Toledo, Spain

For other uses, see Toledo (disambiguation).
Toledo
City

Toledo at sunrise — The Alcázar on the left and Cathedral on the right dominate the skyline

Flag
Coat of arms
Toledo

Location of Toledo within the Castile-La Mancha

Toledo

Location of Toledo within Spain

Coordinates: 39°51′24″N 4°1′28″W / 39.85667°N 4.02444°W / 39.85667; -4.02444Coordinates: 39°51′24″N 4°1′28″W / 39.85667°N 4.02444°W / 39.85667; -4.02444
Country Spain Spain
Autonomous Community Castilla-La Mancha Castile–La Mancha
Province Toledo
Comarca Toledo
Partido judicial Toledo
Settled Pre-Roman
Government
 • Mayor Milagros Tolón (PSOE)
Area
 • Land 232.1 km2 (89.6 sq mi)
Elevation 529 m (1,736 ft)
Population (2012)INE
 • Total 84,019
Postcode 45001-45009
Area code(s) +34
Website http://www.ayto-toledo.org/

Toledo (Spanish: [toˈleðo]) is a municipality located in central Spain, 70 km south of Madrid. It is the capital of the province of Toledo and the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986 for its extensive cultural and monumental heritage and historical co-existence of Christian, Muslim and Jewish cultures.

Toledo is known as the "Imperial City" for having been the main venue of the court of Charles I, and as the "City of the Three Cultures", having been influenced by a historical co-existence of Christians, Muslims and Jews. In 1085, the city fell to Alfonso VI of Castile as the first major city in the Christian Reconquista. Toledo has a history in the production of bladed weapons, which are now popular souvenirs of the city.

People who were born or have lived in Toledo include Brunhilda of Austrasia, Al-Zarqali, Garcilaso de la Vega, Eleanor of Toledo, Alfonso X and El Greco. It was also the place of important historic events such as the Visigothic Councils of Toledo. As of 2012, the city has a population of 84,019 and an area of 232.1 km2 (89.6 sq mi).

Coat of arms

The town was granted arms in the 16th century, which by special royal privilege was based on the royal of arms of Spain.

History

Puerta del Sol, Collotype 1889

Antiquity

Toledo (Latin: Toletum) is mentioned by the Roman historian Livy (ca. 59 BCE – 17 CE) as urbs parva, sed loco munita (“a small city, but fortified by location”). Roman general Marcus Fulvius Nobilior fought a battle near the city in 193 BCE against a confederation of Celtic tribes including the Vaccaei, Vettones, and Celtiberi, defeating them and capturing a king called Hilermus.[1][2] At that time, Toletum was a city of the Carpetani tribe, and part of the region of Carpetania.[3] It was incorporated into the Roman Empire as a civitas stipendiaria, that is, a tributary city of non-citizens. It later achieved the status of municipium by Flavian times.[4] With this status, city officials, even of Carpetani origin, obtained Roman citizenship for public service, and the forms of Roman law and politics were increasingly adopted.[5] At approximately this time were constructed in Toletum a Roman circus, city walls, public baths, and a municipal water supply and storage system.[6]

The Roman circus in Toledo was one of the largest in Hispania, at 423 meters long and 100 meters wide, with a track dimension of 408 meters long and 86 meters wide.[6] Chariot races were held on special holidays and were also commissioned by private citizens to celebrate career achievements. A fragmentary stone inscription records circus games paid for by a citizen of unknown name to celebrate his achieving the sevirate, a kind of priesthood conferring high status. Archaeologists have also identified portions of a special seat of the sort used by the city elites to attend circus games, called a sella curulis. The circus could hold up to 15000 spectators.[6]

Remains of Roman circus at Toledo.

During Roman times, Toledo was never a provincial capital nor a conventus iuridicus.[7] It started to gain importance in late antiquity. There are indications that large private houses (domus) within the city walls were enlarged, while several large villas were built north of the city through the third and fourth centuries.[8] Games were held in the circus into the late fourth and early fifth centuries C.E., also an indication of active city life and ongoing patronage by wealthy elites.[9] A church council was held in Toledo in the year 400 to discuss the conflict with Priscillianism.[10] A second council of Toledo was held in 527. The Visigothic king Theudis was in Toledo in 546, where he promulgated a law. This is strong though not certain evidence that Toledo was the chief residence for Theudis.[7] King Athanagild died in Toledo, probably in 568. Although Theudis and Athangild based themselves in Toledo, Toledo was not yet the capital city of the Iberian peninsula, as Theudis and Athangild's power was limited in extent, the Suevi ruling Galicia and local elites dominating Lusitania, Betica, and Cantabria.[11][12] This changed with Liuvigild (Leovigild), who brought the peninsula under his control. The Visigoths ruled from Toledo until the Moors conquered the Iberian peninsula in the early years of 8th century (711–719).

Visigothic Toledo

A series of church councils was held in Toledo under the Visigoths. A synod of Arian bishops was held in 580 to discuss theological reconciliation with Nicene Christianity.[13] Liuvigild's successor, Reccared, hosted the third council of Toledo, at which the Visigothic kings abandoned Arianism and reconciled with the existing Hispano-Roman episcopate.[14] A synod held in 610 transferred the metropolitanate of the old province of Carthaginensis from Cartagena to Toledo.[15] At that time, Cartagena was ruled by the Byzantines, and this move ensured a closer relation between the bishops of Spain and the Visigothic kings. King Sisebut forced Jews in the Visigothic kingdom to convert to Christianity; this act was criticized and efforts were made to reverse it at the Fourth Council of Toledo in 633.[16] The Fifth and Sixth Councils of Toledo placed church sanctions on anyone who would challenge the Visigothic kings.[17] The Seventh Council of Toledo instituted a requirement that all bishops in the area of a royal city, that is, of Toledo, must reside for one month per year in Toledo. This was a stage in "the elevation of Toledo as the primatial see of the whole church of the Visgothic kingdom".[18] In addition, the seventh council declared that any clergy fleeing the kingdom, assisting conspirators against the king, or aiding conspirators, would be excommunicated and no one should remove this sentence. The ban on lifing these sentences of excommunication was lifted at the Eighth Council of Toledo in 653, at which, for the first time, decisions were signed by palace officials as well as bishops.[19]

The eighth council of Toledo took measures that enhanced Toledo's significance as the center of royal power in the Iberian peninsula. The council declared that the election of a new king following the death of the old one should only take place in the royal city, or wherever the old king died.[20] In practice this handed the power to choose kings to only such palace officials and military commanders who were in regular attendance on the king. The decision also took king-making power away from the bishops, who would be in their own sees and would not have time to come together to attend the royal election. The decision did allow the bishop of Toledo, alone among bishops, to be involved in decisions concerning the royal Visigothic succession. The ninth and tenth councils were held in rapid succession in 655 and 656.[20]

When Reccesuinth died in 672 at his villa in Gerticos, his successor Wamba was elected on the spot, then went to Toledo to be anointed king by the bishop of Toledo, according to the procedures laid out in prior church councils.[21] In 673, Wamba defeated a rebel duke named Paul, and held his victory parade in Toledo. The parade included ritual humiliation and scalping of the defeated Paul.[22] Wamba carried out renovation works in Toledo in 674-675, marking these with inscriptions above the city gates that are no longer extant but were recorded in the eighth century.[23] The Eleventh Council of Toledo was held in 675 under king Wamba. Wamba weakened the power of the bishop of Toledo by creating a new bishopric outside Toledo at the church of Saints Peter and Paul. This was one of the main churches of Toledo and was the church where Wamba was anointed king, and the church from which Visigothic kings departed for war after special ceremonies in which they were presented with a relic of the True Cross. By creating a new bishopric there, Wamba removed power over royal succession from the bishop of Toledo and granted it to the new bishop.[24] The Twelfth Council of Toledo was held in 681 after Wamba's removal from office. Convinced that he was dying, Wamba had accepted a state of penitence that according to the decision of a previous church council, made him inelegible to remain king. The Twelfth Council, led by newly installed bishop Julian confirmed the validity of Wamba's removal from office and his succession by Ervig. The Twelfth Council eliminated the new bishopric that Wamba had created and returned the powers over succession to the bishop of Toledo.[25]

The Twelfth Council of Toledo approved 28 laws against the Jews. Julian of Toledo, despite a Jewish origin, was strongly anti-Semitic as reflected in his writings and activities.[26] The leading Jews of Toledo were assembled in the church of Saint Mary on January 27, 681, where the new laws were read out to them.

The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Councils of Toledo were held in 683, 684, and 688. The Thirteenth Council restored property and legal rights to those who had rebelled against King Wamba in 673.[27] The Thirteenth Council also approved laws protecting the king's family after the king's death. In 687, Ervig took the penitent state before dying, and the kingship passed to Egica, who was anointed king in Toledo on November 24.[28] In 688, the Fifteenth Council lifted the ban on taking property from the families of former kings, whereupon Egica was able to plunder Ervig's family properties.[29]

In the late seventh century, Toledo became a main center of literacy and writing in the Iberian peninsula. Toledo's development as a center of learning was influenced by Isidore of Seville, an author and advocate of literacy who attended several church councils in Toledo.[30] King Chindasuinth had a royal library in Toledo, and at least one count called Laurentius had a private library.[31] Sometime before 651, Chindasuinth sent the bishop of Zaragoza, Taio, to Rome to obtain books that were not available in Toledo. Taio obtained, at least, parts of pope Gregory's Moralia.[32] The library also contained a copy of a Hexameron by Dracontius, which Chindasuinth liked so much that he commissioned Eugenius II to revise it by adding a new part dealing with the seventh day of creation.[33] Chindasuinth issued laws that were gathered together in a book called Liber Iudiciorum by his successor Reccesuinth in 654; this book was revised twice, widely copied, and was an important influence on medieval Spanish law.[34] Three bishops of Toledo wrote works that were widely copied and disseminated in western Europe and parts of which survive to this day: Eugenius II, Ildefonsus, and Julian.[35] "In intellectual terms the leading Spanish churchmen of the seventh century had no equals before the appearance of Bede."[36]

In 693, the Sixteenth Council of Toledo condemned Sisebert, Julian's successor as bishop of Toledo, for having rebelled against King Egica in alliance with Liuvigoto, the widow of king Ervig.[37] A rebel king called Suniefred seized power in Toledo briefly at about this time. Whether or not Sisebert's and Suniefred's rebellions were the same or separate is unknown. Suniefred is known only from having minted coins in Toledo during what should have been Egica's reign.[38] The Seventeenth Council of Toledo was held in 694. The Eighteenth Council of Toledo, the last one, took place shortly after Egica's death around 702 or 703.[39]

By the end of the seventh century the bishop of Toledo was the leader of the Spanish bishops, a situation unusual in Europe: "The metropolitan bishops of Toledo had achieved by the last quarter of the seventh century an authority and a primacy that was unique in Western Europe. Not even the pope could count on such support from neighbouring metropolitans."[36] Toledo "had been matched by no other city in western Europe outside Italy as the governmental and symbolic center of a powerful monarchy."[40] Toledo had "emerged from relative obscurity to become the permanent governmental centre of the Visigothic monarchy; a true capital, whose only equivalent in western Europe was to be Lombard Pavia."[41]

When Wittiza died around 710, Ruderic became Visigothic king in Toledo, but the kingdom was split, as a rival king Achila ruled Tarraconensis and Narbonensis.[42] Meanwhile, Arabic and Berber troops under Musa ibn Nusayr had conquered Tangiers and Ceuta between 705 and 710, and commenced raids into the Visigothic kingdom in 711.[43] Ruderic led an army to confront the raiders. He was defeated and killed in battle, apparently after being betrayed by Visigothic nobles who wished to replace him as king and did not consider the Arabs and Berbers a serious threat. The commander of the invading forces was Tariq bin Ziyad, a Luwata Berber freedman in the service of governor Musa.[44] It is possible that a king called Oppa ruled in Toledo between Ruderic's death and the fall of Toledo.[45] Tariq, seizing the opportunity presented by the death of Ruderic and the internal divisions of the Visigothic nobles, captured Toledo, in 711 or 712.[46] Governor Musa disembarked in Cadiz and proceeded to Toledo, where he executed numerous Visigothic nobles, thus destroying much of the Visigothic power structure.[47][48] Collins suggests that the Visigothic emphasis on Toledo as the center of royal ceremony became a weakness. Since the king was chosen in or around Toledo, by nobles based in Toledo, and had to be anointed king by the bishop of Toledo in a church in Toledo, when Tariq captured Toledo and executed the Visigothic nobles, having already killed the king, there was no way for the Visigoths to select a legitimate king.[49][50]

Toledo under Arab rule

Soon after the conquest, Musa and Tariq returned to Damascus. The Arab center of administration was placed first in Seville, then moved to Cordoba. With most of the rest of the Iberian peninsula, Toledo was ruled from Cordoba by the governor of Al-Andalus, under the ultimate notional command of the Omeyyad Caliph in Damascus. Arab conquerors had often replaced former capital cities with new ones to mark the change in political power, and they did so here: "Toledo suffered a period of profound decline throughout much of the earlier centuries of Arab dominance in the peninsula."[51] The invaders were ethnically diverse, and available evidence suggests that in the area of Toledo, Berber settlement predominated over Arab.[52]

In 742 the Berbers in Al-Andalus rebelled against the Arab Omeyyad governors. They took control of the north and marched south, laying siege to Toledo. After a siege of one month the Berber troops were defeated outside Toledo by troops sent from Cordoba by the governor Abd al-Malik ibn Katan and commanded by the governor's son.[53] However, while Ibn Katan's troops were engaged with the Berbers, his Arab allies betrayed and killed him and took over Cordoba. After the Arabs' first leader, Talama ibn Salama, died, Yusuf al-Fihri became ruler of Al-Andalus. The Omeyyad dynasty in Damascus collapsed and Yusuf ruled independently with the support of his Syrian Arab forces. The Qays Arab commander As-Sumayl was made governor of Toledo under Yusuf around 753.[54]

There is evidence that Toledo retained its importance as a literary and ecclesiastical center into the middle 700s, in the Chronicle of 754, the life of Saint Ildefonsus by Cixila, and ecclesiastical letters sent from Toledo.[55] The eighth century bishop of Toledo, Cixila, wrote a life of Saint Ildefonsus of Toledo, probably before 737.[56] This life of Ildefonsus emphasized two episodes in the life of the bishop of Toledo. In the first episode the covering of the tomb of Saint Leocadia levitated while Ildefonsus was saying mass, with king Reccesuinth present. In the second episode Mary appears to Ildefonsus and Reccesuinth. These episodes are said to have resulted from Ildefonsus' devotion to Saint Leocadia, patroness saint of Toledo.[57] Collins suggests that Cixila's life of Ildefonsus helped maintain Ildefonsus' appeal and helped the church in Toledo to retain some of its authority among Christian churches in the Iberian peninsula.[58]

An archdeacon in Toledo called Evantius, who was active around 720 and died in 737, wrote a letter to address the existence of judaizing tendencies among the Christians of Zaragoza, specifically the belief that there are unclean forms of meat and the literal interpretation of Deuteronomic law.[59] A deacon and cantor from Toledo called Peter wrote a second letter, to Seville, in about the year 750, to explain that they were celebrating Easter and a September liturgical fast incorrectly, again confusing them with Jewish feasts celebrated at the same time.[60] These letters show that some of the primacy of the church of Toledo within the Iberian peninsula still existed in the 700s: "Not only were its clerics still well enough equipped in intellectual terms to provide authoritative guidance on a wide range of ecclesiastical discipline and doctrine, but this was also actively sought."[61]

There is a strong possibility that the Chronicle of 754 was written in Toledo (though scholars have also proposed Cordoba and Guadix) based on the information available to the chronicler.[62] The chronicler showed awareness of the Historia Gothorum, the Etymologiae, and the chronicle of Isidore of Seville, the work of Braulio of Zaragoza, the acts of the councils of Toledo, De Perpetua Virginitate by Ildefonsus, and De Comprobatione Sextae Aetatis and Historia Wambae by Julian of Toledo, all works that would have existed in the Visigothic libraries of seventh century Toledo and whose existence together "makes more sense in a Toledan context than in any other."[63]

Mosque of Cristo de la Luz

In 756 Abd ar-Rahman, a descendant of the fallen Omeyyad caliphs, came to Al-Andalus and initiated a revolt against Yusuf. He defeated Yusuf and forced him to reside in Cordoba, but Yusuf broke the agreement and raised a Berber army to fight Abd ar-Rahman. In this conflict, Toledo was held against Abd ar-Rahman by Yusuf's cousin Hisham ibn Urwa. Yusuf attempted to march on Seville, but was defeated and instead attempted to reach his cousin in Toledo. He was either killed on his way to Toledo, or he reached Toledo and held out there for as many as two or three years before being betrayed and killed by his own people. Whether or not Yusuf himself held out in Toledo, Hisham ibn Urwa did hold power in Toledo for several years, resisting the authority of Abd ar-Rahman. In 761 Hisham is reported as again being in rebellion in Toledo against Abd ar-Rahman. Abd ar-Rahman failed to take Toledo by force and instead signed a treaty allowing Hisham to remain in control of Toledo, but giving one of his sons as hostage to Abd ar-Rahman. Hisham continued to defy Abd ar-Rahman, who had Hisham's son executed and the head catapulted over the city walls into Toledo. Abd ar-Rahman attacked Toledo in 764, winning only when some of Hisham's own people betrayed him and turned him over to Abd ar-Rahman and his freedman Badr.[64] Ibn al-Athir states that towards the end of Abd ar-Rahman's reign, a governor of Toledo raided in force into the Kingdom of Asturias during the reign of Mauregatus,[65] though the Asturian chronicles do not record the event.[66]

Under the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba, Toledo was the centre of numerous insurrections dating from 761 to 857.[67] Twenty years after the rebellion of Hisham ibn Urwa, the last of Yusuf's sons, Abu al-Aswad ibn Yusuf, rebelled in Toledo in 785.[68][69] After the suppression of ibn Yusuf's revolt, Abd ar-Rahman's oldest son Sulayman was made governor of Toledo. However, Abd ar-Rahman designated as his successor a younger son, Hisham. On Hisham's accession to the Emirate in 788, Sulayman refused to make the oath of allegiance at the mosque, as succession custom would have dictated, and thus declared himself in rebellion. He was joined in Toledo by his brother Abdallah. Hisham laid siege to Toledo. While Abdallah held Toledo against Hisham, Sulayman escaped and attempted to find support elsewhere, but was unsuccessful. In 789, Abdallah submitted and Hisham took control of Toledo. The following year, Sulayman gave up the fight and went into exile.[70] Hisham's son Al-Hakam was governor of Toledo from 792 to 796 when he succeeded his father as emir in Cordoba. After Al-Hakam's accession and departure, a poet resident in Toledo named Girbib ibn-Abdallah wrote verses against the Omeyyads, helping to inspire a revolt in Toledo against the new emir in 797. Chroniclers disagree as to the leader of this revolt. Al-Hakam sent Amrus ibn Yusuf to fight the rebellion. Amrus took control of the Berber troops in Talavera, from where he was able to convince some rebels to turn on their leader, and thus take control of Toledo. Amrus was governor of Toledo until 802.[71]

"In 785, Bishop Elipandus of Toledo wrote a letter condemning the teaching of a certain Migetius."[72] In his letter, Elipandus asserted that Christ had adopted his humanity, a position that came to be known as Adoptionism.[73] Two Asturian bishops, Beatus and Eterius, bishop of Osma, wrote a treatise condemning Elipandus' views.[74] Pope Hadrian wrote a letter between 785 and 791 in which he condemned Migetius, but also the terminology used by Elipandus.[75] The Frankish court of Charlemagne also condemned Adoptionism at the Synod of Frankfurt in 794.[76] Although Ramon Abadals y de Vinyals argued that this controversy represented an ideological assertion of independence by the Asturian church against the Moslem-ruled church of Toledo,[77] Collins believes this argument applies eleventh century ideology to the eighth century and is anachronistic.[78] However, Collins notes that the controversy and the alliances formed during it between Asturias and the Franks broke the old unity of the Spanish church.[79] The influence of the bishops of Toledo would be much more limited until the eleventh century.[80]

Conquest of Toledo in 1085

The Banu Qasi gained nominal control of the city until 920 and in 932 Abd-ar-Rahman III captured the city following an extensive siege.[81] Toledo experienced a period known as La Convivencia, i.e. the co-existence of Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Under Islamic Arab rule, Toledo was called Ṭulayṭulah. After the fall of the caliphate, Toledo was the capital city of one of the richest Taifas of Al-Andalus. Its population was overwhelmingly Muladi, and, because of its central location in the Iberian Peninsula, Toledo took a central position in the struggles between the Muslim and Christian rulers of northern Spain. The conquest of Toledo by Alfonso VI of Castile in 1085 marked the first time a major city in Al-Andalus was captured by Christian forces; it served to sharpen the religious aspect of the Christian reconquest.

Medieval Toledo after the Reconquest

Toledo in the 16th century

On May 25, 1085, Alfonso VI of Castile took Toledo and established direct personal control over the Moorish city from which he had been exacting tribute, ending the medieval Taifa's Kingdom of Toledo. This was the first concrete step taken by the combined kingdom of Leon-Castile in the Reconquista by Christian forces. After Castilian conquest, Toledo continued to be a major cultural centre; its Arab libraries were not pillaged, and a tag-team translation centre was established in which books in Arabic or Hebrew would be translated into Castilian by Muslim and Jewish scholars, and from Castilian into Latin by Castilian scholars, thus letting long-lost knowledge spread through Christian Europe again. For some time during the 16th century, Toledo served as the capital city of Castile, and the city flourished. However, soon enough the Spanish court was moved, first to Valladolid and then to Madrid, thus letting the city's importance dwindle until the late 20th century, when it became the capital of the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha. Nevertheless, the economic decline of the city helped to preserve its cultural and architectural heritage. Today, because of this rich heritage, Toledo is one of Spain's foremost cities, receiving thousands of visitors yearly. Under the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toledo multiple persecutions (633, 653, 693) and stake burnings of Jews (638 CE) occurred; the Kingdom of Toledo followed up on this tradition (1368, 1391, 1449, 1486–1490 CE) including forced conversions and mass murder and the rioting and blood bath against the Jews of Toledo (1212 CE).[82][83]

During the persecution of the Jews in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, members of the Jewish community of Toledo produced texts on their long history in Toledo. It was at this time that Don Isaac Abrabanel, a prominent Jewish figure in Spain in the 15th century and one of the king's trusted courtiers who witnessed the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492, wrote that Toledo was named Ṭulayṭulah by its first Jewish inhabitants who, he stated, settled there in the 5th century BCE, and which name – by way of conjecture – may have been related to its Hebrew cognate טלטול (= wandering), on account of their wandering from Jerusalem. He says, furthermore, that the original name of the city was Pirisvalle, so-called by its early pagan inhabitants.[84] However, there is no archaeological or historical evidence for Jewish presence in this region prior to the time of the Roman Empire; when the Romans first wrote about Toledo it was a Celtic city.[85][86]

Historical population
YearPop.±%
199159,000—    
199666,006+11.9%
200168,382+3.6%
200473,485+7.5%
200677,601+5.6%

Modern Era

Toledo's Alcázar (Arabicized Latin word for palace-castle) became renowned in the 19th and 20th centuries as a military academy. At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, its garrison was famously besieged by Republican forces.

Climate

Toledo has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSk) bordering on a Mediterranean climate (Csa) as found across most of south-central Spain. Winters are mild while summers are hot and dry. Precipitation is low and mainly concentrated in the period mid autumn through to mid spring. The highest temperature ever recorded in Toledo was 43.1 °C (109.58 °F) on 10 August 2012; the lowest was −9.1 °C (15.6 °F) on 27 January 2005.

Climate data for Toledo, Spain 515m (1981–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 22.0
(71.6)		 23.8
(74.8)		 27.6
(81.7)		 31.6
(88.9)		 37.7
(99.9)		 42.0
(107.6)		 42.8
(109)		 43.1
(109.6)		 40.3
(104.5)		 33.2
(91.8)		 25.6
(78.1)		 22.2
(72)		 43.1
(109.6)
Average high °C (°F) 11.5
(52.7)		 14.0
(57.2)		 18.1
(64.6)		 19.9
(67.8)		 24.2
(75.6)		 30.5
(86.9)		 34.6
(94.3)		 34.0
(93.2)		 29.0
(84.2)		 22.1
(71.8)		 15.6
(60.1)		 11.6
(52.9)		 22.1
(71.8)
Daily mean °C (°F) 6.4
(43.5)		 8.3
(46.9)		 11.6
(52.9)		 13.5
(56.3)		 17.6
(63.7)		 23.2
(73.8)		 26.8
(80.2)		 26.3
(79.3)		 22.0
(71.6)		 16.1
(61)		 10.5
(50.9)		 7.1
(44.8)		 15.8
(60.4)
Average low °C (°F) 1.3
(34.3)		 2.6
(36.7)		 5.0
(41)		 7.2
(45)		 11.0
(51.8)		 15.9
(60.6)		 18.9
(66)		 18.6
(65.5)		 14.9
(58.8)		 10.2
(50.4)		 5.3
(41.5)		 2.5
(36.5)		 9.5
(49.1)
Record low °C (°F) −9.6
(14.7)		 −9.0
(15.8)		 −5.8
(21.6)		 −2.6
(27.3)		 −0.3
(31.5)		 4.3
(39.7)		 10.0
(50)		 10.0
(50)		 5.4
(41.7)		 0.0
(32)		 −5.6
(21.9)		 −8.0
(17.6)		 −9.6
(14.7)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 26
(1.02)		 25
(0.98)		 23
(0.91)		 39
(1.54)		 44
(1.73)		 24
(0.94)		 7
(0.28)		 9
(0.35)		 18
(0.71)		 48
(1.89)		 39
(1.54)		 41
(1.61)		 342
(13.46)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 5 5 4 6 6 3 1 2 3 7 6 6 54
Average relative humidity (%) 76 69 59 58 54 45 39 41 51 66 74 79 59
Mean monthly sunshine hours 151 172 228 249 286 337 382 351 260 210 157 126 2,922
Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia[87]

Economy

Zocodover square after the Corpus Christi festivities.

The metal-working industry has historically been Toledo's economic base, with a great tradition in the manufacturing of swords and knives and a significant production of razor blades, medical devices and electrical products. Soap and toothpaste industries, flour milling, glass and ceramics have also been important.[88] (The Toledo Blade, the American newspaper in Toledo's Ohio namesake city, is named in honor of the sword-making tradition.)

The Museum Santa Cruz.

According to the Statistical Institute of Castilla-La Mancha, in 2007 the distribution of employment by sectors of occupation was as follows: 86.5% of the population engaged in the services, 6.6% in construction, 5.4% in industry and 1.5% in agriculture and livestock.[89]

Puerta de Bisagra.

The manufacture of swords in the city of Toledo goes back to Roman times, but it was under Moorish rule and during the Reconquista that Toledo and its guild of sword-makers played a key role. Between the 15th and 17th centuries the Toledo sword-making industry enjoyed a great boom, to the point where its products came to be regarded as the best in Europe. Swords and daggers were made by individual craftsmen, although the sword-makers guild oversaw their quality. In the late 17th and early 18th century production began to decline, prompting the creation of the Royal Arms Factory in 1761 by order of King Carlos III. The Royal Factory brought together all the sword-makers guilds of the city and it was located in the former mint. In 1777, recognizing the need to expand the space, Carlos III commissioned the architect Sabatini to construct a new building on the outskirts of the city. This was the beginning of several phases of expansion. Its importance was such that it eventually developed into a city within the city of Toledo.

Historical swords and souvenirs of Toledo.

In the 20th century, the production of knives and swords for the army was reduced to cavalry weapons only, and after the Spanish Civil War, to the supply of swords to the officers and NCOs of the various military units. Following the closure of the factory in the 1980s, the building was renovated to house the campus of the Technological University of Castilla-La Mancha in Toledo.[90]

Unemployment

In the last decade, unemployment in absolute terms has remained fairly stable in the city of Toledo, but in 2009 this figure increased significantly: nearly 62% compared to 2008, with the number of unemployed rising from 2,515 to 4,074 (figures at 31 March each year), according to the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla La Mancha.[91] Of this 62%, one third of the increase took place in the first quarter.

According to other statistics from the same source, almost half the unemployed in the city of Toledo (1,970 persons) are among those whose education does not go beyond the compulsory secondary level. However, there are groups whose level of studies is such that they have not been registered as unemployed, such as those who have completed class 1 professional training, or those with virtually nonexistent unemployment rates (less than 0.1%), which is the case of unemployed with high school degrees or professional expertise.

The largest group among the unemployed is those who have no qualifications (27.27%).

Politics

Toledo City Hall.

Toledo has a 25-member City Council, elected by closed lists every four years. The 2011 election saw a pact made between the 11 members of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the 2 members of the United Left, to retain the position of the PSOE's Emiliano García-Page Sánchez as mayor, which he has been since 2007.

Culture

A vista de Toledo: the city of Toledo as depicted in the Codex Vigilanus in 976.

The old city is located on a mountaintop with a 150 degree view, surrounded on three sides by a bend in the Tagus River, and contains many historical sites, including the Alcázar, the cathedral (the primate church of Spain), and the Zocodover, a central market place.

From the 4th century to the 16th century about thirty synods were held at Toledo. The earliest, directed against Priscillian, assembled in 400. At the synod of 589 the Visigothic King Reccared declared his conversion from Arianism to Catholicism; the synod of 633 decreed uniformity of catholic liturgy throughout the Visigothic kingdom and took stringent measures against baptized Jews who had relapsed into their former faith. Other councils forbade circumcision, Jewish rites and observance of the Sabbath and festivals. Throughout the seventh century, Jews were flogged, executed, had their property confiscated, were subjected to ruinous taxes, forbidden to trade and, at times, dragged to the baptismal font.[92] The council of 681 assured to the archbishop of Toledo the primacy of Spain. At Guadamur, very close to Toledo, was dug in 1858 the Treasure of Guarrazar, the best example of Visigothic art in Spain.

Vista de Toledo: the View of Toledo by resident El Greco c. 1608.

As nearly one hundred early canons of Toledo found a place in the Decretum Gratiani, they exerted an important influence on the development of ecclesiastical law. The synod of 1565–1566 concerned itself with the execution of the decrees of the Council of Trent; and the last council held at Toledo, 1582–1583, was guided in detail by Philip II.

Toledo was famed for religious tolerance and had large communities of Muslims and Jews until they were expelled from Spain in 1492 (Jews) and 1502 (Mudejars). Today's city contains the religious monuments the Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca, the Synagogue of El Transito, Mosque of Cristo de la Luz and the church of San Sebastián dating from before the expulsion, still maintained in good condition. Among Ladino-speaking Sephardi Jews, in their various diasporas, the family name Toledano is still prevalent—indicating an ancestry traced back to this city (the name is also attested among non-Jews in various Spanish-speaking countries).

In the 13th century, Toledo was a major cultural centre under the guidance of Alfonso X, called "El Sabio" ("the Wise") for his love of learning. The Toledo School of Translators, that had commenced under Archbishop Raymond of Toledo, continued to bring vast stores of knowledge to Europe by rendering great academic and philosophical works in Arabic into Latin. The Palacio de Galiana, built in the Mudéjar style, is one of the monuments that remain from that period.

The Cathedral of Toledo (Catedral de Toledo) was built between 1226–1493 and modeled after the Bourges Cathedral, though it also combines some characteristics of the Mudéjar style. It is remarkable for its incorporation of light and features the Baroque altar called El Transparente, several stories high, with fantastic figures of stucco, paintings, bronze castings, and multiple colors of marble, a masterpiece of medieval mixed media by Narciso Tomé topped by the daily effect for just a few minutes of a shaft of light from which this feature of the cathedral derives its name. Two notable bridges secured access to Toledo across the Tajo, the Alcántara bridge and the later built San Martín bridge.

The Monasterio de San Juan de los Reyes is a Franciscan monastery, built 1477–1504, in a remarkable combination of Gothic-Spanish-Flemish style with Mudéjar ornamentation.

Toledo was home to El Greco for the latter part of his life, and is the subject of some of his most famous paintings, including The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, exhibited in the Church of Santo Tomé.

When Philip II moved the royal court from Toledo to Madrid in 1561, the old city went into a slow decline from which it never recovered.

Toledo steel

Toledo has been a traditional sword-making, steel-working centre since about 500 BC, and came to the attention of Rome when used by Hannibal in the Punic Wars. Soon, it became a standard source of weaponry for Roman Legions.[93]

Toledo steel was famed for its very high quality alloy,[94] whereas Damascene steel, a competitor from the Middle Ages on, was famed for a specific metal-working technique.[95]

Today there is a significant trade, and many shops offer all kinds of swords to their customers, whether historical or modern films swords, as well as medieval armors and from other times, which are also exported to other countries.

Gastronomy

Inside Iglesia de San Ildelfonso, a Jesuit church.

Toledo's cuisine is grouped with that of Castile–La Mancha, well-set in its traditions and closely linked to hunting and grazing. A good number of recipes are the result of a combination of Moorish and Christian influences.

Some of its specialties include lamb roast or stew, cochifrito, alubias con perdiz (beans with partridge) and perdiz estofoda (partridge stew), carcamusa, migas, gachas manchegas, and tortilla a la magra. Two of the city's most famous food productions are Manchego cheese and marzipan, which has a Protected Geographical Indication (mazapán de Toledo).[96][97]

Holidays

Apart from these festivals should be noted that patterns of Toledo are:

Main sights

UNESCO World Heritage Site
Historic City of Toledo
Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List

Old city of Toledo
Type Cultural
Criteria i, ii, iii, iv
Reference 379
UNESCO region Europe
Inscription history
Inscription 1986 (10th Session)
Alcantara Bridge, Collotype 1889.

The city of Toledo was declared a Historic-Artistic Site in 1940, UNESCO later given the title of World Heritage in 1987. Sights include:

To mark the fourth centenary of the publication of the first part of Don Quixote, the Council of Communities of Castile–La Mancha designed a series of routes through the region crossing the various points cited in the novel. Known as the Route of Don Quixote, two of the pathways designated, sections 1 and 8, are based in Toledo; those linking the city with La Mancha Castile and Montes de Toledo exploit the natural route which passes through the Cigarrales and heads to Cobisa, Nambroca Burguillos of Toledo, where it takes the Camino Real from Sevilla to suddenly turn towards Mascaraque Almonacid de Toledo, deep into their surroundings, near Mora, in La Mancha.

This stretch, Mascaraque-Toledo, of the Route of Don Quixote has recently been included in an official way on the Camino de Santiago in Levantine branch with origins in Cartagena, Alicante and Valencia, as both routes are declared a European Cultural Route on this stretch.

Infrastructure

Cambrón Gate.

Toledo has long been an obligatory stop in the centre of the peninsula. The roads leading to historic Toledo are still used and in many cases have provided the basis to existing roads leading into the city.

Roads

From Toledo part of N-400, which links this city with Cuenca by Ocaña and Tarancón. It is currently in the process of transformation in the future A-40 motorway Castilla La Mancha, which will link Maqueda (where it joins the motorway Extremadura), Toledo, Ocaña (where it attaches to the Motorway of Andalusia), Tarancón (where connects with the motorway Levante), Cuenca and Teruel.

The old National Road 401 Madrid-Toledo-Ciudad Real was transformed in the late 1980s in the current A-42 as a result of splitting and deleting the path that the various crossings counted (Illescas, Yuncos, etc.. ).

The split path can take 7 kilometres (4 miles) south of Toledo, in effect Ciudad Real, where it continues as conventional road. At this point, the A-42 connects with the Highway of the Vineyard that reaches Tomelloso. It is planned to extend the A-42, by a toll road, to Ciudad Real and Jaén.

In the early twenty-first century was built, in order to decongest the access of Madrid, the toll motorway AP-41.

Another way of State Highway Network that Toledo is part of the N-403, Toledo-Maqueda – Ávila – Adanero. Part of the route of this road will be replaced by that of the aforementioned Highway of Castilla La Mancha.

In addition to these roads, from Toledo depart several regional and provincial-level linking the capital with the regions of Montes de Toledo, La Jara and La Mancha.

Rail

Toledo Railway Station.

In the mid-nineteenth century Toledo was one of the first Spanish cities to receive rail service, being attached to the Madrid – Aranjuez line which was inaugurated by Isabella II on June 12 of 1858. The current station is in Neo-Mudéjar style, and was inaugurated on April 24 of 1919. It is a remarkably beautiful building, especially the paneling in the main hall of the same.

With several ups and downs in terms of technical equipment and services this is the line that served the city until the early twenty-first century: on July 2 of 2003 the last conventional train service between the two capitals ended and work began on the high-speed link, Madrid – Toledo, which entered service on November 16 of 2005, thanks to which travel time to Madrid has been reduced to just under 30 minutes.

Health

Hospital of Tavera (built between 1541–1603).

In the early 1960s began the construction of the Residence Health Social Security "Virgen de la Salud". The original building still remains in use, although successive extensions were added (maternity, outpatient clinics, operating rooms, etc.) into the existing complex. The complex was also extended to move the clinic to a new nearby building, now converted into Specialty Centre San Ildefonso.

On October 6, 1974 inaugurated the National Hospital of Paraplegics who becomes the centre of reference, both nationally and internationally, in the treatment of these lesions. Also carries out a major work of social integration of their patients.

The transfer of powers from the state health at the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla La Mancha will give new impetus to the health infrastructure, manifested in 2007 with the commencement of construction of the new General Hospital of Toledo in the Santa Mary Benquerencia. Also have been provided to the different parts of the relevant health centres.

In the Toledo Hospital Complex [36] is also integrated Geriatric Hospital Virgen del Valle, a result of reform and modernization of old tuberculosis hospital built in the mid twentieth century. The centre is located outside the city, near the Parador Nacional de Turismo Conde de Orgaz.

With regard to private health, at present the city of Toledo has several centres: Hospital de las Tres Culturas, Clínica Nuestra Señora del Rosario, and so on.

Sport

Toledo suffered from a shortage of sports facilities. Much of this problem was resolved when the Central School of Physical Education of the Army moved its headquarters to the premises of the Academy of Infantry. In the 1990s, the city council took over the old facilities of the military centre, which now include an athletics track, Olympic swimming pool and an indoor sports hall, from the former military installations, and numerous outdoor courts built in the area of the former runway of application, having been demolished and the old gym complex pools (indoor and outdoor).

Besides these facilities, the city of Toledo has covered sports pavilions in the districts of Santa Maria de Benquerencia, Santa Barbara, San Anton (Complejo Deportivo "Leaping Horse"), outdoor pools in sugar, Palomarejos, Santa Maria de Benquerencia, Santa Barbara, Santa Teresa and indoor swimming pools in the gardens of the Alcazar (old town), Santa Maria de Benquerencia and San Antonio.

Toledo has a football team, Club Deportivo Toledo, which is currently playing in the third-tier Segunda División B. The club plays its matches in the municipal field Leaping Horse, opened in 1973. The team played for 7 seasons in the Segunda División, during which it reached the play-off final for promotion to La Liga at the end of the 1993–94 season, losing 4–1 on aggregate to Real Valladolid. Toledo players have included Abel Resino, Luis Garcia, Rufete and Casquero.

Toledo also has teams of handball. The Toledo Handball, after five years in the Division de Honor B, start the 2009–2010 season as ASOBAL new club for the first time in its history. A refurbished town hall "Javier Lozano Cid ', with capacity for around 1,500 spectators, is its new headquarters. Moreover, the city has two other Division II team in the National, the Toledo Handball Lábaro-B and Club Deportivo Amibal.

Toledo has two basketball teams: the CIS Toledo, with a long history that has gone through ups and downs in both regional and in national leagues (EBA) and has just promoted to 1st Autonomic, and CB Polígono, currently the most representative, whose team has promoted male, seven years after leaving, to EBA League to start the 2009/10 season. This club based in the Santa Maria de Benquerencia district and has one of the largest quarries of Castilla-La Mancha.

Toledo has been represented in athletics since 2 April 1979 by the Toledo Athletic Club, that is characterised by its actions, mainly in cross-country, where he managed a large number of medals in the championships team Spain's specialty, in addition to their combined male and female military in the late 1990s in the 1st division league national track. Among the athletes who have passed through its lanes are great athletes as Julio Rey, Roberto Parra, Chema Martinez and Julia Lobato.

Cycling, meanwhile, after the victory in the Tour de France in 1959 by Federico Bahamontes, 'The Eagle of Toledo', has been one of the sports with more followers in the city, although, at present, no school despite having a velodrome in Santa María de Benquerencia. Other leading professional cyclists from the city have been Nemesio Jiménez (Mexico Olympics 1968) and Ángel de las Heras.

The FS and Volleyball Toledo Toledo Association Toledo complete representation in the National League of First and Second Division, after a brief journey in Fantasy, respectively, while the Toledo Rugby Club, with manyfans, is immersed in the League Madrid's Primera Liga.

At the individual level, the swimmer Javier Noriega and Julio Rey marathon athletes are more representative of the city, both in Athens Olympics 2004 and Beijing Olympics 2008, in recent years. Rey, Spanish current marathon record holder, with 2h.06:52, announced his retirement in October 2009.

Media

Various local and provincial newspapers are published in the city. In addition, national newspapers such as the daily ABC publish unique local editions. Among the local newspapers are the subscription-based La Tribuna de Toledo, and Toledo Day, as well as the free Global Castilla la Mancha and Toledo News. The general information weekly magazines Echoes and Here are also published.

There is also local media in television, radio and Internet. The regional public television headquarters, CMT, are in Toledo. In addition, there are several local television stations, as well as local fare: the diocesan Popular TV, Teletoledo, Canal Regional de Noticia and La Tribuna TV.

For radio stations, there is the dean of radio Radio Toledo (Onda Cero), as well as COPE, Cadena SER, RNE, RCM and Radio Aquí, and the local fare Onda Polígono and the diocesan station Radio Santa Maria. Within the digital and social media, Onda Toledo, Toledo Magic, Toledo Digital, and La Cerca.

Gallery

In popular culture

Segundo de Chomón filmed a short documentary about this city in 1912, L'antique Tolède (The Old Toledo). This is probably the first film about Toledo.

International relations

Twin towns — Sister cities

Toledo is twinned with:

See also

References

Notes

  1. ↑ John S. Richardson (1996). The Romans in Spain. Blackwell. p. 54.
  2. ↑ Livy. "History of Rome". Project Gutenberg Ebook History of Rome. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  3. ↑ Rubio Rivera, Rebeca. "Continuidad y cambio en el proceso de romanización del ámbito celtibérico meridional y carpetano". academia.edu. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
  4. ↑ Tsiolis, Vassilis. "El primer recinto amurallado de Toledo". academia.edu. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
  5. ↑ Kulikowski, Michael (2004). Late Roman Spain and Its Cities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  6. 1 2 3 Rubio Rivera, Rebeca. "El circo romano de Toledo y la Vega Baja en época romana". scribd.com. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
  7. 1 2 Kulikowski, Michael (2004). Late Roman Spain and Its Cities. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 265.
  8. ↑ Rubio Rivera, Rebeca (2001). El Circo Romano de Toledo y la Vega Baja en Época Romana. p. 51. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
  9. ↑ Rubio Rivera, Rebeca (2001). El Circo Romano de Toledo y la Vega Baja en Época Romana. pp. 38–39. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
  10. ↑ Richardson, John (1996). The Romans in Spain. Blackwell.
  11. ↑ Kulikowski, Michael (2004). Late Roman Spain and Its Cities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 282–284.
  12. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 54.
  13. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 57.
  14. ↑ Kulikowsi, Michael (2004). Late Roman Spain and Its Cities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 285.
  15. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 74.
  16. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 76.
  17. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 82.
  18. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 83.
  19. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 88.
  20. 1 2 Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 89.
  21. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 93.
  22. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 95.
  23. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. pp. 197–198.
  24. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 100.
  25. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 101.
  26. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 103.
  27. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. pp. 95, 104.
  28. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 105.
  29. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 106.
  30. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell.
  31. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 170.
  32. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 165.
  33. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 155.
  34. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. pp. 235–238.
  35. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. pp. 166–170.
  36. 1 2 Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain. Blackwell. p. 9.
  37. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. pp. 106–107.
  38. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. pp. 107–108.
  39. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 110.
  40. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain. Blackwell. p. 43.
  41. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 78.
  42. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 131.
  43. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. pp. 129, 133, 138.
  44. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 130.
  45. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 139.
  46. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 134.
  47. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 133.
  48. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain. Blackwell. p. 30.
  49. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain. Blackwell. p. 42.
  50. ↑ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. pp. 142–143.
  51. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797. Blackwell. p. 44.
  52. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797. Blackwell. p. 195.
  53. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 108–110.
  54. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 119.
  55. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 57–80.
  56. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 59.
  57. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 75–77.
  58. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 79–80.
  59. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 67–70.
  60. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 70–71.
  61. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 72.
  62. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 57–58.
  63. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 75.
  64. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 132–134.
  65. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 206.
  66. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 165–166.
  67. ↑ Roger Collins, Early Medieval Spain: Unity in Diversity, 400–1000, (St. Martin's Press, 1995), 187.
  68. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 172.
  69. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 202.
  70. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 201–203.
  71. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 209–210.
  72. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 220.
  73. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 222–223.
  74. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 225.
  75. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 227.
  76. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 228.
  77. ↑ Abadal y de Vinyals, Ramón (1949). La batalla del Adopcionismo en la desintegración de la iglesia visigoda (PDF). Barcelona.
  78. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 228–229.
  79. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 229.
  80. ↑ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 229–230.
  81. ↑ Ann Christys, Christians in Al-Andalus 711–1000, (Curzon Press, 2002), 20.
  82. ↑ Grosser, P.E. and E.G. Halperin. "Jewish Persecution – History of AntiSemitism – Lesser Known Highlights of Jewish International Relations In The Common Era". simpletoremember.com. SimpleToRemember.com – Judaism Online. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
  83. ↑ Grosser, Paul E.; Halperin, Edwin G.; foreword by St. John, Robert; preface by Littell, Franklin H. (1979). Anti-Semitism : the causes and effectos of a prejudice. Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press. ISBN 0806507039. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
  84. ↑ Abrabanel's Commentary on the First Prophets (Pirush Al Nevi'im Rishonim), end of II Kings, p. 680, Jerusalem 1955 (Hebrew). See also Shelomó ibn Verga in Shevet Yehudah, pp.6b-7a, Lemberg 1846 (Hebrew)
  85. ↑ María Cruz Fernández Castro (1995). La Prehistoria de la Península Ibérica. Crítica.
  86. ↑ John S. Richardson (1996). The Romans in Spain. Blackwell.
  87. ↑ "Guía resumida del clima en España (1981–2010)" (in Spanish). Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia. Retrieved May 15, 2013.
  88. ↑ "Economía de Toledo". Retrieved 9 July 2008.
  89. ↑ "Instituto de Estadística de Castilla-La Mancha — Ficha municipal" (PDF). Retrieved 21 July 2008.
  90. ↑ "lacerca.com – Las espadas forjadas en Toledo se remontan a la época romana". Retrieved 15 July 2008.
  91. ↑ "Instituto de Estadística de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha – Datos estadísticos de Toledo (Todos los Informes > Informes por Temas > Estadísticas Municipales > Mercado de Trabajo)". Retrieved 5 April 2009.
  92. ↑ S. Katz, The Jews in the Visigothic Kingdoms of Spain and Gaul, (Cambridge 1937). Cited in Paul Johnson (writer), A History of the Jews, p. 177
  93. ↑ "History of Swords from Toledo". Swords from Toledo. Retrieved 2013-07-31.
  94. ↑ "Damascene Technique in Metal Working". Retrieved 2013-07-31.
  95. ↑ "History of the Toledo Swords". Aceros de Hispania. Retrieved 2013-07-31.
  96. ↑ "red2000.com – Toledo : Gastronomía". Retrieved 11 January 2012.
  97. ↑ "toledo-turismo.com – Platos Típicos". Retrieved 11 January 2012.
  98. ↑ "National Commission for Decentralised cooperation". Délégation pour l’Action Extérieure des Collectivités Territoriales (Ministère des Affaires étrangères) (in French). Retrieved 2013-12-26.

Further reading

External links

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