Malayalam script

Not to be confused with the Jawi alphabet used for the Malay language.
Malayalam script
Type
Languages Malayalam
Sanskrit
Time period
 C. 830 – present[1][2]
Parent systems
Sister systems
 Tamil script
Sinhala alphabet
Tigalari script
Direction Left-to-right
ISO 15924 Mlym, 347
Unicode alias
 Malayalam
U+0D00–U+0D7F
Image: "Mangalore"
A bilingual sign in Malayalam and Latin script (English) in Kasaragod

The Malayalam script (Malayāḷalipi; IPA: [mələjaːɭə lɪpɪ]), also known as Kairali script is a Brahmic script used commonly to write Malayalam, which is the principal language of Kerala, India, spoken by 35 million people in the world.[3] Malayalam script is also widely used for writing Sanskrit texts in Kerala.

Like many other Indic scripts, it is an alphasyllabary (abugida), a writing system that is partially “alphabetic” and partially syllable-based. The modern Malayalam alphabet has 15 vowel letters, 41 consonant letters, and a few other symbols. Today's Malayalam script is based on the Grantha alphabet extended with symbols from the Vatteluttu alphabet. Earlier, Vatteluttu was used primarily and Grantha was only used to represent loanwords from Sanskrit.[4] Later, the Grantha script itself came to be used for all words and only the few letters needed to represent Dravidian sounds not phonemic in Sanskrit were borrowed from Vatteluttu to give rise to the Malayalam script.

The script is also used to write several minority languages such as Paniya, Betta Kurumba, and Ravula.[5] The Malayalam language itself was historically written in several different scripts.

Overview

Characteristics

The basic characters can be classified as follows:

An independent vowel letter is used as the first letter of a word that begins with a vowel. A consonant letter, despite its name, does not represent a pure consonant, but represents a consonant + a short vowel /a/ by default. For example, ക is the first consonant letter of the Malayalam alphabet, which represents /ka/, not a simple /k/. A vowel sign is a diacritic attached to a consonant letter to indicate that the consonant is followed by a vowel other than /a/. If the following vowel is /a/, no vowel sign is needed. The phoneme /a/ that follows a consonant by default is called an inherent vowel. In Malayalam, its phonetic value is unrounded [ɐ],[6] or [ə] as an allophone. To denote a pure consonant sound not followed by a vowel, a special diacritic virama is used to cancel the inherent vowel. The following are examples where a consonant letter is used with or without a diacritic.

Malayalam alphabet is unicase, or does not have a case distinction. It is written from left to right, but certain vowel signs are attached to the left (the opposite direction) of a consonant letter that it logically follows. In the word കേരളം (Kēraḷam), the vowel sign േ (ē) visually appears in the leftmost position, though the vowel ē logically follows the consonant k.

History

Malayalam was first written in the Vatteluttu alphabet, an ancient script of Tamil. However, the modern Malayalam script evolved from the Grantha alphabet, which was originally used to write Sanskrit. Both Vatteluttu and Grantha evolved from the Brahmi script, but independently.

Vatteluttu alphabet

Vatteluttu (Malayalam: വട്ടെഴുത്ത്, Vaṭṭeḻuttŭ ?, “round writing”) is a script that had evolved from Tamil-Brahmi and was once used extensively in the southern part of present-day Tamil Nadu and in Kerala.

Malayalam was first written in Vatteluttu. The Vazhappally inscription issued by Rajashekhara Varman is the earliest example, dating from about 830 CE.[1][2] In the Tamil country, the modern Tamil script had supplanted Vatteluttu by the 15th century, but in the Malabar region, Vatteluttu remained in general use up to the 17th century,[7] or the 18th century.[8] A variant form of this script, Kolezhuthu, was used until about the 19th century mainly in the Kochi area and in the Malabar area.[9] Another variant form, Malayanma, was used in the south of Thiruvananthapuram.[9]

Grantha

Image: scripts comparison
Grantha, Tigalari and Malayalam scripts

According to Arthur Coke Burnell, one form of the Grantha alphabet, originally used in the Chola dynasty, was imported into the southwest coast of India in the 8th or 9th century, which was then modified in course of time in this secluded area, where communication with the east coast was very limited.[10] It later evolved into Tigalari-Malayalam script was used by the Malayali, Havyaka Brahmins and Tulu Brahmin people, but was originally only applied to write Sanskrit. This script split into two scripts: Tigalari and Malayalam. While Malayalam script was extended and modified to write vernacular language Malayalam, the Tigalari was written for Sanskrit only.[10][11] In Malabar, this writing system was termed Arya-eluttu (ആര്യ എഴുത്ത്, Ārya eḻuttŭ),[12] meaning “Arya writing” (Sanskrit is Indo-Aryan language while Malayalam is a Dravidian language).

Vatteluttu was in general use, but was not suitable for literature where many Sanskrit words were used. Like Tamil-Brahmi, it was originally used to write Tamil, and as such, did not have letters for voiced or aspirated consonants used in Sanskrit but not used in Tamil. For this reason, Vatteluttu and the Grantha alphabet were sometimes mixed, as in the Manipravalam. One of the oldest examples of the Manipravalam literature, Vaishikatantram (വൈശികതന്ത്രം, Vaiśikatantram), dates back to the 12th century,[13][14] where the earliest form of the Malayalam script was used, which seems to have been systematized to some extent by the first half of the 13th century.[1][8]

Tuncattu Eluttacchan, a poet from around the 17th century, used Arya-eluttu to write his Malayalam poems based on Classical Sanskrit literature.[10] For a few letters missing in Arya-eluttu (ḷa, ḻa, ṟa), he used Vatteluttu. His works became unprecedentedly popular to the point that the Malayali people eventually started to call him the father of the Malayalam language, which also popularized Arya-eluttu as a script to write Malayalam. However, Grantha did not have distinctions between e and ē, and between o and ō, as it was as an alphabet to write a Sanskrit language. The Malayalam script as it is today was modified in the middle of the 19th century when Hermann Gundert invented the new vowel signs to distinguish them.[10]

By the 19th century, old scripts like Kolezhuthu had been supplanted by Arya-eluttu – that is the current Malayalam script. Nowadays, it is widely used in the press of the Malayali population in Kerala.[15]

Malayalam and Tigalari are sister scripts are descended from Grantha alphabet. Both share similar glyphic and orthographic characteristics.

Orthography reform

In 1969–1971 and in 1981, the Government of Kerala reformed the orthography of Malayalam.[16][17] In the traditional orthography, certain consonants followed by u, ū, or r̥ are represented by special glyphs (consonant-vowel ligatures), where the corresponding basic consonant letter is transformed irregularly. For example:

This kind of irregular glyph was simplified in the new orthography, where a vowel sign is always a separate symbol, never fused with the preceding letter:

Also, most of traditional consonant-consonant ligatures, especially less common ones only used to write words of Sanskrit origin, were split into non-ligated forms. For example:

The new orthography, puthiya lipi (Malayalam: പുതിയ ലിപി, putiya lipi ?), is now used commonly, but has not completely replaced the traditional system, palaya lipi (പഴയ ലിപി, paḻaya lipi).[18]

Malayalam letters

Malayalam letters

Vowels

Vowel letters and vowel signs

The following tables show the independent vowel letters and the corresponding dependent vowel signs (diacritics) of the Malayalam script, with romanizations in ISO 15919, transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

Monophthongs
 ShortLong
IndependentDependentIndep.Dependent
Vowel signExampleVowel signExample
a അ a
/a/		 (none) പ pa
/pa/		 ആ ā
/aː/		  ാ
 		 പാ pā
/paː/
i ഇ i
/i/		  ി
 		 പി pi
/pi/		 ഈ ī
/iː/		  ീ
 		 പീ pī
/piː/
u ഉ u
/u/		  ു
 		 പു pu
/pu/		 ഊ ū
/uː/		  ൂ
 		 പൂ pū
/puː/
r̥ ഋ r̥
/rɨ/		  ൃ
 		 പൃ pr̥
/prɨ/		 ൠ r̥̄
/rɨː/		  ൄ
 		 പൄ pr̥̄
/prɨː/
l̥ ഌ l̥
/lɨ/		  ൢ
 		 പൢ pl̥
/plɨ/		 ൡ l̥̄
/lɨː/		  ൣ
 		 പൣ pl̥̄
/plɨː/
e എ e
/e/		  െ
 		 പെ pe
/pe/		 ഏ ē
/eː/		  േ
 		 പേ pē
/peː/
o ഒ o
/o/		  ൊ
 		 പൊ po
/po/		 ഓ ō
/oː/		  ോ
 		 പോ pō
/poː/
Image: school sign
A school sign. Notice the word-initial a അ in akkādami, and the vowel sign ē േ in Kēraḷa.

r̥, r̥̄, l̥, l̥̄ , used to write Sanskrit words, are treated as vowels. They are phonetically not vowels in Malayalam or in Classical Sanskrit, but originally they were (see Proto-Indo-European language and Vedic Sanskrit). The letters and signs for r̥̄, l̥, l̥̄ are very rare, and are not considered as part of the modern orthography.[19]

The vowel signs ā, i, ī are placed to the right of a consonant letter to which it is attached. The vowel signs e, ē, ai are placed to the left of a consonant letter. The vowel signs o and ō consist of two parts: the first part goes to the left of a consonant letter and the second part goes to the right of it. In the reformed orthography, the vowel signs u, ū, r̥ are simply placed to the right of the consonant letter, while they often make consonant-vowel ligatures in the traditional orthography.

Diphthongs
 IndependentDependent
Vowel signExample
ai ഐ ai
/ai̯/		  ൈ
 		 പൈ pai
/pai̯/
au ഔ au
/au̯/		  ൌ
(archaic)		 പൌ pau
/pau̯/
 ൗ
(modern)		 പൗ pau
/pau̯/

It is important to note the vowel duration as it can be used to differentiate words that would otherwise be the same. For example, /kalam/ means "earthenware pot" while /kaːlam/ means "time" or "season".[20]

Anusvaram

Anusvaram
aṁ അം aṁ
/am/		  ം ṁ
/m/		 പം paṁ
/pam/

An anusvaram (അനുസ്വാരം anusvāram), or an anusvara, originally denoted the nasalization where the preceding vowel was changed into a nasalized vowel, and hence is traditionally treated as a kind of vowel sign. In Malayalam, however, it simply represents a consonant /m/ after a vowel, though this /m/ may be assimilated to another nasal consonant. It is a special consonant letter, different from a "normal" consonant letter, in that it is never followed by an inherent vowel or another vowel. In general, an anusvara at the end of a word in an Indian language is transliterated as ṁ in ISO 15919, but a Malayalam anusvara at the end of a word is transliterated as m without a dot.

Visargam

Visargam
aḥ അഃ aḥ
/ah/		  ഃ ḥ
/h/		 പഃ paḥ
/pah/

A visargam (വിസർഗം, visargam), or visarga, represents a consonant /h/ after a vowel, and is transliterated as ḥ. Like the anusvara, it is a special symbol, and is never followed by an inherent vowel or another vowel.

Consonants

Basic consonant letters

The following tables show the basic consonant letters of the Malayalam script, with romanizations in ISO 15919, transcriptions in IPA, and Unicode CHARACTER NAMES. The character names used in the report of the Government of Kerala committee (2001) are shown in lowercase italics when different from Unicode character names.[19] Those alternative names are based on the traditional romanization used by the Malayali people. For example, tha in “Thiruvananthapuram” is neither ISO tha nor Unicode THA, but tha in this sense (ത). The ISCII (IS 13194:1991) character names are given in parentheses when different from the above.

Varga consonants
 VoicelessVoiced
UnaspiratedAspiratedUnaspiratedAspiratedNasal
Velar ക ka
/ka/ KA
 		 ഖ kha
/kʰa/ KHA
 		 ഗ ga
/ɡa/ GA
 		 ഘ gha
/ɡʱa/ GHA
 		 ങ ṅa
/ŋa/ NGA
 
Palatal
or
Postalveolar		 ച ca
/t͡ʃa/ CA
cha		 ഛ cha
/t͡ʃʰa/ CHA
chha		 ജ ja
/ɟa/ JA
 		 ഝ jha
/ɟʱa/ JHA
 		 ഞ ña
/ɲa/ NYA
nha (nja)
Retroflex ട ṭa
/ʈa/ TTA
ta (hard ta)		 ഠ ṭha
/ʈʰa/ TTHA
tta (hard tha)		 ഡ ḍa
/ɖa/ DDA
hard da		 ഢ ḍha
/ɖʱa/ DDHA
hard dda (hard dha)		 ണ ṇa
/ɳa/ NNA
hard na
Dental ത ta
/t̪a/ TA
tha (soft ta)		 ഥ tha
/t̪ʰa/ THA
ttha (soft tha)		 ദ da
/d̪a/ DA
soft da		 ധ dha
/d̪ʱa/ DHA
soft dda (soft dha)		 ന na
/n̪a, na/[A] NA
soft na
Labial പ pa
/pa/ PA
 		 ഫ pha
/pʰa/ PHA
 		 ബ ba
/ba/ BA
 		 ഭ bha
/bʱa/ BHA
 		 മ ma
/ma/ MA
 

The consonants /ʈ, ɖ, ɳ/ are retroflex. In Malayalam, they are produced by touching the underside of the tip of the tongue to the front part of the hard palate (apico-palatal).

Other consonants
യ ya
/ja/[A] YA
 		 ര ra
/ɾa/[B] RA
 		 ല la
/la/[C] LA
 		 വ va
/ʋa/[D] VA
 
ശ śa
/ʃa/[E] SHA
soft sha (sha)		 ഷ ṣa
/ʂa/[F] SSA
sha (hard sha)		 സ sa
/ɳa/[G] SA
 		 ഹ ha
/ɦa/ HA
 
ള ḷa
/ɭa/[H] LLA
hard la		 ഴ ḻa
/ɻa/[J] LLLA/ṛ /ɽ/
zha(retroflexed ra)		 റ [K] ṟa, ṯa
/ra, ta/ RRA
(hard ra)		 ഩ ṉa
/na/ NNNA
 		 ഺ ṯa
/ta/ TTTA
 

Chillus

A chillu, or a chillaksharam (ചില്ലക്ഷരം, cillakṣaram), is a special consonant letter that represents a pure consonant independently, without help of a virama. Unlike a consonant represented by an ordinary consonant letter, this consonant is never followed by an inherent vowel. Anusvara and visarga fit this definition but are not usually included. ISCII and Unicode 5.0 treat a chillu as a glyph variant of a normal (“base”) consonant letter.[24] In Unicode 5.1 and later, however, chillu letters are treated as independent characters, encoded atomically.[25]

There are at least six known chillu letters. Chillu-k is rare. The other five are quite common.

Chillu letters
LetterUnicode nameBaseRemarks
ൺ CHILLU NNṇa ണ 
ൻ CHILLU Nna ന 
ർ CHILLU RRra രHistorically from ra, not from ṟa (RRA) റ.
ൽ CHILLU Lla ലHistorically from ta ത.
ൾ CHILLU LLḷa ളHistorically from ṭa ട
ൿ CHILLU Kka ക 

Chandrakkala

As virama

Chandrakkala  ് (ചന്ദ്രക്കല, candrakkala) is a diacritic attached to a consonant letter to show that the consonant is not followed by an inherent vowel or any other vowel (for example, ക ka → ക് k). This kind of diacritic is common in Indic scripts, generically called virama in Sanskrit, or halant in Hindi.

Half-u

At the end of a word, the same symbol sometimes represents a very short vowel, known as “half-u”, or samvruthokaram (സംവൃതോകാരം, saṁvr̥tōkāram), or kuṯṯiyal ukaram (കുറ്റിയൽ ഉകരം).[26] The exact pronunciation of this vowel varies from dialect to dialect, but it is approximately [ə][27] or [ɨ], and transliterated as ŭ (for example, ന na → ന് nŭ). Optionally, a vowel sign u is inserted, as in നു് (= ന +  ു +  ്). According to one author, this alternative form is historically more correct, though the simplified form without a vowel sign u is common nowadays.[28] This means that the same spelling ന് may represent either n or nŭ depending on the context. Generally, it is nŭ at the end of a word, and n elsewhere; നു് always represents nŭ.

Ligatures

Consonant ligatures

Like in other Indic scripts, a virama is used in the Malayalam script to cancel—or “kill”—the inherent vowel of a consonant letter and represent a consonant without a vowel, so-called a “dead” consonant. For example,

  1. ന is a consonant letter na,
  2. ് is a virama; therefore,
  3. ന്‌ (na + virama) represents a dead consonant n.

If this n ന്‌ is further followed by another consonant letter, for example, ma മ, the result may look like ന്‌മ, which represents nma as na + virama + ma. In this case, two elements n ന്‌ and ma മ are simply placed one by one, side by side. Alternatively, nma can be also written as a ligature ന്മ.

Generally, when a dead consonant letter C1 and another consonant letter C2 are conjoined, the result may be either:

  1. A fully conjoined ligature of C1+C2;
  2. Half-conjoined—
    • C1-conjoining: a modified form (half form) of C1 attached to the original form (full form) of C2
    • C2-conjoining: a modified form of C2 attached to the full form of C1; or
  3. Non-ligated: full forms of C1 and C2 with a visible virama.[29]

If the result is fully or half-conjoined, the (conceptual) virama which made C1 dead becomes invisible, only logically existing in a character encoding scheme such as Unicode. If the result is non-ligated, a virama is visible, attached to C1. The glyphs for nma has a visible virama if not ligated (ന്‌മ), but if ligated, the virama disappears (ന്മ). Usually the difference between those forms is superficial and both are semantically identical, just like the meaning of the English word palaeography does not change even if it is spelled palæography, with the ligature æ.

Common consonant ligatures

Several consonant-consonant ligatures are used commonly even in the new orthography.

Common ligatures
 kkaṅkaṅṅaccañcaññaṭṭaṇṭaṇṇattantannappampamma
Non-ligated ക്‌കങ്‌കങ്‌ങച്‌ചഞ്‌ചഞ്‌ഞട്‌ടണ്‌ടണ്‌ണത്‌തന്‌തന്‌നപ്‌പമ്‌പമ്‌മ
Ligated ക്കങ്കങ്ങച്ചഞ്ചഞ്ഞട്ടണ്ടണ്ണത്തന്തന്നപ്പമ്പമ്മ

The ligature mpa മ്പ was historically derived from npa ന്‌പ. The ligatures cca, bba, yya, and vva are special in that a doubled consonant is denoted by a triangle sign below a consonant letter.

 ccabbayyavva
Non-ligated ച്‌ചബ്‌ബയ്‌യവ്‌വ
Ligated ച്ചബ്ബയ്യവ്വ
Consonant + ya, va, la, ra

(1) The consonant letter ya is generally C2-conjoining after a consonant in both orthographies. For example,

In kya ക്യ, a variant form of ya ( ‍്യ) is placed after the full form of ka ക, just like ki കി is written ka ക followed by the vowel sign i ി. In other words, the variant form of ya ( ‍്യ) used after a consonant letter can be considered as a diacritic. Since it is placed after the base character, it is sometimes referred to as a post-base form. An exception is yya യ്യ (see above).

(2) Similarly, va after a consonant takes a post-base form:

An exception is vva വ്വ (see above).

(3) The consonant letter la after a consonant traditionally takes a below-base form. These forms are used also in the new orthography, though some fonts do not support them.

(4) A consonant letter ra after a consonant usually takes a pre-base form in the reformed orthography, while this combination makes a fully conjoined ligature in the traditional orthography.

nṯa and ṯṯa

The ligature nṯa is written as n ന്‌ + ṟa റ and pronounced /nda/. The ligature ṯṯa is written as ṟ റ് + ṟa റ.

 nṯaṯṯa
Non-ligated ന്‌ററ്‌റ
Ligated <image: nṯa>റ്റ
Digraph ൻറററ

In those two ligatures, a small ṟa ‌റ is written below the first letter (chillu-n if it is a dead n). Alternatively, the letter ṟa is sometimes written to the right of the first letter, making a digraph (just like ωι used instead of ῳ in Greek). The spelling ൻറ is therefore read either nṟa (two separate letters) or nṯa (digraph) depending on the word. Similarly, ‌റ‌റ is read either ṟaṟa or ṯṯa.[25]

Dot reph

In the traditional orthography, a dead consonant r before a consonant sometimes takes an above-base form, known as a dot reph, which looks like a short vertical line or a dot. Generally, a chillu-r is used instead of a dot reph in the reformed orthography.

Other symbols

Praslesham ഽCorresponds to Devanagari avagraha, used when a Sanskrit phrase containing an avagraha is written in Malayalam script. The symbol indicates the elision of the word-initial vowel a after a word that ends in ā, ē, or ō, and is transliterated as an apostrophe (’), or sometimes as a colon + an apostrophe (:’).
(Malayalam: പ്രശ്ലേഷം, praślēṣam ?)
Malayalam date mark ൹ Used in an abbreviation of a date.
Danda । Archaic punctuation marks used as full stops or for delimiting verses.
Double danda ॥

Malayalam numbers and fractions are written as follows. These are archaic and no more commonly used.

0123456789101001000¼½¾
൦൧൨൩൪൫൬൭൮൯൰൱൲൳൴൵

Unicode

Malayalam script was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 1991 with the release of version 1.0.

Block

The Unicode block for Malayalam is U+0D00–U+0D7F:

Malayalam[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+0D0x ഁ ം ഃ അ ആ ഇ ഈ ഉ ഊ ഋ ഌ എ ഏ
U+0D1x ഐ ഒ ഓ ഔ ക ഖ ഗ ഘ ങ ച ഛ ജ ഝ ഞ ട
U+0D2x ഠ ഡ ഢ ണ ത ഥ ദ ധ ന ഩ പ ഫ ബ ഭ മ യ
U+0D3x ര റ ല ള ഴ വ ശ ഷ സ ഹ ഺ ഽ ാ ി
U+0D4x ീ ു ൂ ൃ ൄ െ േ ൈ ൊ ോ ൌ ്   ൎ  
U+0D5x ൗ ൟ
U+0D6x ൠ ൡ ൢ ൣ ൦ ൧ ൨ ൩ ൪ ൫ ൬ ൭ ൮ ൯
U+0D7x ൰ ൱ ൲ ൳ ൴ ൵ ൹ ൺ ൻ ർ ൽ ൾ ൿ
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 8.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Chillus in Unicode

For example, avan അവൻ (“he”) is written as a അ + va വ + chillu-n ൻ, where chillu-n represents the n sound without a vowel. In other Indic scripts, the same word would be possibly written as a + va + na + virama. However, in Malayalam script, that sequence represents a different word, avanŭ അവന്‌ (“to him”), and is not interchangeable with avan.[30] This is because in modern Malayalam script, the sign for a virama also works as the sign for a vowel ŭ at the end of a word, and is not able to cleanly “kill” the inherent vowel in this case.[27]

To differentiate a pure consonant (chillu) and a consonant with ŭ, zero-width joiner (ZWJ) and zero-width non-joiner (ZWNJ) were used before Unicode 5.1.[24] However, this system was problematic. Among other things, glyph variants specified by ZWJ or ZWNJ are supposed to be non-semantic, whereas a chillu (expressed as letter + virama + ZWJ) and the same consonant followed by a ŭ (expressed as letter + virama + ZWNJ) are often semantically different. After a long debate,[27][28] six chillus now have their own code points starting from Unicode 5.1, though applications should also be prepared to handle data in the representation specified in Unicode 5.0.[25] This means, fonts should display chillus in both sequences; while an input method should output standard chillus.

The ligature nṯa <image: nṯa> is very common and supported by most Malayalam fonts in one way or another, but exactly how it should be encoded was not clear in Unicode 5.0 and earlier, and two incompatible implementations are currently in use.[31] In Unicode 5.1 (2008), the sequence to represent it was explicitly redefined as chillu-n + virama + ṟa (ൻ്റ),[25] but is not supported yet (as of 2011), by any popular operating systems, fonts or input methods.

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 Ager, Simon (1998). "Malayalam alphabet, pronunciation and language". Omniglot. Retrieved 2009-09-08.
  2. 1 2 "Vazhapally Temple". Vazhappally Sree Mahadeva Temple. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
  3. ↑ Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). "Malayalam". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (16th ed.). SIL International. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
  4. ↑ Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge University Press. p. 85.
  5. ↑ Ethnologue (16th ed.): "Paniya", "Kurumba, Betta", and "Ravula".
  6. ↑ Canepari (2005), pp. 396, 140.
  7. ↑ Burnell (1874), p. 39.
  8. 1 2 "The Script". Malayalam Resource Centre. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
  9. 1 2 "Alphabets". Government of Kerala. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Burnell (1874), p. 35.
  11. ↑ "Grantha alphabet". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
  12. ↑ "EPIGRAPHY - Inscriptions in Grantha Script". Department of Archaeology, government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
  13. ↑ Nampoothiri, N. M. (1999), "Cultural Traditions in Medieval Kerala" (PDF) in Cherian, P. J., Perspectives on Kerala History: The Second Millennium, Kerala Council for Historical Research, ISBN 81-85499-35-7, retrieved 2009-11-20.
  14. ↑ "Development of Literature". Malayalam Resource Centre. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
  15. ↑ Andronov, Mikhail Sergeevich. A Grammar of the Malayalam Language in Historical Treatment. Wiesbaden : Harrassowitz, 1996.
  16. ↑ "Malayalam Script—Adoption of New Script for Use" (PDF). Government of Kerala. 1971. Retrieved 2009-10-25.
  17. ↑ "Script reform". Malayalam Resource Centre. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
  18. ↑ John, Vijay. "The Concept of ലിപി (Lipi)". Learn Malayalam Online!. Retrieved 2009-09-08.
  19. 1 2 "Report of the Committee on Malayalam Character Encoding and Keyboard Layout Standardisation". Kerala Gazette (Government of Kerala) 46 (2023). December 18, 2001. Archived from the original on October 6, 2009. Retrieved 2009-10-08. See also the May 2001 version (PDF).
  20. ↑ Asher, R. E. Malayalam. Ed. T. C. Kumari 1934-. London ; New York : Routledge, 1997.
  21. 1 2 Canepari (2005), pp. 397, 185.
  22. ↑ Mohanan (1996), p.421.
  23. 1 2 Everson, Michael (2007). "Proposal to add two characters for Malayalam to the BMP of the UCS" (PDF). ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N3494. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
  24. 1 2 "South Asian Scripts-I" (PDF). The Unicode Standard 5.0 — Electronic Edition. Unicode, Inc. 1991–2007. pp. 42–44. Retrieved 2009-09-08.
  25. 1 2 3 4 "Malayalam Chillu Characters". Unicode 5.1.0. Unicode, Inc. 2008. Retrieved 2009-09-10.
  26. ↑ Chitrajakumar, R; Gangadharan, N (2005-08-07). "Samvruthokaram and Chandrakkala" (PDF). Unicode Consortium. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-07-12. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
  27. 1 2 3 Muller, Eric (2006). "Malayalam cillaksarams" (PDF). JTC1/SC2/WG2 N3126 L2/06-207. Retrieved 2009-09-10.
  28. 1 2 Chitrajakumar, R. & Gangadharan, N. (2005). "Chandrakkala. Samvruthokaram. Chillaksharam." (PDF). L2/05-210. Retrieved 2009-09-10.
  29. ↑ Constable, Peter (2004). "Clarification of the Use of Zero Width Joiner in Indic Scripts" (PDF). Public Review Issue #37. Unicode, Inc. Retrieved 2009-09-10. External link in |work= (help)
  30. ↑ Johny, Cibu C. (2005). "Unicode Public Review Issue #66: Encoding of Chillu Forms in Malayalam". Retrieved 2009-09-16. See also L2/05-085 (PDF).
  31. ↑ "Encoding of Chillu Forms in Malayalam". Public Review Issue #66. Unicode, Inc. 2005. Retrieved 2009-09-24. External link in |work= (help)

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