Taoism

Taoism

Taoist rite at the Qingyanggong (Green Goat Temple) in Chengdu
Chinese name
Chinese 道教, 道家思想
Literal meaning "Teaching of the Way"
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabet Đạo giáo
Chữ Hán 道教
Korean name
Hangul 도교
Hanja 道教
Japanese name
Kanji 道教
Hiragana どうきょう

Taoism (also called Daoism) is a philosophical, ethical or religious tradition of Chinese origin that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (also romanized as Dao). The term Tao means "way", "path", or "principle", and can also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism. In Taoism, however, Tao denotes something that is both the source of, and the force behind, everything that exists. Taoism is practiced as a religion in various Asian communities. Its theology is not theist (even though some communities do worship Laozi as the attributed founder of the religious doctrine), and has more affinities with pantheistic traditions given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao.

Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the tenets of the School of Yin Yang, and is heavily influenced and informed by the acknowledged oldest text of ancient Chinese classics, the I Ching, which prescribes a system of philosophical thought on the ethics of human behaviours based on articulating cycles of change in the natural and social worlds by means of hexagrams, and includes instructions for divination practice still adhered to by modern-day religious Taoists.[1] Daoism, as Taoism is sometimes referred, diverged sharply from Confucian thoughts by scorning rigid rituals and social classes.[2] The Tao Te Ching, a compact and ambiguous book containing teachings attributed to Laozi (Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozǐ; Wade–Giles: Lao Tzu), is widely considered the keystone work of this philosophy. Together with the writings of Zhuangzi, which interprets and adds to the teaching of Laozi, these classic texts provide the philosophical foundation of Taoism deriving from the 8 trigrams (bagua) of Fu Xi in the 2700s BC in China, the various combinations of which creates the 64 hexagrams as documented in the I Ching.

Taoist propriety and ethics may vary depending on the particular school, but in general they tend to emphasize wu-wei (action through non-action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: jing (sperm/ovary energy, or the essence of the physical body), qi (energy, including the thoughts and emotions), and shen (spirit or spiritual power).

Taoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries, and clerics of institutionalised Taoism (Chinese: 道士; pinyin: dàoshi) usually take care to note distinction between their ritual tradition and the customs and practices found in Chinese folk religion as these distinctions sometimes appear blurred. Chinese alchemy (especially neidan), Chinese astrology, Chan (Zen) Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia.

After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Daozang—which was published at the behest of the emperor. Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was several times nominated as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor.

Today, Taoism is one of five religions officially recognized in China, and although it does not travel readily from its Asian roots, claims adherents in a number of societies.[3] Taoism also has sizable communities in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and in Southeast Asia.

Definition

Spelling and pronunciation

English speakers continue to debate the preferred romanization of the words "Daoism" and "Taoism". The root Chinese word 道 "way, path" is romanized tao in the older Wade–Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is formed from the Chinese loanword tao/dao 道 "way; route; principle" and the native suffix -ism. The debate over Taoism vs. Daoism involves sinology, phonemes, loanwords, and politics – not to mention whether Taoism should be pronounced /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/ or /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/.

Daoism is pronounced /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/, but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/. In theory, both Wade–Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism. An investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages (a pun on the Dow Jones Indexes) illustrates this /daʊ/ pronunciation's widespread familiarity.[4] In speech, Tao and Taoism are often pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/, reading the Chinese unaspirated lenis ("weak") /t/ as the English voiceless stop consonant /t/. Lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism. A study of major English dictionaries published in Great Britain and the United States found the most common Taoism glosses were /taʊ.ɪzəm/ in British sources and /daʊ.ɪzəm, taʊ.ɪzəm/ in American ones.[5]

Categorization

The word "Taoism" is used to translate different Chinese terms which refer to different aspects of the same tradition and semantic field:[6]

  1. "Taoist religion" (Chinese: 道教; pinyin: dàojiào; lit. "teachings of the Tao"), or the "liturgical" aspect[7] — A family of organized religious movements sharing concepts or terminology from "Taoist philosophy";[8] the first of these is recognized as the Celestial Masters school.
  2. "Taoist philosophy" (Chinese: 道家; pinyin: dàojiā; lit. "school or family of the Tao") or "Taology" (Chinese: 道學; pinyin: dàoxué; lit. "learning of the Tao"), or the "mystical" aspect[7] — The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching (or Daodejing, Chinese: 道德經; pinyin: dàodéjīng) and the Zhuangzi (Chinese: 莊子; pinyin: zhuāngzi). These texts were linked together as "Taoist philosophy" during the early Han Dynasty, but notably not before.[9][10] It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing,[11][12] and Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist as this classification did not arise until well after his death.[12]

However, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars.[13][14] It is contested by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of the different Taoist schools, sects and movements.[15] Taoism does not fall under an umbrella or a definition of a single organized religion like the Abrahamic traditions; nor can it be studied as a mere variant of Chinese folk religion, as although the two share some similar concepts, much of Chinese folk religion is separate from the tenets and core teachings of Taoism.[16] Sinologists Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations."[17]

Chung-ying Cheng, a Chinese philosopher, views Taoism as a religion that has been embedded into Chinese history and tradition. "Whether Confucianism, Daoism, or later Chinese Buddhism, they all fall into this pattern of thinking and organizing and in this sense remain religious, even though individually and intellectually they also assume forms of philosophy and practical wisdom."[18] Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Daoist view of heaven flows mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of the way (dao) can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature".[18] In Chinese history, the three religions of Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism stand on their own independent views, and yet are "involved in a process of attempting to find harmonization and convergence among themselves, so that we can speak of a 'unity of three religious teaching' (sanjiao heyi)".[19]

The term "Taoist"

Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. "Taoist", in the sinological literature of the 19th and early 20th centuries, was used as a translation of daoshi (道士, "master of the Tao"), or "Taoist priest", that is applied to the ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skills for the benefit of a community.[20]

This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for the Chinese folk religion, proposed first by Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986).[21] Daoshi traditions are comparable in their role to the non-Taoist fashi (法師, "ritual masters") traditions (Faism).[21]

The term dàojiàotú (Chinese: 道教徒; literally: "follower of Taoism"), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, and the creation of the Chinese Taoist Association, but it has little application in the fabric of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger structure of Chinese religion.

Origins and development

Birth of Laozi, a painting at the Green Goat Temple in Chengdu, Sichuan.
Gates of the Chunyang gong in Datong, Shanxi. It's a temple dedicated to Lü Dongbin.
A daoshi (Taoist priest) in Macau.
Main article: History of Taoism

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with "original" or "primordial" Taoism.[22] Whether he actually existed is disputed;[23][24] however, the work attributed to him – the Tao Te Ching – is dated to the late 4th century BCE.[25]

Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the School of Naturalists (in the form of its main elements – yin and yang and the Five Phases), which developed during the Warring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BC).[26]

Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism:

  1. Philosophical Taoism, i.e. the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi
  2. techniques for achieving ecstasy
  3. practices for achieving longevity or immortality
  4. exorcism.[23]

Some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition.[27][28] In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring-States-era phenomena of the wu (connected to the shamanic culture of northern China) and the fangshi (which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity, one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even though later Taoists insisted that this was not the case.[29] Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the case of the wu, "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation.[29] The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists, and relied much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.[30]

The first organized form of Taoism, the Tianshi (Celestial Masters') school (later known as Zhengyi school), developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE; the latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling, who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142.[31] The Tianshi school was officially recognized by ruler Cao Cao in 215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return.[32] Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.[33]

Taoism, in form of the Shangqing school, gained official status in China again during the Tang dynasty (618–907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.[34] The Shangqing movement, however, had developed much earlier, in the 4th century, on the basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 to 370.[35]

Between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures which later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school,[36] which unfolded its greatest influence during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[37] Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang.[38]

In the 12th century, the Quanzhen School was founded in Shandong. It flourished during the 13th and 14th century and during the Yuan dynasty became the largest and most important Taoist school in Northern China. The school's most revered master, Qiu Chuji, met with Genghis Khan in 1222 and was successful in influencing the Khan towards exerting more restraint during his brutal conquests. By the Khan's decree, the school also was exempt from taxation.[39]

Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes under the Ming (1368–1644).[40]

The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), however, much favored Confucian classics over Taoist works.

During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books.[41] By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism had fallen much from favor (for example, only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing).[42]

Today, Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the People's Republic of China. The government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Association.[43] Taoism is freely practiced in Taiwan, where it claims millions of adherents.

Doctrines

Ethics

Jintai guan (金台观) in Baoji, Shaanxi.
A Taoist temple of Mount Longhu, in Jiangxi.
Golden Lotus Taoist Temple (Jinlian daoguan) on Jinshan, in Lucheng, Wenzhou, Zhejiang.

Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such as naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all, wu wei.[44] However, the concepts of those keystone texts cannot be equated with Taoism as a whole.[45]

Tao and Te

Main articles: Tao and De (Chinese)

Tao (Chinese: 道; pinyin: dào) literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road, channel, path, doctrine, or line.[46] In Taoism, it is "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course."[47] It has variously been denoted as the "flow of the universe",[48] a "conceptually necessary ontological ground",[49] or a demonstration of nature.[50] The Tao also is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves.[51]

The active expression of Tao is called Te (also spelled – and pronounced – De, or even Teh; often translated with Virtue or Power; Chinese: 德; pinyin: dé),[52] in a sense that Te results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.[53]

Wu-wei

Main article: Wu wei

The ambiguous term wu-wei (simplified Chinese: 无为; traditional Chinese: 無爲; pinyin: wú wéi) constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism.[54] Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are "nonaction", "effortless action" or "action without intent".[54] The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": "action without action".[55]

In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature.[56] Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the I Ching, proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that harmony and unintended consequences may more likely result rather than the willed outcome. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe.[57] Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly.[58][59] "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."[54]

Naturalness

Main article: Ziran

Naturalness (Chinese: 自然; pinyin: zìrán; Wade–Giles: tzu-jan; lit. "self-such"，"self organisation"[60]) is regarded as a central value in Taoism.[61] It describes the "primordial state" of all things[62] as well as a basic character of the Tao,[63] and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity.[64][63] To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao;[63] this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity.[61]

An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu (simplified Chinese: 朴; traditional Chinese: 樸; pinyin: pǔ, pú; Wade–Giles: p'u; lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved block", which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual.[65] It is usually referred to as a state one returns to.[66]

Three Treasures

The Taoist Three Treasures or Three Jewels (simplified Chinese: 三宝; traditional Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sānbǎo) comprise the basic virtues of ci (Chinese: 慈; pinyin: cí, usually translated as compassion), jian (Chinese: 俭; pinyin: jiǎn, usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian (Chinese: 不敢为天下先; pinyin: bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān, literally "not daring to act as first under the heavens", but usually translated as humility).

As the "practical, political side" of Taoist philosophy, Arthur Waley translated them as "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".[67]

The Three Treasures can also refer to jing, qi and shen (Chinese: 精氣神; pinyin: jīng-qì-shén; jing is usually translated with "essence" and shen with "spirit"). These terms are elements of the traditional Chinese concept of the human body, which shares its cosmological foundation - Yinyangism - with Taoism. Within this framework, they play an important role in neidan ("Taoist Inner Alchemy").[68]

Cosmology

Further information: School of Yin Yang, Qi and Taoism and death

Taoist cosmology is cyclic; relativity, evolution and 'extremes meet' are main characters. [60] It shares similar views with the School of Yin Yang[26] which was headed by Zou Yan (305 – 240 BCE). The school's tenets harmonized the concepts of the Wu Xing (Five Phases) and yin and yang. In this spirit, the universe is seen as being in a constant process of re-creating itself, as everything that exists is a mere aspect of qi, which, "condensed, becomes life; diluted, it is indefinite potential".[69] Qi is in a perpetual transformation between its condensed and diluted state.[70] These two different states of qi, on the other hand, are embodiments of the abstract entities of yin and yang,[70] two complementary extremes that constantly play against and with each other and cannot exist without the other.[71]

Human beings are seen as a microcosm of the universe,[16] and for example comprise the Wu Xing in form of the zang-fu organs.[72] As a consequence, it is believed that deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.[73]

Theology

Altar to Shangdi (上帝 "Primordial God") and Doumu (斗母 "Mother of the Great Chariot"), together representing the originating principle of the universe in some Taoist cosmologies, in the Chengxu Temple of Zhouzhuang, Jiangxi.

Taoism is practiced as a religion in various Asian communities, but its theology is not foundationally dependent on the existence of an anthropomorphic godlike figurehead (even though some communities do worship Laozi as the attributed founder of the philosophical doctrine, as well as other deities from ancient Chinese folklore); on a theological basis, the Taoist religion has more affinities with pantheistic traditions around the world, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of "God".

Nevertheless, as Taoist beliefs include teachings based on various sources, and are often intermingled with Chinese folk religious practice, popular Taoist religious sects have co-opted mythical figures from Chinese folklore as well as actual Taoist personages as figures of worship, with the latter better understood as analogous to "saints" in Catholic veneration rather than as divine deities in and of themselves, even though they were also often mythologised to possess superhuman or supernatural powers. Different branches of Taoism often have differing beliefs, especially concerning deities and the proper composition of the pantheon.[74] Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that nearly all the sects share.[75] Traditional conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western concepts of theism, however. Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example, the Hindu sense.[50][57]

Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities.[22][76] The pantheon tends to mirror the bureaucracy of Imperial China; deities also may be promoted or demoted for their actions.[77]

While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi, and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching, these have generally not become the objects of worship.

Texts

I Ching

Main article: I Ching
1770 Wang Bi edition of the Tao Te Ching.
The 8 trigrams of the I Ching

The I Ching, or Yijing, was originally a divination system that had its origins around 1150 B.C.[78] Although it predates the first mentions of Tao as an organised system of philosophy and religious practice, this ancient Chinese classic has long been adopted as a meditative text by people, the well-practiced amongst them later became known as Taoists, which explains the tangled relationships between many Chinese folk religions and what is later known officially as Taoism. Whilst some commentators see the I Ching as no more than a classic augury text for divination purpose,[79] the I Ching as used in Taoist practice has never been just a simple revelatory text. Instead of requiring mindless obeyance to its edicts as was the case of ancient Greek oracles, the I Ching demanded rigorous internal meditation of its Taoist practitioners, requiring them to reflect on what constitutes an appropriate course of conduct in a given circumstance. The I Ching, in contrast to other religious texts, is to be interpreted by its reader — Confucius's Commentaries on the meanings of the hexagrams being one of the most admired, have long been adopted as a key canonical interpretation often included in historical editions of the text itself (see for example Richard Wilhelm's translated edition). There are also often debates regarding different interpretations of the text and symbols, and Zhuangzi was one of the major critics of some of Confucian and Neo-Confucian interpretations of the I Ching. The I Ching remains a "live" text to this day with Taoist masters adding to the interpretive canon over the ages, creating a secondary theological and philosophical literature — the "Daozang".

The I Ching itself, shorn of its commentaries, consists of 64 combinations of 8 trigrams (called "hexagrams"), traditionally chosen by throwing coins or yarrow sticks, to give the diviner some idea of the situation at hand and, through reading of the "changing lines", some idea of what is developing.[80]

The 64 original notations of the hexagrams in the I Ching can also be read as a meditation on how change occurs, so it assists Taoists with managing yin and yang cycles as Laozi advocated in the Tao Te Ching (the oldest known version of this text was dated to 400 BC). More recently as recorded in the 18th century, the Taoist master Liu Yiming continued to advocate this usage.[79]

Tao Te Ching

Main article: Tao Te Ching

The Tao Te Ching or Daodejing is widely considered the most influential Taoist text.[81] According to legend, it was written by Laozi,[82] and often the book is simply referred to as the "Laozi." However, authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate,[83] and will probably never be known with certainty.[84] The earliest texts of the Tao Te Ching that have been excavated (written on bamboo tablets) date back to the late 4th century BCE.[85] Throughout the history of religious Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has been used as a ritual text.[86]

The famous opening lines of the Tao Te Ching are:

道可道非常道 (pinyin: dào kĕ dào fēi cháng dào)

"The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao"
名可名非常名 (pinyin: míng kĕ míng fēi cháng míng)

"The name that can be named is not the eternal name."[87]

There is significant, at times acrimonious debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferable, and which particular translation methodology is best.[88] The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference.[89]

The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be ineffable, and accomplishing great things through small means.[90] Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang Gong commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE.[91] Other important commentaries include the one from Wang Bi and the Xiang'er.[92]

Zhuangzi

Main article: Zhuangzi (book)

The Taoist book Zhuangzi (simplified Chinese: 庄子; traditional Chinese: 莊子; pinyin: Zhuāngzǐ), named after its purported author Zhuangzi, is a composite of writings from various sources, and is considered one of the most important texts in Taoism. The commentator Guo Xiang (circa 300 AD) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist thought. The traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters") and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the "outer" and "miscellaneous" chapters). The work uses anecdotes, parables and dialogues to express one of its main themes, that is aligning oneself to the laws of the natural world and "the way" of the elements.[93][94]

Daozang

Main article: Daozang

The Daozang (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is also referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The version surviving today was published during the Ming Dynasty.[95][96] The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts.[97] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, it is divided into three dong (洞, "caves", "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":[98][99]

  1. The Zhen ("real" or "truth" 洞) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.
  2. The Xuan ("mystery" 玄) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
  3. The Shen ("divine" 神) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan (茅山) revelations.

Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.[100]

The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.[101]

Other texts

See also: Mozi

While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other important texts in traditional Taoism including Mohism. Taishang Ganying Pian ("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries.[102] It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened lives.[90]

Symbols and images

A zaojing depicting a taijitu surrounded by the bagua.
Ruyi motifs of a Taoist temple roof in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

The taijitu (simplified Chinese: 太极图; traditional Chinese: 太極圖; pinyin: tàijítú; commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol" or simply the "yin yang") as well as the bagua 八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") are associated with Taoist symbolism.[103] The taijitu is not an exclusive symbol of Taoism, however. While almost all Taoist organizations make use of it, one could actually also call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. One is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to Song dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century.[104] Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon.[104]

Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc.[105] Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.[106]

A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper (or the Bushel, the Chinese equivalent). In the Shang Dynasty the Big Dipper was considered a deity, while during the Han Dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.[107]

Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature dragons and phoenixes made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.[108] In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it from other structures.[109]

Practices

Vegetarian diet

Main article: Taoist diet

Taoist diet encourages fasting and vegetarianism.

Rituals

A hall of worship of the Erwang Temple, a Taoist temple in Dujiangyan, Sichuan. There are elements of the jingxiang religious practice (incense and candle offerings).
An ancestral worship ceremony led by Taoist priests at the pyramidal shaped Great Temple of Zhang Hui (张挥公大殿 Zhāng Huī gōng dàdiàn), the main ancestral shrine dedicated to the progenitor of the Zhang lineage, located at Zhangs' ancestral home in Qinghe, Hebei.

At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the spirits of the deceased or the gods, such as during the Qingming Festival. This may include slaughtered animals, such as pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper, or Hell Bank Notes, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones. At other points, a vegan diet or full fast may be observed.

Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"); tongji (童乩 "spirit-medium; shaman") who cut their skin with knives; Bajiajiang, which are Kungfu-practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and palanquins carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.[110]

Fortune-telling—including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination—has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship is also widely encountered in some sects. There is an academic and social distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as tongji) and the spirit-writing that is typically practiced through planchette writing.[111]

Physical cultivation

Main article: Neidan

A recurrent and important element of Taoism are rituals, exercises and substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, at undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, or at improving physical health and thereby extending one's life, ideally to the point of immortality.[112][113] Enlightened and immortal beings are referred to as xian.

A characteristic method aiming for longevity is Taoist alchemy. Already in very early Taoist scriptures - like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi - alchemical formulas for achieving immortality were outlined.[114][115]

A number of martial arts traditions, particularly the ones falling under the category of Neijia (like T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Bagua Zhang and Xing Yi Quan) embody Taoist principles to a significant extent, and some practitioners consider their art a means of practicing Taoism.[116]

Society

Adherents

The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining Taoism. According to a survey of religion in China in the year 2010, the number of people practicing some form of Chinese folk religion is near to 950 million (70% of the Chinese).[117] Among these, 173 million (13%) practice some form of Taoist-defined folk faith.[117] Further in detail, 12 million people have passed some formal initiation into Taoism, or adhere exclusively to it.[117]

Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradition. Recently, there have been some efforts to revive the practice of Taoist religion. In 1956, the Chinese Taoist Association was formed, and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded during the Cultural Revolution under Mao, but re-established in 1980. The headquarters of the Association are at the Baiyun guan, or White Cloud Temple, of the Longmen branch of Quanzhen Taoism.[118]

Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, most of them belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools. For these two schools, ordination has been officially allowed again. However, "the Chinese government prefers the celibate model of ... Quanzhen clergy", while "Zhengyi clergy are often married, and often reside at home."[119]

Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, India, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and various Chinese diaspora communities. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan 7.5 million people (33% of the population) identify themselves as Taoists.[120] Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of Hong Kong[121] and Singapore[122] show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists.

Art and poetry

Six Persimmons, a Taoist-influenced 13th-century Chinese painting by the monk, Mu Qi.

Throughout Chinese history there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoist thought. Notable painters influenced by Taoism include Wu Wei, Huang Gongwang, Mi Fu, Muqi Fachang, Shitao, Ni Zan, T'ang Mi, and Wang Tseng-tsu.[123] Taoist arts represents the diverse regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy, however scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves.[124]

Political aspects

Unlike Confucianism, Taoism favors philosophical anarchism, pluralism and laissez-faire-government.[125] Laozi has been cited as an early example of a proponent of liberalism.[126][127] On the other hand, politics never have been a main issue in Taoism.

Relations with other religions and philosophies

Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, Song dynasty.
See also: Vinegar tasters

Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to Confucianism.[128] The philosophical terms Tao and De are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism,[129] and Laozi is traditionally held to have been a teacher of Confucius.[130] Zhuangzi explicitly criticized Confucianist and Mohist tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucianist emphasis on rituals, hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors naturalness, spontaneity, and individualism instead.[131]

The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with Taoism.[132] Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.[133] Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism, like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng, knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.[134]

Taoism especially shaped the development of Chan (Zen) Buddhism,[135] introducing elements like the concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment".[136]

Taoism on the other hand also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang period, such as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organisation.

Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another.[137] For example, Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Laozi (and Yijing), was a Confucian.[138] The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.[139] This became institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school.[140]

Some authors have dealt with comparative studies between Taoism and Christianity. This has been of interest for students of history of religion such as J.J.M. de Groot,[141] among others. The comparison of the teachings of Laozi and Jesus of Nazareth has been done by several authors such as Martin Aronson,[142] and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that they have pararells that should not to be ignored.[143] In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto [144] the main difference is that Christianity preaches a personal God while Theist Taoism does not. Yet, a number of authors, including Lin Yutang,[145] have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of these religions are similar.[146][147] The work "Christ the Eternal Tao"[148] by Hieromonk Damascene provides a study of "The Tao Te Ching" of Lao Tzu, in the light of Christian revelation.

Synthetic doctrine

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. ↑ The use of the I Ching as a divination text in Taoist temples is recounted by Dr. Carl Jung in describing the experiences of Richard Wilhelm, the sinologist and key English translator of the I Ching, in China in the early 20th century: http://www.schoolofwisdom.com/history/teachers/richard-wilhelm/carl-jung-on-richar-wilhelm/
  2. ↑ Pollard;Rosenberg;Tignor, Elizabeth;Clifford;Robert (2011). Worlds together Worlds Apart. New York, New York: Norton. p. 164. ISBN 9780393918472.
  3. ↑ The Ancient Chinese Super State of Primary Societies: Taoist Philosophy for the 21st Century, You-Sheng Li, June 2010, p. 300
  4. ↑ Goodspeed (1983).
  5. ↑ Carr (1990, pp. 63–65). Converting the various pronunciation respelling systems into IPA, British dictionaries (1933–1989, Table 3) give 9 /taʊ.ɪzəm/, 2 /taʊ.ɪzəm, daʊ.ɪzəm/, and 1 /daʊ.ɪzəm/; American dictionaries (1948–1987, Table 4) give 6 /daʊ.ɪzəm, taʊ.ɪzəm/, 2 /taʊ.ɪzəm, daʊ.ɪzəm/, 2 /taʊ.ɪzəm/, and 1 /daʊ.ɪzəm/.
  6. ↑ Pregadio, 2008. Vol. 1, p. xvi.
  7. 1 2 Pregadio, 2008. Vol. 1, p. 327, Daoshi.
  8. ↑ Robinet (2000), p. xxix
  9. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. 44.
  10. ↑ Chad Hansen. "Taoism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. Retrieved 2008-10-01.
  11. ↑ Chad Hansen. "Taoism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. Retrieved 2008-10-01.
  12. 1 2 Graham (1989) p. 170–171
  13. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 3
  14. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. xi
  15. ↑ Mair (2001) p. 174
  16. 1 2 Robinet (1997), p. 103.
  17. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 2
  18. 1 2 Meister, edited by Chad; Copan, Paul (2010). The Routledge companion to philosophy religion (1st paperback ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415435536.
  19. ↑ Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Routledge Philosophy Companions). ISBN 978-0415435536.
  20. ↑ Pregadio, 2008. Vol. 1, p. 326, Daoshi.
  21. 1 2 Nengchang Wu. Religion and Society. A Summary of French Studies on Chinese Religion. On: Review of Religion and Chinese Society 1 (2014), 104-127. pp. 105-106
  22. 1 2 Robinet (1997), p. 63.
  23. 1 2 Robinet 1997, p. 25
  24. ↑ Kirkland 2004, p. 62
  25. ↑ Kirkland 2004, p. 61
  26. 1 2 Robinet 1997, p. 6
  27. ↑ Demerath (2003), p. 149.
  28. ↑ Hucker (1995), pp. 203–04.
  29. 1 2 Robinet 1997, p. 36
  30. ↑ Robinet 1997, p. 39
  31. ↑ Robinet 1997, p. 54
  32. ↑ Robinet 1997, p. 1
  33. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 50.
  34. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 184.
  35. ↑ Robinet 1997, p. 115
  36. ↑ Robinet 1997, p. 150
  37. ↑ Robinet 1997, p. xvi
  38. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 213.
  39. ↑ Eskildsen, Stephen (2004). The Teachings and Practices of the Early Quanzhen Taoist Masters. State University of New York Press. p. 17.
  40. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. XVII.
  41. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 19.
  42. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 220.
  43. ↑ Human Rights Without Frontiers "Religious Freedom in China in 2006" PDF (30.6 KB) An address given to the Delegation EU-China of the European Parliament. Archived March 27, 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  44. ↑ Chan (1963)
  45. ↑ Kirkland (2004), p. 3
  46. ↑ DeFrancis (1996) p. 113
  47. ↑ Chan (1963) p. 136
  48. ↑ Cane (2002), p. 13.
  49. ↑ A. Chan, in Kohn (2000), p. 20
  50. 1 2 Martinson (1987), pp. 168–169.
  51. ↑ LaFargue (1994) p. 283.
  52. ↑ Sharot (2001), pp. 77–78, 88.
  53. ↑ Maspero (1981), p. 32.
  54. 1 2 3 Van Voorst 2005, p. 170.
  55. ↑ Kirkland (2004), p. 60.
  56. ↑ Oldmeadow (2007), p. 109.
  57. 1 2 Faching & deChant (2001), p. 35.
  58. ↑ A source book in Chinese philosophy, Wing-tsit Chan, p137, p
  59. ↑ Living in the Tao: The Effortless Path of Self-Discovery, Mantak Chia
  60. 1 2 Dr Zai, J. Taoism and Science: Cosmology, Evolution, Morality, Health and more. Ultravisum, 2015.
  61. 1 2 Fowler 2005, p. 122.
  62. ↑ Slingerland 2003, p. 97.
  63. 1 2 3 Girardot 1988, p. 56.
  64. ↑ Fowler 2005, p. 121.
  65. ↑ Kraemer 1986, p. 286.
  66. ↑ Girardot 1988, p. 70.
  67. ↑ Waley (1958), p. 225.
  68. ↑ Blofeld, John. Taoism. Shambhala, 2000.
  69. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 7
  70. 1 2 Robinet (1997), p. 8
  71. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 9
  72. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. 825.
  73. ↑ Occhiogrosso (2004), p. 171.
  74. ↑ Segal (2006), p. 50.
  75. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 1.
  76. ↑ Maspero (1981), p. 41.
  77. ↑ Maspero (1981), p. 92.
  78. ↑ Pittman, Allen. Walking the I Ching. Blue Snake Books, 2008. p. 21
  79. 1 2 e.g. Cleary, Thomas, tr. The Taoist I Ching. Shambhala, 1986. p. 6.
  80. ↑ Wing, R. L. The I Ching Workbook Doubleday, 1979. pp. 15, 20.
  81. ↑ Miller (2003), p. ix
  82. ↑ "Patheos Library – Taoism". Patheos.com. 2011-01-05. Retrieved 2011-05-16.
  83. ↑ Eliade (1984), p. 26
  84. ↑ Watts (1975), p. xxiii
  85. ↑ "Laozi". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Stanford University. The discovery of two Laozi silk manuscripts at Mawangdui, near Changsha, Hunan province in 1973 marks an important milestone in modern Laozi research. The manuscripts, identified simply as "A" (jia) and "B" (yi), were found in a tomb that was sealed in 168 B.C. The texts themselves can be dated earlier, the "A" manuscript being the older of the two, copied in all likelihood before 195 B.C.

    Until recently, the Mawangdui manuscripts have held the pride of place as the oldest extant manuscripts of the Laozi. In late 1993, the excavation of a tomb (identified as M1) in Guodian, Jingmen city, Hubei province, has yielded among other things some 800 bamboo slips, of which 730 are inscribed, containing over 13,000 Chinese characters. Some of these, amounting to about 2,000 characters, match the Laozi. The tomb...is dated around 300 B.C.

  86. ↑ Kohn & LaFargue (1998), p. 158.
  87. ↑ Laozi. "Tao Te Ching, 1. chapter, translated by Livia Kohn (1993)". Retrieved 29 May 2012.
  88. ↑ Kohn & LaFargue (1998), pp. 185–86.
  89. ↑ Kim (2003), p. 13
  90. 1 2 Van Voorst (2005), p. 165
  91. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 73.
  92. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 74–77.
  93. ↑ "Zhuangzi". About.com. Retrieved 2013-05-02.
  94. ↑ "Zhuangzi". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2013-05-02.
  95. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 1.
  96. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 30.
  97. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 36.
  98. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 15.
  99. ↑ Litte (2000), p. 46
  100. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 44.
  101. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 132.
  102. ↑ "Jordan: The Taoist Canon". Weber.ucsd.edu. Retrieved 2011-05-16.
  103. ↑ Little (2000), pp. 131–139
  104. 1 2 Little (2000), p. 131
  105. ↑ Kohn (2004), p. 116.
  106. ↑ Kohn (2004), p. 119
  107. ↑ Little (2000), p. 128
  108. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 21.
  109. ↑ Little (2000), p. 74
  110. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 28–29.
  111. ↑ Silvers (2005), p. 129–132.
  112. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. 672.
  113. ↑ Robinet (1993) pp. 228 & 103.
  114. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 70–71.
  115. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 73.
  116. ↑ Silvers (2005), pp. 135–137
  117. 1 2 3 2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey conducted by Dr. Yang Fenggang, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Statistics published in: Katharina Wenzel-Teuber, David Strait. People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011. Religions & Christianity in Today's China, Vol. II, 2012, No. 3, pp. 29-54, ISSN 2192-9289.
  118. ↑ "Patheos Library – Taoism: Modern Age". Patheos.com. Retrieved 2011-05-16.
  119. ↑ "Patheos Library – Taoism: Modern Age". Patheos.com. Retrieved 2011-05-16.
  120. ↑ "International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Taiwan only)". State.gov. 2006-09-15. Retrieved 2011-05-16.
  121. ↑ Hong Kong Government. 2010 Yearbook – Religion. Retrieved 23 September 2012.
  122. ↑ Singapore Department of Statistics (12 January 2011). "Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion" (PDF). Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  123. ↑ Chang, Chung-yuan. Creativity and Taoism: A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art and Poetry. Singing Dragon, 2011
  124. ↑ Augustin, Birgitta. "Daoism and Daoist Art". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  125. ↑ Taoism, Hansen, Chad, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
  126. ↑ Don't Discount Chinese Liberalism, Liu Junning, Wall Street Journal, July 6, 2011
  127. ↑ Lao Tsu, Liberal International
  128. ↑ Fisher (1997). p. 167.
  129. ↑ Markham & Ruparell (2001). p. 254.
  130. ↑ Hansen (2000). pp. 202, 210.
  131. ↑ Maspero (1981). p. 39.
  132. ↑ Maspero (1981). p. 46.
  133. ↑ Prebish (1975). p. 192.
  134. ↑ Dumoulin et al. (2005), pp.70&74
  135. ↑ Mollier (2008).
  136. ↑ Dumoulin et al. (2005), pp. 68, 70–73, 167–168.
  137. ↑ Markham & Ruparell (2001). pp. 248–249.
  138. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 192.
  139. ↑ Windows on Asia Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University. Archived May 6, 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  140. ↑ Moore (1967). pp. 133, 147.
  141. ↑ Raphael Jehudah Zwi Werblowsky (2002). The Beaten Track of Science: The Life and Work of J.J.M. de Groot. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, p. 25
  142. ↑ Aronson, Martin (2002). Jesus and Lao Tzu: The Parallel Sayings. Ulysses Press. ISBN 1569753199, 9781569753194
  143. ↑ Toropov, Brandon; & Hansen, Chadwick (2002). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Taoism. Chapter 15: The Tao and the Judeo-Christian Tradition. pp. 181-169. ISBN 9781440695735
  144. ↑ Yamamoto, J. Isamu (1998). Buddhism, Taoism, and Other Far Eastern Religions, Zondervan. p. 69-70
  145. ↑ Ruokanen, Miikka; Zhanzhu Huang, Paulos (2010). Christianity and Chinese Culture. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 137
  146. ↑ Zhiming, Yuan (2010). Lao Tzu and the Bible. AuthorHous. ISBN 9781449091101
  147. ↑ Chung, David (2001). Syncretism: The Religious Context of Christian Beginnings in Korea. SUNY Press, pp. 141-145
  148. ↑ http://www.ancientfaith.com/specials/christ_the_eternal_tao/christ_the_eternal_tao_-_part_1#transcript

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Further reading

  • Chung-yuan, Chang (1968). Creativity and Taoism, A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, and Poetry. New York: Harper Torchbooks. ISBN 0-06-131968-6. 
  • Kirkland, Russell. Taoism: The Enduring Tradition. (London and New York: Routledge, 2004). ISBN 978-0-415-26321-4
  • Klaus, Hilmar. The Tao of Wisdom. Laozi – Daodejing. Chinese-English-German. Aachen: Hochschulverlag 600 p. 2009 ISBN 978-3-8107-0055-1
  • Kohn, Livia. The Taoist Experience: An Anthology. (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993). ISBN 978-0-7914-1579-5
  • Komjathy, Louis. Handbooks for Daoist Practice. 10 vols. (Hong Kong: Yuen Yuen Institute, 2008).
  • Komjathy, Louis. The Daoist Tradition: An Introduction (London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013). ISBN 978-1441168733
  • Komjathy, Louis. Daoism: A Guide for the Perplexed (London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014). ISBN 978-1441148155
  • Miller, James. Daoism: A Short Introduction. (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003). ISBN 1-85168-315-1
  • Pregadio, Fabrizio, ed. The Encyclopedia of Taoism. 2 vol. (London and New York: Routledge, 2008). ISBN 978-0-7007-1200-7
  • Saso, Michael R. Taoism and the Rite of Cosmic Renewal. 2nd ed. (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1990). ISBN 978-0-87422-054-4
  • Sivin, Nathan. Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968). ISBN 978-0-674-12150-8
  • Sommer, Deborah. Chinese Religion: An Anthology of Sources. (Oxford University Press, 1995). ISBN 978-0-19-508895-3
  • Tian, Chenshan. Chinese Dialectics: From Yijing To Marxism. (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2005). ISBN 0-7391-0922-7
  • Watts, Alan. Tao: The Watercourse Way. (New York: Pantheon, 1977). ISBN 978-0-394-73311-1
  • Welch, H. and Seidel, A., Facets of Taoism. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979). ISBN 0-300-01695-6
Popular (non-academic) interpretations of Taoism

978-988-18-1547-7

  • The Tao of Steve, a 2000 film directed by Jenniphr Goodman and starring Donal Logue.

External links

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