") turkey vultures are sometimes seen.[41][42]

The turkey vulture, like most other vultures, has very few vocalization capabilities. Because it lacks a syrinx, it can only utter hisses and grunts.[5] It usually hisses when it feels threatened, or when fighting with other vultures over a carcass. Grunts are commonly heard from hungry young and from adults in their courtship display.

Distribution and habitat

The turkey vulture has a large range, with an estimated global occurrence of 28,000,000 km2 (11,000,000 sq mi). It is the most abundant vulture in the Americas.[3] Its global population is estimated to be 4,500,000 individuals.[1] It is found in open and semi-open areas throughout the Americas from southern Canada to Cape Horn. It is a permanent resident in the southern United States, though northern birds may migrate as far south as South America.[4] The turkey vulture is widespread over open country, subtropical forests, shrublands, deserts, and foothills.[43] It is also found in pastures, grasslands, and wetlands.[1] It is most commonly found in relatively open areas which provide nearby woods for nesting and it generally avoids heavily forested areas.[26]

This bird with its crow-like aspect gave foot to the naming of the Quebrada de los Cuervos (Crows Ravine) in Uruguay, where they dwell together with the lesser yellow-headed vulture and the black vulture.[44]

Ecology and behavior

Spread-winged adult

The turkey vulture is gregarious and roosts in large community groups, breaking away to forage independently during the day. Several hundred vultures may roost communally in groups which sometimes even include black vultures. It roosts on dead, leafless trees, and will also roost on man-made structures such as water or microwave towers. Though it nests in caves, it does not enter them except during the breeding season.[6] The turkey vulture lowers its night-time body temperature by about 6 degrees Celsius to 34 °C (93 °F), becoming slightly hypothermic.[35]

This vulture is often seen standing in a spread-winged stance. The stance is believed to serve multiple functions: drying the wings, warming the body, and baking off bacteria. It is practiced more often following damp or rainy nights. This same behavior is displayed by other New World vultures, by Old World vultures, and by storks.[7] Like storks, the turkey vulture often defecates on its own legs, using the evaporation of the water in the feces and/or urine to cool itself, a process known as urohidrosis.[45] It cools the blood vessels in the unfeathered tarsi and feet, and causes white uric acid to streak the legs.[46] The turkey vulture has few natural predators. Adult, immature and fledging vultures may fall prey to great horned owls, red-tailed hawks, golden eagles and bald eagles, while eggs and nestlings may be preyed on by mammals such as raccoons and opossums.[7][27][47][48][49] Foxes can occasionally ambush an adult but species that can climb are more likely to breach and predate nests than adults.[50] Its primary form of defense is regurgitating semi-digested meat, a foul-smelling substance which deters most creatures intent on raiding a vulture nest.[6] It will also sting if the predator is close enough to get the vomit in its face or eyes. In some cases, the vulture must rid its crop of a heavy, undigested meal in order to take flight to flee from a potential predator.[33] Its life expectancy in the wild ranges upward of 16 years, with a captive life span of over 30 years being possible.[51][52]

The turkey vulture is awkward on the ground with an ungainly, hopping walk. It requires a great deal of effort to take flight, flapping its wings while pushing off the ground and hopping with its feet.[33] While soaring, the turkey vulture holds its wings in a shallow V-shape and often tips from side to side, frequently causing the gray flight feathers to appear silvery as they catch the light. The flight of the turkey vulture is an example of static soaring flight, in which it flaps its wings very infrequently, and takes advantage of rising thermals to stay soaring.[53]

Diet

Feeding on dead gull at Morro Bay, California

The turkey vulture feeds primarily on a wide variety of carrion, from small mammals to large grazers, preferring those recently dead, and avoiding carcasses that have reached the point of putrefaction. They may rarely feed on plant matter, shoreline vegetation, pumpkin, coconut[54] and other crops, live insects and other invertebrates.[43] In South America, turkey vultures have been photographed feeding on the fruits of the introduced oil palm.[55][56][57] They rarely, if ever, kill prey themselves.[58] The turkey vulture can often be seen along roadsides feeding on roadkill, or near bodies of water, feeding on washed-up fish.[4] They also will feed on fish or insects which have become stranded in shallow water.[6] Like other vultures, it plays an important role in the ecosystem by disposing of carrion which would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease.[59]

The turkey vulture forages by smell, an ability that is uncommon in the avian world, often flying low to the ground to pick up the scent of ethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals.[7] The olfactory lobe of its brain, responsible for processing smells, is particularly large compared to that of other animals.[7] This heightened ability to detect odors allows it to search for carrion below the forest canopy. King vultures, black vultures, and condors, which lack the ability to smell carrion, follow the turkey vulture to carcasses. The turkey vulture arrives first at the carcass, or with greater yellow-headed vultures or lesser yellow-headed vultures, which also share the ability to smell carrion.[7] It displaces the yellow-headed vultures from carcasses due to its larger size,[59] but is displaced in turn by the king vulture and both types of condor, which make the first cut into the skin of the dead animal. This allows the smaller, weaker-billed turkey vulture access to food, because it cannot tear the tough hides of larger animals on its own. This is an example of mutual dependence between species.[60]

Reproduction

The breeding season of the turkey vulture varies according to latitude.[61] In the southern United States, it commences in March, peaks in April to May, and continues into June.[62] In more northerly latitudes, the season starts later and extends into August.[63] Courtship rituals of the turkey vulture involve several individuals gathering in a circle, where they perform hopping movements around the perimeter of the circle with wings partially spread. In the air, one bird closely follows another while flapping and diving.[43]

Eggs are generally laid in the nesting site in a protected location such as a cliff, a cave, a rock crevice, a burrow, inside a hollow tree, or in a thicket. There is little or no construction of a nest; eggs are laid on a bare surface. Females generally lay two eggs, but sometimes one and rarely three. The eggs are cream-colored, with brown or lavender spots around their larger end.[43] Both parents incubate, and the young hatch after 30 to 40 days. Chicks are altricial, or helpless at birth. Both adults feed the chicks by regurgitating food for them, and care for them for 10 to 11 weeks. When adults are threatened while nesting, they may flee, or they may regurgitate on the intruder or feign death.[6] If the chicks are threatened in the nest, they defend themselves by hissing and regurgitating.[43] The young fledge at about nine to ten weeks. Family groups remain together until fall.[43]

Relationship with humans

A side view, showing the perforated nostrils.

The turkey vulture is sometimes accused of carrying anthrax or hog cholera, both livestock diseases, on its feet or bill by cattle ranchers and is therefore occasionally perceived as a threat.[64] However, the virus that causes hog cholera is destroyed when it passes through the turkey vulture's digestive tract.[33] This species also may be perceived as a threat by farmers due to the similar black vulture's tendency to attack and kill newborn cattle. The turkey vulture does not kill live animals but will mix with flocks of black vultures and will scavenge what they leave behind. Nonetheless, its appearance at a location where a calf has been killed gives the incorrect impression that the turkey vulture represents a danger to calves.[65] The droppings produced by turkey vultures and other vultures can harm or kill trees and other vegetation.[66] The turkey vulture can be held in captivity, though the Migratory Bird Treaty Act prevents this in the case of uninjured animals or animals capable of returning to the wild.[67] In captivity, it can be fed fresh meat, and younger birds will gorge themselves if given the opportunity.[33]

The turkey vulture species receives special legal protections under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 in the United States,[8] by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds in Canada,[68] and by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Game Mammals in Mexico.[68] In the US it is illegal to take, kill, or possess turkey vultures, and violation of the law is punishable by a fine of up to $15,000 and imprisonment of up to six months.[67] It is listed as a species of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. Populations appear to remain stable, and it has not reached the threshold of inclusion as a threatened species, which requires a decline of more than 30 percent in ten years or three generations.[1]

References

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 BirdLife International (2012). "Cathartes aura". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
  2. ↑ Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura). peregrinefund.org
  3. 1 2 3 "turkey vulture". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Attwood, E. "Cathartes aura". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 2007-09-30.
  5. 1 2 Miskimen, Mildred (January 1957). "Absence of Syrinx in the Turkey Vulture (Cathartes Aura)" (PDF). The Auk 74 (1): 104–105. doi:10.2307/4082043. JSTOR 4082043. Retrieved 2006-10-24.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fergus, Charles (2003). Wildlife of Virginia and Maryland Washington D.C. Stackpole Books. p. 171. ISBN 0-8117-2821-8.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Snyder, Noel F. R. and Helen Snyder (2006). Raptors of North America: Natural History and Conservation. Voyageur Press. p. 40. ISBN 0-7603-2582-0.
  8. 1 2 "Birds Protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act". US Fish & Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on October 10, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  9. ↑ Holloway, Joel Ellis (2003). Dictionary of Birds of the United States: Scientific and Common Names. Timber Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-88192-600-0.
  10. ↑ "Turkey Vulture". Birds of Texas. Texas Parks & Wildlife. 2001. Retrieved 2007-10-29.
  11. ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott (1980). Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
  12. ↑ Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. (in Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 86.
  13. ↑ Tagliarini, Marcella Mergulhão; Pieczarka, Julio Cesar; Nagamachi, Cleusa Yoshiko; Rissino, Jorge; de Oliveira, Edivaldo Herculano C. (2009). "Chromosomal analysis in Cathartidae: distribution of heterochromatic blocks and rDNA, and phylogenetic considerations". Genetica 135 (3): 299–304. doi:10.1007/s10709-008-9278-2. PMID 18504528.
  14. ↑ Remsen, J. V., Jr.; C. D. Cadena; A. Jaramillo; M. Nores; J. F. Pacheco; M. B. Robbins; T. S. Schulenberg; F. G. Stiles; D. F. Stotz & K. J. Zimmer. (2007). A classification of the bird species of South America. South American Classification Committee. Retrieved 2007–10–15
  15. ↑ Sibley, Charles G. and Burt L. Monroe. (1990). Distribution and Taxonomy of the Birds of the World. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04969-2. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
  16. ↑ Sibley, Charles G., and Jon E. Ahlquist. (1991). Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04085-7. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
  17. ↑ Ericson, Per G. P.; Anderson, Cajsa L.; Britton, Tom; Elżanowski, Andrzej; Johansson, Ulf S.; Kallersjö, Mari; Ohlson, Jan I.; Parsons, Thomas J.; Zuccon, Dario & Mayr, Gerald (2006). "Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils". Biology Letters 2 (4): 1–5. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0523. PMC 1834003. PMID 17148284.
  18. ↑ Hackett, Shannon J.; Kimball, Rebecca T.; Reddy, Sushma; Bowie, Rauri C. K.; Braun, Edward L.; Braun, Michael J.; Chojnowski, Jena L.; Cox, W. Andrew; Han, Kin-Lan; Harshman, John; Huddleston, Christopher J.; Marks, Ben D.; Miglia, Kathleen J.; Moore, William S.; Sheldon, Frederick H.; Steadman, David W.; Witt, Christopher C.; Yuri, Tamaki (2008). "A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history". Science 320 (5884): 1763–68. doi:10.1126/science.1157704. PMID 18583609.
  19. 1 2 Jarvis, E. D.; Mirarab, S.; Aberer, A. J.; Li, B.; Houde, P.; Li, C.; Ho, S. Y. W.; Faircloth, B. C.; Nabholz, B.; Howard, J. T.; Suh, A.; Weber, C. C.; Da Fonseca, R. R.; Li, J.; Zhang, F.; Li, H.; Zhou, L.; Narula, N.; Liu, L.; Ganapathy, G.; Boussau, B.; Bayzid, M. S.; Zavidovych, V.; Subramanian, S.; Gabaldon, T.; Capella-Gutierrez, S.; Huerta-Cepas, J.; Rekepalli, B.; Munch, K.; et al. (2014). "Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds" (PDF). Science 346 (6215): 1320–1331. doi:10.1126/science.1253451. PMID 25504713.
  20. ↑ Lerner, Heather R. L.; Mindell, David P. (November 2005). "Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37 (2): 327–346. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 15925523. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
  21. 1 2 Griffiths, C. S.; Barrowclough, G. F.; Groth, J. G.; Mertz, L. A. (2007-11-06). "Phylogeny, diversity, and classification of the Accipitridae based on DNA sequences of the RAG-1 exon". Journal of Avian Biology 38 (5): 587–602. doi:10.1111/j.2007.0908-8857.03971.x.
  22. 1 2 3 Amadon, Dean (1977). "Notes on the Taxonomy of Vultures" (PDF). Condor (Cooper Ornithological Society) 79 (4): 413–416. doi:10.2307/1367720. JSTOR 1367720.
  23. 1 2 Blake, Emmet Reid (1953). Birds of Mexico: A Guide for Field Identification. University of Chicago Press. p. 267. ISBN 0-226-05641-4.
  24. ↑ Peters J. L.; Mayr E.& Cottrell,W. (1979). Check-list of Birds of the World. Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 276.
  25. 1 2 Brown, Leslie & Amadon, Dean (1968). Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons of the World. McGraw-Hill. p. 175.
  26. 1 2 3 Hilty, Stephen L. (1977). A Guide to the Birds of Colombia. Princeton University Press. p. 87. ISBN 0-691-08372-X.
  27. 1 2 "ADW: Cathartes aura: Information". Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu. 2009-12-20. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
  28. ↑ "Turkey Vulture". Peregrinefund.org. Retrieved 2012-01-11.
  29. ↑ "Turkey Vulture, Life History, All About Birds — Cornell Lab of Ornithology". Allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
  30. ↑ Raptors of the World by Ferguson-Lees, Christie, Franklin, Mead & Burton. Houghton Mifflin (2001). ISBN 0-618-12762-3
  31. ↑ CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition (2008). John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.
  32. ↑ Hill, N. P. (1944). "Sexual Dimorphism in the Falconiformes" (PDF). Auk 61 (April): 228–234. doi:10.2307/4079366. JSTOR 4079366. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 Terres, J. K. (1980). The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds. New York, NY: Knopf. p. 959. ISBN 0-394-46651-9.
  34. ↑ Fisher, Harvey I. (February 1942). "The Pterylosis of the Andean Condor". Condor (Cooper Ornithological Society) 44 (1): 30–32. doi:10.2307/1364195. JSTOR 1364195.
  35. 1 2 Feduccia, J. Alan (1999). The Origin and Evolution of Birds. Yale University Press. p. 116. ISBN 0-226-05641-4.
  36. ↑ Elbroch, Mark (2001). Bird Tracks & Sign. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 456. ISBN 0-8117-2696-7.
  37. ↑ Allaby, Michael (1992). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 348. ISBN 0-19-286093-3.
  38. ↑ "Turkey Vulture". Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 2003. Retrieved 2007-09-30.
  39. ↑ "Turkey Vulture: Nero". University of Minnesota. November 22, 2010. Retrieved March 7, 2015.
    *"Education Birds for Adopt a Raptor". University of Minnesota. February 9, 2015. Retrieved March 7, 2015.
  40. ↑ "Introducing our Turkey Vultures, "Diablo" and "Richard"". Lindsay Wildlife Museum. Retrieved March 7, 2015.
  41. ↑ Kirk, D. A.; Mossman, M. J. (1998). "Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura)". In A. Poole and F. Gill. The Birds of North America 339. Philadelphia, PA.: The Birds of North America, Inc.
  42. ↑ Golden Gate Raptor Observatory. Rare Raptors. Retrieved 2007-09-17.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kaufman, Kenn (1996). Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin Field Guides. p. 112. ISBN 0-618-15988-6.
  44. ↑ Quebrada de los Cuervos (Spanish)
  45. ↑ Ridenhou, Larry. "NCA – Turkey Vulture". Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area. Bureau of Land Management. Archived from the original on 2007-05-02. Retrieved 2006-12-17.
  46. ↑ Gordon, Malcolm S. (1977). Animal Physiology: Principles and Adaptations. Macmillan. p. 357.
  47. ↑ Coleman, J. S.; Fraser, J.D. (1986). "Predation on black and turkey vultures". Wilson Bulletin 98: 600–601.
  48. ↑ Stolen, E. D. (1996). "Black and turkey vulture interactions with bald eagles in Florida". Florida Field Naturalist 24: 43–45.
  49. ↑ Evens, J.G. (1991). "Golden eagle attacks turkey vulture". Northwest. Nat. 72: 27.
  50. ↑ Jackson, J. A. (1983). Nesting phenology, nest site selection, and reproductive success of the Black and Turkey vulture. Vulture biology and management. (Wilbur, S. R. and J. A. Jackson, Eds.) Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, CA. pp.245-270.
  51. ↑ "QandA". Vulturesociety.homestead.com. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
  52. ↑ TURKEY VULTURE (Cathartes aura). raptorrehab.org
  53. ↑ "Turkey vulture, Cathartes aura". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2007-09-30.
  54. ↑ Crafts, Roger C., Jr. (1968). "Turkey Vultures Found to Feed on Coconut". Wilson Bulletin 80 (3): 327–328. JSTOR 4159747.
  55. ↑ Pinto, O. M. O. (1965). "Dos frutos da palmeira Elaeis guineensis na dieta de Cathartes aura ruficollis". Hornero 8: 276–277.
  56. ↑ Galetti, Mauro and Guimarães, Paulo R., Jr. "Seed dispersal of Attalea phalerata (Palmae) by Crested caracaras (Caracara plancus) in the Pantanal and a review of frugivory by raptors". Ararajuba 12 (2): 133–135. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-12.
  57. ↑ Souza, J. S. (2012). WA794679, Cathartes aura (Linnaeus, 1758). Wiki Aves – A Enciclopédia das Aves do Brasil. Retrieved February 14, 2013
  58. ↑ Kritcher, John C. (1999). A Neotropical Companion. Princeton University Press. p. 286. ISBN 0-691-00974-0.
  59. 1 2 Gomez, LG; Houston, DC; Cotton, P; Tye, A, Luis G.; Houston, David C.; Cotton, Peter; Tye, Alan (1994). "The role of greater yellow-headed vultures Cathartes melambrotus as scavengers in neotropical forest". Ibis 136 (2): 193–196. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1994.tb01084.x. Archived from the original on 2009-02-16. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
  60. ↑ Muller-Schwarze, Dietland (2006). Chemical Ecology of Vertebrates. Cambridge University Press. p. 350. ISBN 0-521-36377-2.
  61. ↑ Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert (2002). The International Wildlife Encyclopedia, third edition 20. Marshall Cavendish. p. 2788. ISBN 0-7614-7286-X.
  62. ↑ "Species Description: Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura)". Georgia Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  63. ↑ "TURKEY VULTURE (Cathartes aura)". Government of British Columbia. Retrieved 2011-12-01.
  64. ↑ Kirk, D. A., and M. J. Mossman (1998). Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura). The Birds of North America No. 339 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.
  65. ↑ Paulik, Laurie (2007-08-06). "Vultures and Livestock". AgNIC Wildlife Damage Management Web. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
  66. ↑ Paulik, Laurie (2007-08-06). "Vultures". AgNIC Wildlife Damage Management Web. Archived from the original on 2007-08-04. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
  67. 1 2 "Migratory Bird Treaty Act". US Code Collection. Cornell Law School. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  68. 1 2 "Game and Wild Birds: Preservation". US Code Collection. Cornell Law School. Retrieved 2007-10-29.

Bibliography

External links

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