Republic of the Congo

Not to be confused with the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo or its antecedent, the Republic of the Congo-Léopoldville.

Coordinates: 1°26′24″S 15°33′22″E / 1.44°S 15.556°E / -1.44; 15.556

Republic of the Congo
République du Congo  (French)
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Unité, Travail, Progrès" (French)
"Unity, Work, Progress"
Anthem: La Congolaise  (French)
The Congolese
Location of  Republic of the Congo  (dark blue)– in Africa  (light blue & dark grey)– in the African Union  (light blue)
Location of  Republic of the Congo  (dark blue)

– in Africa  (light blue & dark grey)
– in the African Union  (light blue)
Capital
and largest city		Brazzaville
4°16′S 15°17′E / 4.267°S 15.283°E / -4.267; 15.283
Official languages French
Recognised regional languages
Ethnic groups
Demonym Congolese
Government Presidential republic
 •  President Denis Sassou Nguesso
Legislature Parliament
 •  Upper house Senate
 •  Lower house National Assembly
Independence
 •  from France 15 August 1960 
Area
 •  Total 342,000 km2 (64th)
132,047 sq mi
 •  Water (%) 3.3
Population
 •  2014 estimate 4,662,446[1] (124th)
 •  Density 12.8/km2 (204th)
33.1/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2015 estimate
 •  Total $28.919 billion[2]
 •  Per capita $6,620[2]
GDP (nominal) 2015 estimate
 •  Total $8.871 billion[2]
 •  Per capita $2,030[2]
Gini (2011)40.2[3]
medium
HDI (2014)Increase 0.591[4]
medium · 136th
Currency Central African CFA franc (XAF)
Time zone WAT (UTC+1)
Drives on the right
Calling code +242
ISO 3166 code CG
Internet TLD .cg

The Republic of the Congo (French: République du Congo), also known as Congo, Congo Republic,[5] West Congo, or Congo-Brazzaville, is a country located in Central Africa. It is bordered by five countries: Gabon to the west; Cameroon to the northwest; the Central African Republic to the northeast; the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the east and south; and the Angolan exclave of Cabinda to the southwest.

The region was dominated by Bantu-speaking tribes, who built trade links leading into the Congo River basin. Congo-Brazzaville was formerly part of the French colony of Equatorial Africa.[1] Upon independence in 1960, the former colony of French Congo became the Republic of the Congo. The People's Republic of the Congo was a Marxist–Leninist one-party state from 1970 to 1991. Multi-party elections have been held since 1992, although a democratically elected government was ousted in the 1997 Republic of the Congo Civil War and President Denis Sassou Nguesso has ruled for 26 of the past 36 years.

The political stability and development of hydrocarbon production made Republic of Congo the fourth largest oil producer in the Gulf of Guinea and provided the country with a relative prosperity despite the poor state of its infrastructure and public services and an unequal distribution of oil revenues.

History

Pre-colonial

Bantu-speaking peoples who founded tribes during the Bantu expansions largely displaced and absorbed the earliest inhabitants of the region, the Pygmy people, about 1500 BC. The Bakongo, a Bantu ethnic group that also occupied parts of present-day Angola, Gabon, and Democratic Republic of the Congo, formed the basis for ethnic affinities and rivalries among those countries. Several Bantu kingdoms—notably those of the Kongo, the Loango, and the Teke—built trade links leading into the Congo River basin.[6]

The court of N'Gangue M'voumbe Niambi, from the book Description of Africa (1668)

The Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached the mouth of the Congo in 1484.[7] Commercial relationships quickly grew between the inland Bantu kingdoms and European merchants who traded various commodities, manufactured goods, and people captured from the hinterlands. After centuries as a major hub for transatlantic trade, direct European colonization of the Congo river delta began in the late 19th century, subsequently eroding the power of the Bantu societies in the region.[8]

French colonial era

The area north of the Congo River came under French sovereignty in 1880 as a result of Pierre de Brazza's treaty with Makoko of the Bateke.[7] This Congo Colony became known first as French Congo, then as Middle Congo in 1903. In 1908, France organized French Equatorial Africa (AEF), comprising Middle Congo, Gabon, Chad, and Oubangui-Chari (the modern Central African Republic). The French designated Brazzaville as the federal capital. Economic development during the first 50 years of colonial rule in Congo centered on natural-resource extraction. The methods were often brutal: construction of the Congo–Ocean Railroad following World War I has been estimated to have cost at least 14,000 lives.[7]

During the Nazi occupation of France during World War II, Brazzaville functioned as the symbolic capital of Free France between 1940 and 1943.[9] The Brazzaville Conference of 1944 heralded a period of major reform in French colonial policy. Congo benefited from the postwar expansion of colonial administrative and infrastructure spending as a result of its central geographic location within AEF and the federal capital at Brazzaville.[6] It also received a local legislature after the adoption of the 1946 constitution that established the Fourth Republic.

Following the revision of the French constitution that established the Fifth Republic in 1958, the AEF dissolved into its constituent parts, each of which became an autonomous colony within the French Community. During these reforms, Middle Congo became known as the Republic of the Congo in 1958[10] and published its first constitution in 1959.[11] Antagonism between the pro-Opangault Mbochis and the pro-Youlou Balalis resulted in a series of riots in Brazzaville in February 1959, which the French Army subdued.[12]

Post-independence era

Alphonse Massamba-Débat's one-party rule (1963–1968) attempted to implement a political economic strategy of "scientific socialism".

The Republic of the Congo received full independence from France on August 15, 1960. Fulbert Youlou ruled as the country's first president until labour elements and rival political parties instigated a three-day uprising that ousted him. The Congolese military took charge of the country briefly and installed a civilian provisional government headed by Alphonse Massamba-Débat.

Under the 1963 constitution, Massamba-Débat was elected President for a five-year term.[6] During Massamba-Débat's term in office the regime adopted "scientific socialism" as the country's constitutional ideology.[13] In 1965, Congo established relations with the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, North Korea and North Vietnam.[13] Massamba-Débat's regime also invited several hundred Cuban army troops into the country to train his party's militia units and these troops helped his government survive a coup in 1966 led by paratroopers loyal to future President Marien Ngouabi. Nevertheless, Massamba-Débat was unable to reconcile various institutional, tribal and ideological factions within the country[13] and his regime ended abruptly with a bloodless coup d'état in September 1968.

Marien Ngouabi changed the country's name to the People's Republic of the Congo, declaring it to be Africa's first Marxist–Leninist state and was assassinated in 1977.

Marien Ngouabi, who had participated in the coup, assumed the presidency on December 31, 1968. One year later, President Ngouabi proclaimed Congo Africa's first "people's republic", the People's Republic of the Congo, and announced the decision of the National Revolutionary Movement to change its name to the Congolese Labour Party (PCT). Ngouabi survived an attempted coup in 1972 but was assassinated on March 16, 1977. An 11-member Military Committee of the Party (CMP) was then named to head an interim government with Joachim Yhombi-Opango to serve as President of the Republic. Two years later, Yhombi-Opango was forced from power and Denis Sassou Nguesso become the new president.[6]

Sassou Nguesso aligned the country with the Eastern Bloc and signed a twenty-year friendship pact with the Soviet Union. Over the years, Sassou had to rely more on political repression and less on patronage to maintain his dictatorship.[14]

Pascal Lissouba, who became Congo's first elected president (1992–1997) during the period of multi-party democracy, attempted to implement economic reforms with IMF backing to liberalise the economy. In June 1996 the IMF approved a three-year SDR69.5m (US$100m) enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF) and was on the verge of announcing a renewed annual agreement when civil war broke out in Congo in mid-1997.[15]

Congo's democratic progress was derailed in 1997 when Lissouba and Sassou started to fight for power in the civil war. As presidential elections scheduled for July 1997 approached, tensions between the Lissouba and Sassou camps mounted. On June 5, President Lissouba's government forces surrounded Sassou's compound in Brazzaville and Sassou ordered members of his private militia (known as "Cobras") to resist. Thus began a four-month conflict that destroyed or damaged much of Brazzaville and caused tens of thousands of civilian deaths. In early October, the Angolan socialist régime began an invasion of Congo to install Sassou in power. In mid-October, the Lissouba government fell. Soon thereafter, Sassou declared himself president.[6]

In the controversial elections in 2002, Sassou won with almost 90% of the vote cast. His two main rivals, Lissouba and Bernard Kolelas, were prevented from competing and the only remaining credible rival, Andre Milongo, advised his supporters to boycott the elections and then withdrew from the race.[16] A new constitution, agreed upon by referendum in January 2002, granted the president new powers, extended his term to seven years, and introduced a new bicameral assembly. International observers took issue with the organization of the presidential election and the constitutional referendum, both of which were reminiscent in their organization of Congo's era of the one-party state.[17] Following the presidential elections, fighting restarted in the Pool region between government forces and rebels led by Pastor Ntumi; a peace treaty to end the conflict was signed in April 2003.[18]

Sassou also won the following presidential election in July 2009.[19] According to the Congolese Observatory of Human Rights, a non-governmental organization, the election was marked by "very low" turnout and "fraud and irregularities".[20]

Government and politics

Denis Sassou Nguesso served as President from 1979 to 1992 and has remained in power ever since his rebel forces ousted President Pascal Lissouba during the 1997 Civil War.

Congo-Brazzaville has had a multi-party political system since the early 1990s, although the system is heavily dominated by President Denis Sassou Nguesso; he has lacked serious competition in the presidential elections held under his rule. Sassou Nguesso is backed by his own Congolese Labour Party (French: Parti Congolais du Travail) as well as a range of smaller parties.

Internationally, Sassou's regime has been hit by corruption revelations despite attempts to censor them. One French investigation found over 110 bank accounts and dozens of lavish properties in France; Sassou denounced embezzlement investigations as "racist" and "colonial".[21][22][23]

On March 27, 2015 Sassou Nguesso announced that his government would hold a referendum to change the country's 2002 constitution and allow him to run for a third consecutive term in office.[24] On October 25 the government held a referendum to allow Sassou Nguesso to run in the next election. The government claimed that the proposal as approved by 92 percent of voters with 72 percent of eligible voters participating. The opposition, who had boycotted the referendum claimed that the government's statistics were false and that the vote was a sham.[25]

Media

In 2008, the main media were owned by the government, but many more privately run forms of media were being created. There is one government-owned television station and around 10 small private television channels.

Human rights

Many Pygmies belong from birth to Bantus in a relationship many refer to as slavery.[26][27] The Congolese Human Rights Observatory says that the Pygmies are treated as property the same way "pets" are.[26] On December 30, 2010, the Congolese parliament adopted a law for the promotion and protection of the rights of indigenous peoples. This law is the first of its kind in Africa, and its adoption is a historic development for indigenous peoples on the continent.[28]

Administrative divisions

Sangha Department (Congo) Plateaux Department (Congo) Lékoumou Department Lékoumou Department Pointe-Noire Department Pointe-Noire Department Kouilou Department Bouenza Department Brazzaville Department Brazzaville Department Pool Department Niari Department Likouala Department Cuvette Department Cuvette-Ouest Department Cuvette-Ouest DepartmentA clickable map of the Republic of the Congo exhibiting its twelve departments.
About this image

The Republic of the Congo is divided into 12 départements (departments). Departments are divided into communes and districts.[29] These are:

Geography and climate

Map of the Republic of the Congo
Climate diagram for Brazzaville

Congo is located in the central-western part of sub-Saharan Africa, along the Equator, lying between latitudes 4°N and 5°S, and longitudes 11° and 19°E. To the south and east of it is the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is also bounded by Gabon to the west, Cameroon and the Central African Republic to the north, and Cabinda (Angola) to the southwest. It has a short coast on the Atlantic Ocean.

The capital, Brazzaville, is located on the Congo River, in the south of the country, immediately across from Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

The southwest of the country is a coastal plain for which the primary drainage is the Kouilou-Niari River; the interior of the country consists of a central plateau between two basins to the south and north. Forests are under increasing exploitation pressure.[30]

Since the country is located on the Equator, the climate is consistent year-round, with the average day temperature being a humid 24 °C (75 °F) and nights generally between 16 °C (61 °F) and 21 °C (70 °F). The average yearly rainfall ranges from 1,100 millimetres (43 in) in south in the Niari Valley to over 2,000 millimetres (79 in) in central parts of the country. The dry season is from June to August while in the majority of the country the wet season has two rainfall maxima: one in March–May and another in September–November.[31]

In 2006–07, researchers from the Wildlife Conservation Society studied gorillas in heavily forested regions centered on the Ouesso district of the Sangha Region. They suggest a population on the order of 125,000 Western Lowland Gorillas, whose isolation from humans has been largely preserved by inhospitable swamps.[32]

Economy

Cassava is an important food crop in the Republic of Congo.

The economy is a mixture of village agriculture and handicrafts, an industrial sector based largely on petroleum,[33] support services, and a government characterized by budget problems and overstaffing. Petroleum extraction has supplanted forestry as the mainstay of the economy. In 2008, oil sector accounted for 65% of the GDP, 85% of government revenue, and 92% of exports.[34] The country also has large untapped mineral wealth.

In the early 1980s, rapidly rising oil revenues enabled the government to finance large-scale development projects with GDP growth averaging 5% annually, one of the highest rates in Africa. The government has mortgaged a substantial portion of its petroleum earnings, contributing to a shortage of revenues. January 12, 1994 devaluation of Franc Zone currencies by 50% resulted in inflation of 46% in 1994, but inflation has subsided since.[35]

Kinshasa seen from Brazzaville. The two capitals are separated by the Congo River.
Young women learning to sew, Brazzaville

Economic reform efforts continued with the support of international organizations, notably the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The reform program came to a halt in June 1997 when civil war erupted. When Sassou Nguesso returned to power at the end of the war in October 1997, he publicly expressed interest in moving forward on economic reforms and privatization and in renewing cooperation with international financial institutions. However, economic progress was badly hurt by slumping oil prices and the resumption of armed conflict in December 1998, which worsened the republic's budget deficit.

The current administration presides over an uneasy internal peace and faces difficult economic problems of stimulating recovery and reducing poverty, despite record-high oil prices since 2003. Natural gas and diamonds are also recent major Congolese exports, although Congo was excluded from the Kimberley Process in 2004 amid allegations that most of its diamond exports were in fact being smuggled out of the neighboring Democratic Republic of Congo; it was re-admitted to the group in 2007.[36][37]

The Republic of the Congo also has large untapped base metal, gold, iron and phosphate deposits.[38] The country is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[39] The Congolese government signed an agreement in 2009 to lease 200,000 hectares of land to South African farmers to reduce its dependence on imports.[40][41]

The GDP of the Republic of the Congo grew by 6% in 2014 and is expected to have grown by 7.5% in 2015.[42][43]

Transportation

Maya-Maya Airport in Brazzaville.

Transport in the Republic of the Congo includes land, air and water transportation. The country's rail system was built by forced laborers during the 1930s and largely remains in operation. There are also over 1000 km of paved roads and two major international airports (Maya-Maya Airport and Pointe Noire Airport) which have flights to Paris and many African cities. The country also has a large port on the Atlantic Ocean at Pointe-Noire and others along the Congo River at Brazzaville and Impfondo.

Demographics

Religion in the Republic of the Congo by Pew Research Center (2011)[44]

  Protestantism (51.4%)
  Roman Catholicism (30.1%)
  Other Christian (4.4%)
  Other religions (14.1%)

The Republic of the Congo's sparse population is concentrated in the southwestern portion of the country, leaving the vast areas of tropical jungle in the north virtually uninhabited. Thus, Congo is one of the most urbanized countries in Africa, with 70% of its total population living in a few urban areas, namely in Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire or one of the small cities or villages lining the 534-kilometre (332 mi) railway which connects the two cities. In rural areas, industrial and commercial activity has declined rapidly in recent years, leaving rural economies dependent on the government for support and subsistence.[45]

Ethnically and linguistically the population of the Republic of the Congo is diverse—Ethnologue recognises 62 spoken languages in the country[46]—but can be grouped into three categories. The Kongo are the largest ethnic group and form roughly half of the population. The most significant subgroups of the Kongo are Laari in Brazzaville and Pool regions and Vili around Pointe-Noire and along the Atlantic coast. The second largest group are the Teke who live to the north of Brazzaville with 17% of the population. Boulangui (M’Boshi) live in the northwest and in Brazzaville and form 12% of the population.[47][48] Pygmies make up 2% of Congo's population.[49]

Before the 1997 war, about 9,000 Europeans and other non-Africans lived in Congo, most of whom were French; only a fraction of this number remains.[45] Around 300 American expatriates reside in the Congo.[45]

According to CIA World Factbook, the people of Republic of the Congo are largely a mix of Catholics (33.1%), Awakening Lutherans (22.3%) and other Protestants (19.9%). Followers of Islam make up 1.6%, and this is primarily due to an influx of foreign workers into the urban centers.[1]

According to a 2011–12 survey, total fertility rate was 5.1 children born per woman, with 4.5 in urban areas and 6.5 in rural areas.[50]

 
Largest cities or towns in Republic of the Congo
http://www.geonames.org/CG/largest-cities-in-republic-of-the-congo.html
Rank Department Pop.

Brazzaville		 1 Brazzaville Brazzaville 1 284 609
2 Pointe-Noire Pointe-Noire 659 084
3 Dolisie Niari 103 894
4 Kayes Bouenza 58 737
5 Owando Cuvette 23 952
6 Ouésso Shangha 23 915
7 Loandjilli Kouilou 23 204
8 Madingou Bouenza 22 760
9 Gamboma Plateaux 20 877
10 Impfondo Likouala 20 859

Health

Public expenditure health was at 8.9% of the GDP in 2004, whereas private expenditure was at 1.3%.[51] As of 2012, the HIV/AIDS prevalence was at 2.8% among 15- to 49-year-olds.[1] Health expenditure was at US$30 per capita in 2004.[51] A large proportion of the population is undernourished,[51] with malnutrition being a problem in Congo-Brazzaville.[52] There were 20 physicians per 100,000 persons in the early 2000s (decade).[51]

As of 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 560 deaths/100,000 live births, and the infant mortality rate was 59.34 deaths/1,000 live births.[1] Female genital mutilation (FGM) is rare in the country, being confined to limited geographic areas of the country.[53]

Culture

Education

School children in the classroom, Republic of the Congo

Public expenditure of the GDP was less in 2002–05 than in 1991.[51] Public education is theoretically free and mandatory for under-16-year-olds,[54] but in practice, expenses exist.[54] Net primary enrollment rate was 44% in 2005, much less than the 79% in 1991.[51] The country has universities. Education between ages six and sixteen is compulsory. Pupils who complete six years of primary school and seven years of secondary school obtain a baccalaureate. At the university, students can obtain a bachelor's degree in three years and a master's after four. Marien Ngouabi University—which offers courses in medicine, law and several other fields—is the country's only public university. Instruction at all levels is in French, and the educational system as a whole models the French system. The educational infrastructure has been seriously degraded as a result of political and economic crises. There are no seats in most classrooms, forcing children to sit on the floor. Enterprising individuals have set up private schools, but they often lack the technical knowledge and familiarity with the national curriculum to teach effectively. Families frequently enroll their children in private schools only to find they cannot make the payments.

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 "Congo, Republic of the". CIA – The World Factbook.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Republic of the Congo". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved April 17, 2013.
  3. ↑ "GINI index". World Bank. Retrieved September 12, 2015.
  4. ↑ "2015 Human Development Report" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2014. Retrieved December 14, 2015.
  5. ↑ http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/congo/ New York Times
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 "Background Note: Republic of the Congo". Department of State. March 2009.
  7. 1 2 3 Olson, James S. & Shadle, Robert. Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism, p. 225. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1991. ISBN 0-313-26257-8. Accessed October 9, 2011.
  8. ↑ Boxer, C. R. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825, A. A. Knopf, 1969, ISBN 0090979400
  9. ↑ United States State Department. Office of the Historian. A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776. "Republic of the Congo". Accessed October 9, 2010.
  10. ↑ United States State Department. Bureau of African Affairs. Background Notes. "Republic of the Congo". Accessed October 9, 2011.
  11. ↑ Robbers, Gerhard (2007). Encyclopedia of World Constitutions. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 0-8160-6078-9. Accessed October 9, 2011.
  12. ↑ CONGO REPUBLIC: BRAZZAVILLE RIOTS AFTERMATH. Reuters (February 27, 1959)
  13. 1 2 3 Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. CRC Press. p. 301. ISBN 1579582451.
  14. ↑ Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history. CRC Press. p. 302. ISBN 1579582451.
  15. ↑ Country Report Congo-Brazzaville. The Economist Intelligence Unit. 2003. p. 24.
  16. ↑ "Congo, Republic of (Brazzaville)". Freedom House. 2006. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
  17. ↑ "Congo approves new constitution". BBC. January 24, 2002. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
  18. ↑ "Congo peace deal signed". BBC. March 18, 2003. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
  19. ↑ "17 candidates in Congo presidential race: commission". AFP. June 13, 2009. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
  20. ↑ Vote results expected as opposition alleges fraud. France24 (July 16, 2009).
  21. ↑ "Congo leader son fails in gag bid". BBC. August 15, 2007.
  22. ↑ "Propping Up Africa's Dictators". Foreign Policy In Focus. June 22, 2009.
  23. ↑ "FACTBOX-African leaders' French assets under scrutiny". Reuters. April 29, 2009.
  24. ↑ Ross, Aaron (March 27, 2015) Congo Republic president says expects referendum over third term. Reuters
  25. ↑ "Congo opposition holds ceremony for killed protesters=Reuters".
  26. 1 2 "Pygmies in the Congo treated like "pets": report". globalpost.com. July 13, 2014. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
  27. ↑ Thomas, Katie (March 4, 2007). "Slaves of the Congo". International Reporting Project. Retrieved July 13, 2014.
  28. ↑ UN expert praises Congo’s draft law on indigenous rights at the Wayback Machine (archived November 24, 2010). iwgia.org, November 15, 2010
  29. ↑ With inconsistent figures:
  30. ↑ Map: Situation de l'exploitation forestière en République du Congo. (PDF) . Retrieved on February 25, 2013.
  31. ↑ Samba G., Nganga D., Mpounza M. (2008). "Rainfall and temperature variations over Congo-Brazzaville between 1950 and 1998". Theoretical and Applied Climatology 91 (1–4): 85–97. doi:10.1007/s00704-007-0298-0. Retrieved June 11, 2008.
  32. ↑ "'Mother Lode' Of Gorillas Found In Congo Forests : NPR". Retrieved August 15, 2008.
  33. ↑ "Congo-Brazzaville". Energy Information Administration, U.S. Government. Retrieved June 11, 2009.
  34. ↑ Republic of Congo World Bank
  35. ↑ "Congo, Republic of". EconStats. Retrieved June 11, 2009.
  36. ↑ "Kimberley Process Removes the Republic of Congo from the List of Participants". Kimberley Process. July 9, 2004. Retrieved June 11, 2008.
  37. ↑ "2007 Kimberley Process Communiqué". Kimberley Process. November 8, 2007. Retrieved June 11, 2008.
  38. ↑ "Mining in Congo". MBendi. Retrieved June 14, 2009.
  39. ↑ "OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa". Retrieved March 22, 2009.
  40. ↑ Goodspeed, Peter (October 21, 2009) South Africa’s white farmers prepare to trek to the Congo at the Wayback Machine (archived February 18, 2011). National Post.
  41. ↑ Congo hands land to South African farmers. Telegraph. October 21, 2009.
  42. ↑ "Republic of the Congo GDP Annual Growth Rate". Trading Economics.
  43. ↑ "Republic of the Congo GDP and Economic Data". Global Finance. Retrieved 14 January 2016.
  44. ↑ Table: Christian Population as Percentages of Total Population by Country
  45. 1 2 3 Background Note: Republic of the Congo United States Department of State. Accessed on August 21, 2008.
  46. ↑ "Languages of Congo". SIL International. Retrieved June 13, 2009.
  47. ↑ Levinson, David (1998). Ethnic groups worldwide. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-1-57356-019-1.
  48. ↑ "Congo Overview". Minority Rights Group International. Retrieved June 13, 2009.
  49. ↑ Les pygmées du Congo en "danger d'extinction. Lemonde.fr (August 5, 2011). Retrieved on February 25, 2013.
  50. ↑ Congo. Enquête Démographique et de Santé 2011-2012. Centre National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques (CNSEE), Brazzaville. Decemeber 2012
  51. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Human Development Report 2009 at the Wayback Machine (archived January 17, 2010). undp.org
  52. ↑ "IRIN Africa – CONGO: Grappling with malnutrition and post-conflict woes – Congo – Food Security – Health & Nutrition". IRINnews. Retrieved January 23, 2015.
  53. ↑ "CONGO (BRAZZAVILLE): UNFPA Leads Fight Against FGM " UNFPA in the News". Retrieved January 23, 2015.
  54. 1 2 Refworld | 2008 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor – Congo, Republic of the. UNHCR. Retrieved on February 25, 2013.

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