Transcendental Meditation

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi

Transcendental Meditation (TM) refers to a specific form of mantra meditation called the Transcendental Meditation technique,[1] and less commonly to the organizations that constitute the Transcendental Meditation movement.[1][2] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1918–2008) introduced the TM technique and TM movement in India, in the mid-1950s.

The Maharishi taught thousands of people during a series of world tours from 1958 to 1965, expressing his teachings in spiritual and religious terms.[3][4] TM became more popular in the 1960s and 1970s, as the Maharishi shifted to a more technical presentation, and his meditation technique was practiced by celebrities. At this time, he began training TM teachers and created specialized organizations to present TM to specific segments of the population such as business people and students. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of people, and the worldwide TM organization had grown to include educational programs, health products, and related services.

The TM technique involves the use of a sound or mantra, and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day. It is taught by certified teachers through a standard course of instruction, which costs a fee that varies by country. According to the Transcendental Meditation movement, it is a method for relaxation, stress reduction, and self-development. Varying views on whether the technique is religious or non-religious have been expressed including by sociologists, scholars, and a New Jersey court case.[4][5][6]

TM is one of the most widely practiced and researched meditation techniques.[7][8][9] It is impossible to say whether or not it has any effect on health, as the research to date is of poor quality.[10][11]

History

The Transcendental Meditation program and the Transcendental Meditation movement originated with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, founder of the organization, and continue beyond his death in 2008. In 1955,[12][13][14] "the Maharishi began publicly teaching a traditional meditation technique"[15] learned from his master Brahmananda Saraswati that he called Transcendental Deep Meditation[16] and later renamed Transcendental Meditation.[17] The Maharishi initiated thousands of people, then developed a TM teacher training program as a way to accelerate the rate of bringing the technique to more people.[17][18] He also inaugurated a series of world tours which promoted Transcendental Meditation.[19] These factors, coupled with endorsements by celebrities who practiced TM and claims that scientific research had validated the technique, helped to popularize TM in the 1960s and 1970s. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of individuals and the Maharishi was overseeing a large multinational movement.[20] Despite organizational changes and the addition of advanced meditative techniques in the 1970s,[21] the Transcendental Meditation technique has remained relatively unchanged.

Among the first organizations to promote TM were the Spiritual Regeneration Movement and the International Meditation Society. In modern times, the movement has grown to encompass schools and universities that teach the practice,[22] and includes many associated programs based on the Maharishi's interpretation of the Vedic traditions. In the U.S., non-profit organizations included the Students International Meditation Society,[23] AFSCI,[24] World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation, Global Country of World Peace and Maharishi Foundation.[25] The successor to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and leader of the Global Country of World Peace, is Tony Nader.[26][27]

Technique

The meditation practice involves the use of a mantra and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day while sitting with the eyes closed.[28][29] It is reported to be one of the most widely practiced,[30][31] and among the most widely researched, meditation techniques,[7][8][9][32] with hundreds of published research studies.[33][34][35] The technique is made available worldwide by certified TM teachers in a seven-step course,[36] and fees vary from country to country.[37][38] Beginning in 1965, the Transcendental Meditation technique has been incorporated into selected schools, universities, corporations, and prison programs in the US, Latin America, Europe, and India. In 1977 a US district court ruled that a curriculum in TM and the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) being taught in some New Jersey schools was religious in nature and in violation of the First Amendment.[5][39] The technique has since been included in a number of educational and social programs around the world.[40]

The Transcendental Meditation technique has been described as both religious and non-religious, as an aspect of a new religious movement, as rooted in Hinduism,[41][42] and as a non-religious practice for self-development.[43][44][45] The public presentation of the TM technique over its 50-year history has been praised for its high visibility in the mass media and effective global propagation, and criticized for using celebrity and scientific endorsements as a marketing tool. Advanced courses supplement the TM technique and include an advanced meditation program called the TM-Sidhi program.[46]

Movement

The Transcendental Meditation movement refers to the programs and organizations connected with the Transcendental Meditation technique and founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Transcendental Meditation was first taught in the 1950s in India and has continued since the Maharishi's death in 2008. The organization was estimated to have 900,000 participants worldwide in 1977,[47] a million by the 1980s,[48][49][50] and 5 million in more recent years,[51][52][53][54][55][56][57] including some notable practitioners.

Programs include the Transcendental Meditation technique, an advanced meditation practice called the TM-Sidhi program ("Yogic Flying"), an alternative health care program called Maharishi Ayurveda,[58] and a system of building and architecture called Maharishi Sthapatya Ved.[59][60] The TM movement's past and present media endeavors include a publishing company (MUM Press), a television station (KSCI), a radio station (KHOE), and a satellite television channel (Maharishi Channel). During its 50-year history, its products and services have been offered through a variety of organizations, which are primarily nonprofit and educational. These include the Spiritual Regeneration Movement, the International Meditation Society, World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation, the Global Country of World Peace, and the David Lynch Foundation.

The TM movement also operates a worldwide network of Transcendental Meditation teaching centers, schools, universities, health centers, herbal supplements, solar panel, and home financing companies, plus several TM-centered communities. The global organization is reported to have an estimated net worth of USD 3.5 billion.[61][62] The TM movement has been characterized in a variety of ways and has been called a spiritual movement, a new religious movement,[63][64] a millenarian movement, a world affirming movement,[65] a new social movement,[66] a guru-centered movement,[67] a personal growth movement,[68] a religion, and a cult.[64][69][70] Additional sources contend that TM and its movement are not a cult.[71][72][73][74] Some state that participation in TM programs does not require a belief system and is practiced by people from a diverse group of religious affiliations including atheists and agnostics.[75][76][77][78] The organization has also been criticized as well as praised for its public presentation and marketing techniques throughout its 50-year history.

Health effects

The first studies of the health effects of Transcendental Meditation appeared in the early 1970s.[79] Robert Keith Wallace, the founding president of Maharishi University of Management, published a study in Science in 1970 reporting that TM induced distinct physiologic changes and a novel state of consciousness in practitioners.[80] In contrast, a 1976 study by independent researchers found that TM was biochemically similar to sitting with one's eyes closed.[81] A second 1976 study of five subjects found that TM practitioners spent much of their meditation time napping rather than in the unique "wakeful hypometabolic state" described by Wallace.[82] By 2004 the US government had given more than $20 million to Maharishi University of Management to study the effect of meditation on health.[83]

It is currently not possible to say whether meditation has any effect on health, as the research to date has been of poor quality,[10][11] including a high risk for bias due to the connection of researchers to the TM organization and the selection of subjects with a favorable opinion of TM.[84][85][86] Most independent systematic reviews have not found health benefits for TM exceeding those of relaxation and health education.[10][87][88] A 2013 statement from the American Heart Association said that TM could be considered as a treatment for hypertension, although other interventions such as exercise and device-guided breathing were more effective and better supported by clinical evidence.[89] A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis funded by the U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality found no evidence that mantra meditation programs such as TM were effective in reducing psychological stress or improving well-being.[90][91] A 2015 systematic review and meta-analysis found that TM may effectively reduce blood pressure compared to a control groups, although the underlying studies may have been biased and further studies with better designs are needed to confirm these results.[92] A 2014 Cochrane review found that it was impossible to draw any conclusions about whether TM is effective in preventing cardiovascular disease, as the scientific literature on TM was limited and at "serious risk of bias".[93]

Maharishi Effect

In the 1960s, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi described a paranormal effect that he claimed a significant number of individuals (1% of the people in a given area) practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique (TM) could have on the local environment.[94] This hypothetical influence was later termed the Maharishi Effect. With the introduction of the TM-Sidhi program in 1976, Maharishi proposed that the square root of one percent of the population practicing the TM-Sidhi program, together at the same time and in the same place, would increase "life-supporting trends". This was referred to as the "Extended Maharishi Effect".[95][96] Evidence, which TM practitioners[97] believe supports the existence of the effect, has been said to lack a causal basis.[98] The evidence was said to result from cherry-picked data[99] and the credulity of believers.[98][100]

References

  1. 1 2 "Transcendental Meditation". Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
  2. ↑ Dalton, Rex (8 July 1993). "Sharp HealthCare announces an unorthodox, holistic institute". The San Diego Union – Tribune. p. B.4.5.1. TM is a movement led by Maharishi Mehesh Yogi, ...
  3. ↑ Dawson, Lorne (2003). Cults and New Religious Movements. Hoboken, New Jersey: Blackwell Publishing. p. 54.
  4. 1 2 Cowan,, Douglas E.,; Bromley, David G. (2007). Cults and New Religions: A Brief History (Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 48–71. ISBN 1-4051-6128-0.
  5. 1 2 Calo, Zachary (2008). "Chapter 4: The Internationalization of Church-State Issues". In Duncan, Ann; Jones, Steven. Church-State Issues in America Today. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-275-99368-9.
  6. ↑ Ashman, Allan (Jan 1978). "What's New in the Law". American Bar Association Journal 64: 144.
  7. 1 2 Murphy, M; Donovan, S; Taylor, E (1997). The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences.
  8. 1 2 Benson, Herbert; Klipper, Miriam Z. (2001). The Relaxation Response. New York, NY: Quill. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-380-81595-1.
  9. 1 2 Sinatra, Stephen T.; Roberts, James C.; Zucker, Martin (20 December 2007). Reverse Heart Disease Now: Stop Deadly Cardiovascular Plaque Before It's Too Late. Wiley. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-470-22878-4.
  10. 1 2 3 Krisanaprakornkit, T.; Krisanaprakornkit, W.; Piyavhatkul, N.; Laopaiboon, M. (2006). Krisanaprakornkit, Thawatchai, ed. "Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD004998. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2. PMID 16437509. The small number of studies included in this review do not permit any conclusions to be drawn on the effectiveness of meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. Transcendental meditation is comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety
  11. 1 2 Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (June 2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research". Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 1–263. PMID 17764203. Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence.
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  15. ↑ Rooney, Ben (6 February 2008). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, guru to Beatles, dies". The Telegraph (London).
  16. ↑ Williamson, Lola (2010). Transcendent in America: Hindu-Inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion. New York: NYU Press. pp. 97–99. ISBN 9780814794500.
  17. 1 2 Russell, Peter (1977). The TM Technique: An Introduction to Transcendental Meditation and the Teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. London: Routledge. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-7100-8539-9.
  18. ↑ Needleman, Jacob (1970). "Transcendental Meditation". The New Religions (1st ed.). Garden City N.Y.: Doubleday. p. 144.
  19. ↑ Christian D. Von Dehsen, Scott L. Harris (1999). Philosophers and religious leaders. The Orynx Press. p. 120. ISBN 9781573561525.
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  22. ↑ Irwin, T. K. (8 October 1972). "What's New in Science: Transcendental Meditation: Medical Miracle or 'Another Kooky Fad'". Sarasota Herald Tribune Family Weekly. pp. 8–9.
  23. ↑ Chryssides, George D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. London: Cassell. pp. 293–296. ISBN 978-0-8264-5959-6.
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  25. ↑ Press Release by Maharishi Foundation (15 July 2013). "Australian Food Store Offers Transcendental Meditation to Employees". The Herald (South Carolina, USA). Retrieved 3 August 2013.
  26. ↑ Mizroch, Amir (23 July 2006). "Forget the F-16s, Israel needs more Yogic Flyers to beat Hizbullah: 30-strong TM group, sole guests at Nof Ginnosar Hotel, say they need another 235 colleagues to make the country safe". Jerusalem Post. p. 4.
  27. ↑ "Maharishi's ashes immersed in Sangam". The Hindustan Times (New Delhi). Indo-Asian News Service. 12 February 2008.
  28. ↑ "The Transcendental Meditation Program". Tm.org. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
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  30. ↑ Cotton, Dorothy H. G. (1990). Stress management: An integrated approach to therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel. p. 138. ISBN 0-87630-557-5.
  31. ↑ Schneider, Robert; Fields, Jeremy (2006). Total Heart Health: How to Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease with the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health. Laguna Beach, CA: Basic Health Publications. pp. 148–149. ISBN 1458799247.
  32. ↑ Bushell, William (2009). "Longevity Potential Life Span and Health Span Enhancement through Practice of the Basic Yoga Meditation Regimen". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1172: 46. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04538.x. ISBN 9781573316774. Transcendental Meditation (TM), a concentrative technique ... has been the most extensively studied meditation technique.
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  34. ↑ Rosenthal, Norman (2011). Transcendence: Healing and Transformation through Transcendental Meditation. New York: Tarcher/Penguin. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-58542-873-1. By my latest count, there have been 340 per-reviewed articles published on TM, many of which have appeared in highly respected journals.
  35. ↑ Freeman, Lyn (2009). Mosby's Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach. Mosby Elsevier. p. 176. ISBN 9780323053464.
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  38. ↑ "Transcendental Meditation Fees and Course Details". Transcendental Meditation: Official website for the UK. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  39. ↑ American Bar Association (Jan 1978). "Constitutional Law ... Separating Church and State". ABA Journal 64: 144.
  40. ↑ Humes, C.A. (2005). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Beyond the T.M. Technique". In Forsthoefel, Thomas A.; Humes, Cynthia Ann. Gurus in America. SUNY Press. p. 69. ISBN 0-7914-6573-X. This lawsuit was the most significant setback for TM in the United States ... Since then TM has made a comeback of sorts with some governmental sponsorship
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  44. ↑ Partridge, Christopher (200). New Religions: A Guide To New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 184. It is understood in terms of the reduction of stress and the charging of one's mental and physical batteries.
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  47. ↑ Stark, Rodney; Bainbridge, William, Sims (1986). The Future Of Religion. University of California Press,. p. 287. ISBN 978-0520057319. "Time magazine in 1975 estimated that the U.S. total had risen to 600,000 augmented by half that number elsewhere" =[900,000 world wide] "Annual Growth in TM Initiations in the U.S. [chart] Cumulative total at the End of Each Year: 1977, 919,300"
  48. ↑ Peterson, William (1982). Those Curious New Cults in the 80s. New Canaan, Connecticut: Keats Publishing. p. 123. ISBN 9780879833176. claims "more than a million" in the USA and Europe.
  49. ↑ Occhiogrosso, Peter. The Joy of Sects: A Spirited Guide to the World's Religious Traditions. New York: Doubleday (1996); p 66, citing "close to a million" in the USA.
  50. ↑ Bainbridge, William Sims (1997) Routledge, The Sociology of Religious Movements, page 189 "the million people [Americans] who had been initiated"
  51. ↑ Analysis: Practice of requiring probationers to take lessons in transcendental meditation sparks religious controversy, NPR All Things Considered, 1 February 2002 | ROBERT SIEGEL "TM's five million adherents claim that it eliminates chronic health problems and reduces stress."
  52. ↑ Martin Hodgson, The Guardian (5 February 2008) "He [Maharishi] transformed his interpretations of ancient scripture into a multimillion-dollar global empire with more than 5m followers worldwide"
  53. ↑ Stephanie van den Berg, Sydney Morning Herald, Beatles guru Maharishi Mahesh Yogi dies, (7 February 2008) "the TM movement, which has some five million followers worldwide"
  54. ↑ Meditation a magic bullet for high blood pressure – study, Sunday Tribune (South Africa), (27 January 2008) "More than five million people have learned the technique worldwide, including 60,000 in South Africa."
  55. ↑ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi - Transcendental Meditation founder's grand plan for peace, The Columbian (Vancouver, WA), 19 February 2006 | ARTHUR MAX Associated Press writer "transcendental meditation, a movement that claims 6 million practitioners since it was introduced."
  56. ↑ Bickerton, Ian (8 February 2003). "Bank makes an issue of mystic's mint". Financial Times (London (UK)). p. 09. the movement claims to have five million followers,
  57. ↑ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Spiritual Leader Dies, New York Times, By LILY KOPPEL, Published: 6 February 2008 "Since the technique’s inception in 1955, the organization says, it has been used to train more than 40,000 teachers, taught more than five million people"
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    Beckford, James A. (1985). Cult controversies: the societal response to new religious movements. Tavistock Publications. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-422-79630-9.
    Parsons, Gerald (1994). The Growth of Religious Diversity: Traditions. The Open University/Methuen. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-415-08326-3.
    For neo-Hindu, see:
    Alper, Harvey P. (December 1991). Understanding mantras. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 442. ISBN 978-81-208-0746-4.
    Raj, Selva J.; William P. Harman (2007). Dealing With Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia. SUNY Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7914-6708-4.
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  84. ↑ Canter PH, Ernst E (November 2004). "Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Journal of Hypertension 22 (11): 2049–54. doi:10.1097/00004872-200411000-00002. PMID 15480084. All the randomized clinical trials of TM for the control of blood pressure published to date have important methodological weaknesses and are potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization.
  85. ↑ Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N (2010). Krisanaprakornkit, Thawatchai, ed. "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6 (6): CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMID 20556767. As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias
  86. ↑ Canter PH, Ernst E (November 2003). "The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function--a systematic review of randomised controlled trials". Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 115 (21–22): 758–66. doi:10.1007/BF03040500. PMID 14743579. All 4 positive trials recruited subjects from among people favourably predisposed towards TM, and used passive control procedures … The association observed between positive outcome, subject selection procedure and control procedure suggests that the large positive effects reported in 4 trials result from an expectation effect. The claim that TM has a specific and cumulative effect on cognitive function is not supported by the evidence from randomized controlled trials.
  87. ↑ Ospina, MB.; Bond, K.; Karkhaneh, M.; Tjosvold, L.; Vandermeer, B.; Liang, Y.; Bialy, L.; Hooton, N.; et al. (June 2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research" (PDF). Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 1–263 [4]. PMID 17764203. A few studies of overall poor methodological quality were available for each comparison in the meta-analyses, most of which reported nonsignificant results. TM had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake, and level of physical activity in hypertensive patients
  88. ↑ Krisanaprakornkit, T.; Ngamjarus, C.; Witoonchart, C.; Piyavhatkul, N. (2010). Krisanaprakornkit, Thawatchai, ed. "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6 (6): CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMID 20556767. As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias, we are unable to draw any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation therapy for ADHD.
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