Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership

This article is about the regulation and trade agreement. For the chemical compound abbreviated as TTIP, see Titanium isopropoxide.
The European Union (green) and the United States (orange)

The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) is a proposed trade agreement between the European Union and the United States, with the aim of promoting trade and multilateral economic growth.[1] The American government considers the TTIP a companion agreement to the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP).[2] The agreement is under ongoing negotiations and its main three broad areas are: market access; specific regulation; and broader rules and principles and modes of co-operation.[3][4] The negotiations were planned to be finalized by the end of 2014, but will not be finished until 2019 or 2020, according to economist Hosuk Lee-Makiyama.[5]

The content of the agreement as well as the reports on TTIP negotiations are classified from the public,[6] but after a proposed draft was leaked in March 2014,[7] the European Commission launched a public consultation on a limited set of clauses and in January 2015 published parts of an overview;[8] and subsequently increased security over its secrecy.[6]

The European Commission says that the TTIP would boost the EU's economy by €120 billion, the US economy by €90 billion and the rest of the world by €100 billion.[9] According to Foreign Affairs, TTIP aims to "liberalise one-third of global trade", which they argue would create millions of new paid jobs.[10] However, a Guardian article by Dean Baker of the United States' Center for Economic and Policy Research (a left-leaning thinktank)[11][12][13] argued that the economic benefits per household are mediocre,[14] and according to a European Parliament report, impacts on labour conditions range from job gains to job losses, depending on economic model and assumptions used for predictions.[15]

The controversial[16][17] agreement has been criticized and opposed by unions, charities, NGOs and environmentalists, particularly in Europe,[18][19] with The Independent describing the range of negative impacts as "reducing the regulatory barriers to trade for big business, things like food safety law, environmental legislation, banking regulations and the sovereign powers of individual nations",[20] or more critically as an "assault on European and US societies by transnational corporations".[20] An EU direct democracy mechanism, European Citizens' Initiative, that enables EU citizens to call directly on the European Commission to propose a legal act,[21] acquired over 3.2 million signatures against TTIP and CETA within a year.[22][23]

Background

Economic barriers between the EU and the United States are relatively low, not only due to long-standing membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) but also recent agreements such as the EU–US Open Skies Agreement and work by the Transatlantic Economic Council. The European Commission claims that passage of a trans-Atlantic trade pact could boost overall trade between the respective blocs by as much as 50%.[24] However, economic relations are tense and there are frequent trade disputes between the two economies, many of which end up before the World Trade Organization. Economic gains from a Trade Treaty were predicted in the joint report issued by the White House and the European Commission.[25]

Some form of Transatlantic Free Trade Area had been proposed in the 1990s and later in 2006 by German Chancellor Angela Merkel in reaction to the collapse of the Doha world trade talks. However, protectionism on both sides may be a barrier to any future agreement.[26][27] It was first initiated in 1990, when, shortly after the end of the Cold War, with the world no longer divided into two blocs, the European Community (12 countries) and the US signed a "Transatlantic Declaration". This called for the continued existence of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, as well as for yearly summits, biannual meetings between ministers of State, and more frequent encounters between political figures and senior officials.

Subsequent initiatives taken by the European deciders and the US government included: in 1995, the creation of a pressure group of business people, the Transatlantic Business Dialogue (TABD) by public authorities on both sides of the Atlantic; in 1998, the creation of an advisory committee, the Transatlantic Economic Partnership; in 2007, the creation of the Transatlantic Economic Council, in which representatives from firms operating on both sides of the Atlantic meet to advise the European Commission and the US government – and finally, in 2011, the creation of a group of high-level experts whose conclusions, submitted on February 11, 2013, recommended the launching of negotiations for a wide-ranging free-trade agreement. On February 12, 2013, President Barack Obama called in his annual State of the Union address for such an agreement.[28] The following day, EU Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso announced that talks would take place to negotiate the agreement.[29][30]

The United States and European Union together represent 60% of global GDP, 33% of world trade in goods and 42% of world trade in services. There are a number of trade conflicts between the two powers, but both depend on the other's economic market and disputes only affect 2% of total trade. A free trade area between the two would represent potentially the largest regional free-trade agreement in history, covering 46% of world GDP.[31][32]

Trade between the EU and the US
(in billion euros)
Direction Goods Services Investment Total
EU to US 288 159 1655 2102
US to EU 196 146 1536 1878

US investment in the EU is three times greater than US investment in the whole of Asia and EU investment in the United States is eight times that of EU investment in India and China combined. Intra-company transfers are estimated to constitute a third of all transatlantic trade. The United States and EU are the largest trading partners of most other countries in the world and account for a third of world trade flows. Given the already low tariff barriers (under 3%), to make the deal a success the aim is to remove non-tariff barriers.[33]

Proposed contents

Documents released by the European Commission in July 2014 group the topics under discussion into three broad areas: Market access; Specific regulation; and broader rules and principles and modes of co-operation.[3][4]

The EU negotiating mandate as of June 2013 gave a fuller view of what the Council of the European Union (Foreign Affairs) has told its negotiators to try to achieve for each section.[34] No corresponding US text is available, but the American side has released a public statement setting out its objectives and the potential benefits it foresees.[35]

Market access

TTIP includes chapters on market access for goods and services, which aimed at removing "custom duties on goods and restrictions on services, gaining better access to public markets, and making it easier to invest".[36] The goods part includes rules on market access for goods, agriculture and processed agricultural products, and rules of origin.[3][4]

Services and leaked text

For "Trade in Services, Investment and E-commerce", a draft text dated 7 July 2013 was leaked by the German newspaper, Die Zeit in March 2014. The leaked text contains seven chapters. In chapter I, article 1 states the overall objective of "a better climate for the development of trade and investment", particularly the "liberalisation of investment and cooperation on e-commerce".[37]

Chapter II, articles 3 to 18 contains general principles for investment. Article 14 contains proposed rules which forbid governments to "directly or indirectly nationalise, expropriate" unless it is for a public purpose, under due process of law, on a non-discriminatory basis, with compensation.[38] Article 14(2) defines the necessary compensation as being "fair market value of the investment at the time immediately before the expropriation or the impending expropriation became public knowledge plus interest at a commercial rate established on a market basis".

Chapter III, articles 19 to 23 contains rules on cross border supply of services.

Chapter IV, Articles 24 to 28 would allow free movement of business managers, and other employees of a corporation, for temporary work purposes among all countries party to the agreement.[39] Article 1(2) makes it clear, however, that no more general free movement of workers and citizens is allowed.

Chapter V contains eight sections with particular rules for different economic sectors. Section I, articles 29 to 31, set out principles which states must follow in licensing private corporations, and state that requirements that are not proportionate to a reviewable public policy objective are contrary to the treaty. Section II contains general provisions. Section III covers computer services. Section IV, articles 35 to 39, cover liberalisation of postal services.[40] Section V, articles 40 to 50, apply to electronic communications networks and services (including telecommunications) and mandate competitive markets, absence of cross-subsidies, subject to defined exceptions including in article 46 a right (but not a requirement) for countries to provide universal service.

Section VI of chapter V covers Financial Services, in articles 51 to 59. It limits the laws that governments can pass to regulate or publicly run insurance and banking. Any regulations that do not fall within the Treaty's terms and objectives would be unlawful.[41] Legitimate reasons for regulation include, in article 52, "the protection of investors, depositors, policy-holders or persons to whom a fiduciary duty is owed by a financial service supplier; (b) ensuring the integrity and stability of a Party's financial system". However article 52(2) states "measures shall not be more burdensome than necessary to achieve their aim",[42] and the Treaty does not include any further reasons to allow regulation. Section VII covers international maritime transport and section VIII covers air transport.

The Annex on "Investors-state dispute settlement" proposed to allow corporations to bring actions against governments for breach of its rights.[43] The European Commission launched a public consultation after the draft text was leaked, which led to a number of changes. However, an updated proposed text had yet to be made publicly available.

Industry-specific regulation

"Improved regulatory coherence and cooperation by dismantling unnecessary regulatory barriers such as bureaucratic duplication of effort".[36]

Specific heads for discussion include:[3][4]

Broader rules and principles and modes of co-operation

"Improved cooperation when it comes to setting international standards".[36]

Specific heads for discussion include:[3][4]

Implementation

Negotiations

Procedure

The TTIP Agreement texts are being developed by 24 joint EU-US working groups, each considering a separate aspect of the agreement. Development typically progresses through a number of phases. Broad position papers are first exchanged, introducing each side's aims and ambitions for each aspect. These are followed by textual proposals from each side, accompanied (in areas such as tariffs, and market access) by each side's "initial offer." These negotiations and draft documents can evolve (change) through the various stages of their development. When both sides are ready, a consolidated text is prepared, with remaining differences for discussion expressed in square brackets. These texts are then provisionally closed topic by topic as a working consensus is reached. However the agreement is negotiated as a whole, so no topic's text is finalised until full consensus is reached.[58]

Negotiation rounds

Negotiations are held in week-long cycles alternating between Brussels and the USA.[59] The negotiators hope to conclude their work by the end of 2015.

Confidentiality measures

Only a handful of people can access the documents known as "consolidated texts", the drafts containing the most recent results of the negotiations. On the European side, authorised readers include the European Commission negotiators, most of them from the Directorate-General for Trade and some European Union members ministers and MPs. Upon the insistence of the US, the documents are not transmitted any more as electronic or even printed documents. They are only made available in a highly secured room in Brussels or in a number of US embassies in Europe. In all these secured rooms phones or other types of scanning device are forbidden. Blank sheets of paper, marked with the reader's names, are provided on which visitors can jot down their comments. On the US side, the procedure is similar, only congressmen and USTR negotiators can access the documents, if they comply with similar conditions. [6]

Hurdles

The negotiations were planned to be finalized by the end of 2014, but will not be finished until 2019 or 2020, according to economist Hosuk Lee-Makiyama.[5] In November 2014 Bulgarian government announced that it will not ratify the agreement unless the United States lifted visa requirements for Bulgarian citizens.[60] Some issues are excluded from the negotiations, such as the audiovisual (European request), and the financial services (US request).[61]

Ratification

The 28 governments will then have to approve or reject the negotiated agreement in the EU Council of Ministers, at which point the European Parliament will also be asked for its endorsement. The EU Parliament is empowered to approve or reject the agreement. Individual countries have different rules on approving and ratifying the document. For example, Article 53 of the French Constitution states, "trade treaties can only be ratified by a law" passed by the French Parliament. In the United States, both houses of the Congress would have to pass the agreement.[62]

Proposed benefits

TTIP aims for a formal agreement that shall "liberalise one-third of global trade", which they argue will create millions of new paid jobs.[10] "With tariffs between the United States and the EU already low, the United Kingdom's Centre for Economic Policy Research estimates that 80 percent of the potential economic gains from the TTIP agreement depend on reducing the conflicts of duplication between EU and U.S. rules on those and other regulatory issues, ranging from food safety to automobile parts."[10] A successful strategy (according to Thomas Bollyky at the Council on Foreign Relations and Anu Bradford of Columbia Law School) will focus on business sectors for which transatlantic trade laws and local regulations can often overlap, e.g., pharmaceutical, agricultural, and financial trading.[10] This will ensure that the United States and Europe remain "standard makers, rather than standard takers", in the global economy, subsequently ensuring that producers worldwide continue to gravitate toward joint U.S.-EU standards.[10]

A March 2013 economic assessment by the European Centre for Economic Policy Research estimates that such a comprehensive agreement would result in GDP growth of 68-119 billion euros in the EU by 2027 and GDP growth of 50-95 billion euros in the United States in the same time frame. The 2013 report also estimates that a limited agreement focused only on tariffs would yield EU GDP growth of 24 billion euros by 2027 and growth of 9 billion euros in the United States. If shared equally among the affected people, the most optimistic GDP growth estimates would translate into "additional annual disposable income for a family of four" of "545 euros in the EU" and "655 euros in the US", respectively.[63]

In a Wall Street Journal article, the CEO of Siemens AG (with its workforce located 70% in Europe and 30% in the United States) claimed that the TTIP would strengthen United States and EU global competitiveness by reducing trade barriers, by improving intellectual property protections, and by establishing new international "rules of the road".[64]

The European Commission says that the TTIP would boost the EU's economy by €120 billion, the US economy by €90 billion and the rest of the world by €100 billion.[9] Talks began in July 2013 and reached the third round of negotiations by the end of that year.[9]

In a Guardian article of 15 July 2013, Dean Baker of the United States' Center for Economic and Policy Research observed that with conventional trade barriers between the US and the EU already low, the deal would focus on non-conventional barriers such as overriding national regulations regarding fracking, GMOs and finance and tightening laws on copyright. He goes on to assert that with less ambitious projections the economic benefits per household are mediocre "If we apply the projected income gain of 0.21% to the projected median personal income in 2027, it comes to a bit more than $50 a year. That's a little less than 15 cents a day. Don't spend it all in one place".[14]

Criticism and opposition

Secrecy of content and negotiations

The content of the agreement as well as the reports on TTIP negotiations are classified from the public, which was criticized by The Independent as "secretive and undemocratic".[20] Following the March 2014 leaks of parts of the contents of the proposed agreement, increased security was put in place by the European Commission, introducing a new rule that means politicians can only view the text in a secure "reading room" in Brussels, to avoid any further leaks of information about TTIP into the public.[20]

Proposed negative impacts

"Stop TTIP" protests in Barcelona, Spain, 18 April 2015

Politics and economy

The proposed agreement has been criticized and opposed by unions, charities, NGOs and environmentalists, particularly in Europe.[18][19] The Independent summarizes the negative impact of TTIP as "reducing the regulatory barriers to trade for big business, things like food safety law, environmental legislation, banking regulations and the sovereign powers of individual nations",[20] or more critically as an "assault on European and US societies by transnational corporations".[20]

An October 2014 study by Jeronim Capaldo of the Global Development and Environment Institute at Tufts University indicates that there will be losses in terms of net exports, net losses in terms of GDP, loss of labor income, job losses, reduction of the labor share, loss of government revenue and higher financial instability among European countries.[65]

Labour standards, worker's rights and job security

The Guardian reports that according to the critics, TTIP would undermine job security as well as current minimum labour standards agreed by the EU.[66] British Labour Party politician John McDonnell, Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer, has described TTIP as resulting in a huge transfer of powers to Brussels and corporate interests that will bring about a form of "modern-day serfdom".[66] According to a European Parliament report, impacts on labour conditions range from job gains to job losses, depending on economic model and assumptions used for predictions.[15]

In spite of a study by the Munich-based Ifo Institute for Economic Research (on behalf of the German Federal Ministry of Economics) claiming that up to 400,000 jobs could be created in the EU by TTIP,[67] Stefan Körzell, national board member of the Confederation of German Trade Unions (DGB) has said “Whether TTIP can create jobs, and ‘how many’ and ‘where’ is unclear. Previous studies, ranging from those conducted by the European Commission across to the expertise of the Ifo Institute, fluctuate between optimism and very low expectations... Consideration of the negative consequences trade agreements can have, if environmental or labour standards are ignored, is often omitted. The US has not ratified six of the eight ILO core labour standards."[68]

Democracy, national sovereignty and investor-state dispute settlements (ISDS)

If you wanted to convince the public that international trade agreements are a way to let multinational companies get rich at the expense of ordinary people, this is what you would do: give foreign firms a special right to apply to a secretive tribunal of highly paid corporate lawyers for compensation whenever a government passes a law to, say, discourage smoking, protect the environment or prevent a nuclear catastrophe. Yet that is precisely what thousands of trade and investment treaties over the past half century have done, through a process known as 'investor-state dispute settlement', or ISDS.[69]

“
”

—The Economist, October 2014

Investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) is an instrument that allows an investor to bring a case directly against the country hosting its investment, without the intervention of the government of the investor's country of origin.[70] From the late 1980s, certain trade treaties have included provisions for ISDS, which allow foreign investors who claim to have been disadvantaged by actions of a signatory state to sue that state for damages in a tribunal of arbitration. More recently such claims have increased in number and value,[71] and some states have become increasingly resistant to such clauses.[72]

The critics of TTIP say, according to Guardian, that "ISDS provisions undermine the power of national governments to act in the interests of their citizens",[18] and "TTIP could even undermine the democratic authority of local government",[17] and according to BBC, that it threatens democracy.[73] France and Germany have said that they want access to investor-state dispute settlement removed from the TTIP treaty.[16] In December 2013, a coalition of over 200 environmentalists, labor unions and consumer advocacy organizations on both sides of the Atlantic sent a letter to the USTR and European Commission demanding the investor-state dispute settlement be dropped from the trade talks, claiming that ISDS was "a one-way street by which corporations can challenge government policies, but neither governments nor individuals are granted any comparable rights to hold corporations accountable".[74][75] Some point out the "potential for abuse" that may be inherent in the trade agreement due to its clauses relating to investor protection.[76][77]

In December 2013, Martti Koskenniemi, Professor of International Law at the University of Helsinki, warned that the planned foreign investor protection scheme within the treaty, similar to World Bank Group's International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), would endanger the sovereignty of the signatory states by allowing for a small circle of legal experts sitting in a foreign court of arbitration an unprecedented power to interpret and void the signatory states' legislation.[78] The proposed investment tribunal court was declared illegal by the German Association of Magistrates in February 2016.[79]

Environment and food safety

Trash bin in Berlin displaying "give me TTIP" in protest

The Guardian reported, that in a leaked draft of TTIP, "environmental safeguards are 'virtually non-existent'", and that environmental cases accounted for 60% of the 127 ISDS cases already brought against EU countries under bilateral trade agreements in the last two decades, according to Friends of the Earth Europe.[80] Documents released, in May 2015, showed that the US negotiators put pressure on the EU over proposed pesticide criteria. A number of pesticides containing endocrine disrupting chemicals were in draft EU criteria to be banned. On the 2nd May 2013, US negotiators insisted the EU drop the criteria. They stated that a risk-based approach should be taken on regulation. Later the same day Catherine Day wrote to Karl Falkenberg asking for the criteria to be removed.[81] In 2015, 82 pesticides used in the US were banned in Europe and US animal welfare standards are generally lower than those in Europe.[82]

A columnist in The Guardian stated that food safety in the EU would be compromised because of low or different standards in US food regulations,[18] as currently EU-banned food would likely to be imported.[66] In June 2015, the BBC reported that food safety had become 'a stumbling block' because of differing US and EU attitudes to genetically modified crops, pesticides (endocrine disrupting chemicals), growth promoting hormones in beef and pathogen reduction treatments of chicken, that cause public health concerns for consumers and puts European farmers at a cost disadvantage.[82]

Banking regulation

According to critics, TTIP could weaken the stricter bank regulations that are governing banks in the United States as part of the financial reforms that followed the financial crisis of 2007–08.[83][20]

Privacy

According to BBC, critics of TTIP argue that its proposals on intellectual property could have a similar effect as the EU-rejected Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA).[83] The Electronic Frontier Foundation and its German counterpart, FFII, in particular, compared TAFTA to the ACTA.[84]

Activism against TTIP

Anti-TTIP protests in Berlin, Germany, 10 October 2015
Anti-TTIP graffiti in Malmö, Sweden, depicting Trojan Horse as a metaphor for TTIP

In March 2013, a coalition of digital rights organisations and other groups issued a declaration[85] in which they called on the negotiating partners to have TAFTA "debated in the US Congress, the European Parliament, national parliaments, and other transparent forums" instead of conducting "closed negotiations that give privileged access to corporate insiders", and to leave intellectual property out of the agreement.

In 2014, an online consultation conducted by the European Commission[86] received 150,000 responses. According to the commission, 97% of the responses were pre-defined, negative answers provided by activists.[87][88] Additionally, hundreds of demonstrations and protests have taken place in an organised "day of action" on October 11, 2014,[89][90][91] and again on April 18, 2015.[92][93][94]

A self-organised European Citizens' Initiative against TTIP and CETA has also been established, acquiring over 3.2 million signatures within a year.[22][23]

National objections

From both the European and American sides of the agreement, there are issues which are seen as essential if an accord is to be reached. According to Leif Johan Eliasson of Saarland University, "For the EU these include greater access to the American public procurement market, retained bans on imports of genetically modified organisms (GMO) crops and hormone treated beef, and recognition of geographic trademarks on food products. For the United States they include greater access for American dairy and other agricultural products (including scientific studies as the only accepted criteria for SPS policies)." He observes that measures like the EU ban on hormone treated beef (based as they are on the precautionary principle) are not considered by the WTO to be based on scientific studies.

Eliasson further states that U.S. objectives in a deal include "tariff-free motor vehicle exports," and retained bans on foreign contractors in several areas," including domestic shipping (see Merchant Marine Act of 1920).[95] Already, some U.S. producers are concerned by EU proposals to restrict use of "particular designations" (also known as PDO or GI/geographical indications) that the EU considers location-specific, such as Feta and Parmesan cheeses and possibly Budweiser beer.[96][97] This has provoked debate between European politicians such as Renate Künast and Christian Schmidt over the value of the designations.[98]

At French insistence, trade in audio-visual services was excluded from the EU negotiating mandate.[99] The European side has been pressing for the agreement to include a chapter on the regulation of financial services; but this is being resisted by the American side, which has recently passed the Dodd–Frank Act in this field.[100] U.S. Ambassador to the European Union Anthony L. Gardner has denied any linkage between the two issues.[101]

European negotiators are also pressing the United States to loosen its restrictions on the export of crude oil and natural gas, to help the EU reduce its dependence on energy from Russia.[102]

Response to criticism

Karel De Gucht responded to criticism in a Guardian article in December 2013,[103] saying "The commission has regularly consulted a broad range of civil society organisations in writing and in person, and our most recent meeting had 350 participants from trade unions, NGOs and business" and that "no agreement will become law before it is thoroughly examined and signed off by the European parliament and 29 democratically elected national governments – the US government and 28 in the EU's council"[104] However, the Corporate Europe Observatory (cited in the original Guardian article) had pointed out, based on a Freedom of Information request, that "more than 93% of the Commission's meetings with stakeholders during the preparations of the negotiations were with big business". They characterized the industry meetings as "about the EU's preparations of the trade talks", and the civil society consultation as "an information session after the talks were launched".[105]

Effect on third-party countries

Proposed TAFTA :
United States and European Union in dark blue and the other possible members in light blue (NAFTA and EFTA)

Some proposals for a transatlantic free trade area include on the American side, the other members of North American Free Trade Area (Canada and Mexico) and on the European side, the members of the European Free Trade Association (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein). Mexico already has a free trade agreement with EFTA and the EU while Canada has one with EFTA and has negotiated one with the EU. These agreements may need to be harmonized with the EU-US agreement and could potentially form a wider free trade area.

In early 2013, Canadian media observers had speculated that the launch of TTIP talks put pressure on Canada to conclude its own three-year-long FTA negotiations with the EU by the close of 2013.[106] Countries with customs agreements with the EU, especially Turkey, could face the prospect of opening their markets to American goods, without access for their own goods without a separate agreement with the United States.[107]

Reports

Various groups have produced reports about the proposed agreement, including:

See also

References

  1. ↑ This EU-US trade deal is no 'assault on democracy', Ken Clarke, The Guardian, 11 November 2013.
  2. ↑ Transatlantic Interests In Asia, Russel, Daniel R., United States Department of State, 13 January 2014
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 State of Play of TTIP negotiations ahead of the 6th round of negotiations, European Commission DG Trade, 11 July 2014
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 List of lead negotiators for the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership, European Commission DG Trade

    List of lead negotiators for the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership, Office of the United States Trade Representative

  5. 1 2 Philip Blenkinsop. EU-U.S. trade deal seems distant dream after early optimism. Reuters. Jun 16, 2015.
  6. 1 2 3 "TTIP controversy: Secret trade deal can only be read in secure 'reading room' in Brussels". The Independent. Retrieved September 23, 2015.
  7. ↑ "TTIP Draft, "Trade in Services, Investment and E-commerce" (02/07/2013)" (PDF). Keionline.org. Retrieved 2015-07-14.
  8. ↑ Question and Answers on the results of the public consultation: Consultation on investment protection in EU-US trade talks
  9. 1 2 3 "Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) - Trade - European Commission". Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2014-02-21.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Bollyky, Thomas J. and Anu Bradford (10 July 2013). "Getting to Yes on Transatlantic Trade". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
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  12. ↑ Sussman, Anna Louie (7 September 2015). "Are Women the New Face of Organized Labor?". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
  13. ↑ Fox, Maggie (24 July 2013). "Obamacare won't slash workers' hours, report finds". NBC News. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
  14. 1 2 The Guardian (15 July 2013). The US-EU trade deal: Don't buy the hype Retrieved 24 August 2013.
  15. 1 2 Susanne Kraatz. The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) and Labour. European Parliament.
  16. 1 2 Claire Provost and Matt Kennard. The obscure legal system that lets corporations sue countries. theguardian.com. June 10, 2015
  17. 1 2 Tim Smedley. TTIP: what does the transatlantic trade deal mean for renewable energy?. theguardian.com. August 5, 2015.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Stuart Jeffries. What is TTIP and why should we be angry about it?. theguardian.com. Published on August 3, 2015.
  19. 1 2 Leo Cendrowicz. "Europeans Fight U.S. Trade Deal With Fear of McHospitals, Fracking Under Eiffel Tower". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 2015-07-14.
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  34. ↑ Directives for the negotiation on the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership between the European Union and the United States of America, 14 June 2013; copy
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  36. 1 2 3 The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) explained, European Commission DG Trade, 8 May 2014
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  40. ↑ "TTIP Draft, articles 35-39" (PDF). Keionline.org. Retrieved 2015-07-14.
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  45. ↑ Subsequent more detailed EU position paper, leaked December 2013
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  53. ↑ Initial EU position on raw materials and energy, 16 July 2013
  54. ↑ Leaked EU illustrative text, 20 Sept 2013. Leaked 19 May 2014
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  96. ↑ Food names: Stressed are the cheesemakers: Europeans want their food names back. Americans are peeved, The Economist, 19 July 2014
  97. ↑ Beer from České Budějovice/Budweis(Czech Republic) has Protected Geographical Indication. Budweiser Budvar is already party to a trademark dispute with Anheuser-Busch InBev over which has the right to use the term.
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    Lidia Pillis, A leaked document shows just how much the EU wants a piece of America’s fracking boom, Washington Post, 8 July 2014
    David J. Unger, Europe at TTIP talks: Open the US energy spigot, Christian Science Monitor, 15 July 2014
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