Wallachia

For other uses, see Wallachia (disambiguation).
Principality of Wallachia
Țara Românească
Vassal of the Ottoman Empire (1417–1859)
(under Russian protection 1774–1856)
1246–1859 →
Flag Coat of arms
Wallachia in the late 14th century
Capital Câmpulung, Curtea de Argeș (1330-1418)
Târgoviște (1418-1659)[1]
Bucharest (from 1659)
Languages Romanian (Old Romanian), Church Slavonic (in early official use)
Religion Eastern Orthodox
Government Absolute monarchy
Prince
 •  c.1290-c.1310 Radu Negru (first)
 • 1859–62 Alexander John Cuza (last)
History
 •  First official attestation 1246
 • Traditional date Independence 1290
 • Ottoman suzerainty 1417[2]
 • Long and Moldavian Magnate wars 1593–1621
 • Treaties:
    - Küçük Kaynarca

    - Edirne
21 July [O.S. 10 July] 1774
14 September [O.S. 2 September] 1829
 • Regulamentul Organic 1834–1835
 •  Union with Moldavia 5 February [O.S. 24 January] 1859 1859

Wallachia or Walachia (Romanian: Țara Românească pronounced [ˈt͡sara romɨˈne̯askə] or Valahia pronounced [vaˈlahi.a]; archaic: Țeara Rumânească, Cyrillic: Цѣра Румѫнѣскъ / Цѣра Рȣмѫнѣскъ / Землѧ Ѹгровлахїиска, Old East Slavic: Земля Угровлахийская, Угровлашская Земля, Влашская Земля, Власское, Latin: Transalpina, Valachia[3]) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia is traditionally divided into two sections, Muntenia (Greater Wallachia) and Oltenia (Lesser Wallachia). Wallachia as a whole is sometimes referred to as Muntenia through identification with the larger of the two traditional sections.

Wallachia was founded as a principality in the early 14th century by Basarab I, after a rebellion against Charles I of Hungary, although the first mention of the territory of Wallachia west of the river Olt dates to a charter given to the voivode Seneslau in 1246 by Béla IV of Hungary. In 1417, Wallachia accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire;[2] this lasted until the 19th century, albeit with brief periods of Russian occupation between 1768 and 1854. In 1859, Wallachia united with Moldavia to form the United Principalities, which adopted the name Romania in 1866 and officially became the Kingdom of Romania in 1881. Later, in 1918, Transylvania was ceded by the Treaty of Trianon from Hungary to the Kingdom of Romania, forming the modern Romanian state.

Etymology

The name Wallachia, generally not used by Romanians themselves (but present in some contexts as Valahia or Vlahia), is derived from the word "walha" used by Germanic peoples to describe Celts, and later romanized Celts and all Romance-speaking people. In northwest Europe this gave rise to Wales, Cornwall, Wallonia, among others, while in Southeast Europe it evolved into the ethnonym Valach, used to designate Germanic speakers' Romance-speaking neighbours, and subsequently taken over by Slavic-speakers to refer to Romanians, with variants such as Vlach, Blach, Bloc, Bloh, Boloh etc.—see also: Vlachs.

In the early Middle Ages, in Slavonic texts, the name of Zemli Ungro-Vlahiskoi (Земли Унгро-Влахискои or "Hungaro-Wallachian Land") was also used as a designation for its location. The term, translated in Romanian as "Ungrovalahia", remained in use up to the modern era in a religious context, referring to the Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan seat of Hungaro-Wallachia, in contrast to Thessalian Wallachia, or Great Wallachia in Macedonia, a medieval state, or Small Wallachia (Mala Vlaška) in Serbia.[4] Official designations of the state were Muntenia (The Land of Mountains) and Țara Românească (Terra Romana, or The Romanian Country).

For long periods after the 14th century, Wallachia was referred to as Vlaško (Влашко) by Bulgarian sources, Vlaška by Serbian sources and Walachei or Walachey by German-speaking (Transylvanian Saxon) sources. The traditional Hungarian name for Wallachia is "Havasalföld", or literally "Snowy Lowlands" (the older form is "Havaselve", which means "Land beyond the snowy mountains" ("snowy mountains" = alpines = alps), its translation to Latin - Transalpina - was used in the official royal documents of Kingdom of Hungary). In Ottoman Turkish and Turkish: Eflâk Prensliği, "Eflâk" (which also means "sky" or "skies"), افلاق, a word derived from "Vlach", is used.

Black Wallachia

Mavrovlachia, Black-Valachia, is another name of Moldavia. Mavrovlachi is another name of the Balkanic Vlachs or Aromanians. Both names could come from a confusion: Kara Iflak, the Turkish name of Vallachia, means "land of Vallachians"; but later kara ("land"0 was mistranslated as kara - black.

Later, the Turks renamed Moldavia and Vallachia as Kara-Iflak (Moldavia) and Ak Iflak (Vallachia) according to the Turkish cardinal points symbolism : north is symbolized by black, and west is symbolized by white. Ardeal/Erdel was the name of Transylvania, and Kara-Iflak, ”Northern Vlachia” - either Vallachia, north of the Balkan territories inhabited by Vlachs, or Moldavia (north of Vallachia).
The second explanation is typologically better.

History

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Ancient times

In the Second Dacian War (105 AD) western Oltenia became part of the Roman province of Dacia, with parts of Wallachia included in the Moesia Inferior province. The Roman limes was initially built along the Olt River (119), before being moved slightly to the east in the 2nd century—during which time it stretched from the Danube up to Rucăr in the Carpathians. The Roman line fell back to the Olt in 245 and, in 271, the Romans pulled out of the region.

The area was subject to Romanization also during the Migration Period, when most of present-day Romania was also invaded by Goths and Sarmatian peoples known as the Mureș-Cerneahov culture, followed by waves of other nomadic peoples. In 328, the Romans built a bridge between Sucidava and Oescus (near Gigen) which indicates that there was a significant trade with the peoples north of the Danube. A short period of Roman rule in the area is attested under Emperor Constantine I,[5] after he attacked the Goths (who had settled north of the Danube) in 332. The period of Goth rule ended when the Huns arrived in the Pannonian Plain and, under Attila, attacked and destroyed some 170 settlements on both sides of the Danube.

Early Middle Ages

Byzantine influence is evident during the 5th to 6th century, such as the site at Ipoteşti-Cândeşti, but from the second half of the 6th century and in the 7th century Slavic peoples crossed the territory of Wallachia and settled in it, on their way to Byzantium, occupying the southern bank of the Danube.[6] In 593, the Byzantine commander-in-chief Priscus defeated Slavs, Avars and Gepids on future Wallachian territory, and, in 602, Slavs suffered a crucial defeat in the area; Flavius Mauricius Tiberius, who ordered his army to be deployed north of the Danube, encountered his troops' strong opposition.[7]

Wallachia was under the control of the First Bulgarian Empire from its establishment in 681, until approximately the Magyar conquest of Transylvania at the end of the 10th century. With the decline and subsequent fall of the Bulgarian state to Byzantium (in the second half of the 10th century up to 1018), Wallachia came under the control of the Pechenegs (a Turkic people) who extended their rule west through the 10th and 11th century, until defeated around 1091, when the Cumans of southern Russia took control of the lands of Wallachia.[8] Beginning with the 10th century, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and later Western sources mention the existence of small polities, possibly peopled by, among others, Vlachs/Romanians led by knyazes and voivodes.

In 1241, during the Mongol invasion of Europe, Cuman domination was ended—a direct Mongol rule over Wallachia was not attested, but it remains probable.[9] Part of Wallachia was probably briefly disputed by the Hungarian Kingdom and Bulgarians in the following period,[9] but it appears that the severe weakening of Hungarian authority during the Mongol attacks contributed to the establishment of the new and stronger polities attested in Wallachia for the following decades.[10]

Creation

One of the first written pieces of evidence of local voivodes is in connection with Litovoi (1272), who ruled over land each side of the Carpathians (including Hațeg Country in Transylvania), and refused to pay tribute to the Hungarian King Ladislaus IV of Hungary. His successor was his brother Bărbat (1285–1288). The continuing weakening of the Hungarian state by further Mongol invasions (1285–1319) and the fall of the Árpád dynasty opened the way for the unification of Wallachian polities, and to independence from Hungarian rule.

The Battle of Posada in the Chronicon Pictum
The seal of Voivode Mircea the Elder from 1390, depicting the coat of arms of Wallachia

Wallachia's creation, held by local traditions to have been the work of one Radu Negru (Black Radu), is historically connected with Basarab I (1310–1352), who rebelled against Charles I of Hungary and took up rule on either side of the Olt River, establishing his residence in Câmpulung as the first ruler in the House of Basarab. Basarab refused to grant Hungary the lands of Făgăraș, Almaş and the Banat of Severin, defeated Charles in the Battle of Posada (1330), and extended his lands to the east, to comprise lands as far as Kilia (in the Bujak), as the origin of Bessarabia);[11] rule over the latter was not preserved by the princes that followed, as Kilia fell to the Nogais ca.1334.[12]

Basarab was succeeded by Nicolae Alexandru, followed by Vladislav I. Vladislav attacked Transylvania after Louis I occupied lands south of the Danube, conceded to recognize him as overlord in 1368, but rebelled again in the same year; his rule also witnessed the first confrontation between Wallachia and the Ottoman Turks (a battle in which Vladislav was allied with Ivan Shishman of Bulgaria).[13] Under Radu I and his successor Dan I, the realms in Transylvania and Severin continued to be disputed with Hungary.[14]

1400–1600

Mircea the Elder to Radu the Great

Territories held by Wallachian prince Mircea the Elder, ca. 1390[15]

As the entire Balkan Peninsula became an integral part of the emerging Ottoman Empire (a process which concluded with the fall of Constantinople to Sultan Mehmed II in 1453), Wallachia became engaged in frequent confrontations and, in the final years of Mircea the Elder's reign, became an Ottoman tributary state. Mircea (reigned 1386–1418), initially defeated the Ottomans in several battles (including that of Rovine in 1394), driving them away from Dobruja and briefly extending his rule to the Danube Delta, Dobruja and Silistra (ca.1400–1404).[16] He swung between alliances with Sigismund of Hungary and Jagiellon Poland (taking part in the Battle of Nicopolis),[17] and accepted a peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1417, after Mehmed I took control of Turnu Măgurele and Giurgiu.[18] The two ports remained part of the Ottoman state, with brief interruptions, until 1829. In 1418–1420, Mihail I defeated the Ottomans in Severin, only to be killed in battle by the counter-offensive; in 1422, the danger was averted for a short while when Dan II inflicted a defeat on Murad II with the help of Pippo Spano.[19]

Wallachia as pictured in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle

The peace signed in 1428 inaugurated a period of internal crisis, as Dan had to defend himself against Radu Prasnaglava, who led the first in a series of boyar coalitions against established princes (in time, these became overtly pro-Ottoman in answer to repression).[20] Victorious in 1431 (the year when the boyar-backed Alexandru I Aldea took the throne), boyars were dealt successive blows by Vlad II Dracul (1436–1442; 1443–1447), who nevertheless attempted to compromise between the Porte and the Holy Roman Empire.[21]

The following decade was marked by the conflict between the rival houses of Dăneşti and Drăculeşti, the influence of John Hunyadi, Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary, and, after the neutral reign of Vladislav II,[22] by the rise of Vlad III Dracula, better known as Vlad the Impaler. Vlad, during whose rule Bucharest was first mentioned as a princely residence, exercised terror on rebellious boyars, cut off all links with the Ottomans, and, in 1462, defeated Mehmed II's offensive during The Night Attack before being forced to retreat to Târgovişte and accepting to pay an increased tribute.[23] His parallel conflicts with his Muslim brother Radu III the Fair and Laiotă Basarab led to the conquest of Wallachia by Radu III who would rule it for 11 years until his death.[24] Radu the Great (1495–1508) reached several compromises with the boyars, ensuring a period of internal stability that contrasted his clash with Bogdan the Blind of Moldavia.[25]

Mihnea cel Rău to Petru Cercel

The late 15th century saw the ascension of the powerful Craioveşti family, virtually independent rulers of the Oltenian banat, who sought Ottoman support in their rivalry with Mihnea cel Rău (1508–1510) and replaced him with Vlăduţ; after the latter proved to be hostile to the bans, the House of Basarab formally ended with the rise of Neagoe Basarab, a Craioveşti.[26] Neagoe's peaceful rule (1512–1521), noted for its cultural aspects (the building of the Curtea de Argeş Cathedral and Renaissance influences), also saw an increase in influence for the Saxon merchants in Braşov and Sibiu, and Wallachia's alliance with Louis II of Hungary.[27] Under Teodosie, the country was again under a four-month-long Ottoman occupation, a military administration which seemed to be an attempt to create a Wallachian Pashaluk.[28] This danger rallied all boyars in support of Radu de la Afumaţi (four rules between 1522 and 1529), who lost the battle after an agreement between the Craioveşti and Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent; Prince Radu eventually confirmed Süleyman's position as suzerain, and agreed to pay an even higher tribute.[28]

Wallachia (highlighted in green) towards the end of the 16th century

Ottoman suzerainty remained virtually unchallenged throughout the following 90 years. Radu Paisie, who was deposed by Süleyman in 1545, ceded the port of Brăila to Ottoman administration in the same year; his successor Mircea Ciobanul (1545–1554; 1558–1559), a prince without any claim to noble heritage, was imposed on the throne and consequently agreed to a decrease in autonomy (increasing taxes and carrying out an armed intervention in Transylvania—supporting the pro-Turkish John Zápolya).[29] Conflicts between boyar families became stringent after the rule of Pătraşcu cel Bun, and boyar ascendancy over rulers was obvious under Petru the Younger (1559–1568; a reign dominated by Doamna Chiajna and marked by huge increases in taxes), Mihnea Turcitul, and Petru Cercel.[30]

The Ottoman Empire increasingly relied on Wallachia and Moldavia for the supply and maintenance of its military forces; the local army, however, soon disappeared due to the increased costs and the much more obvious efficiency of mercenary troops.[31]

17th century

Main article: Early Modern Romania
Fighting between Michael the Brave and the Ottomans in Giurgiu, 1595

Initially profiting from Ottoman support, Michael the Brave ascended to the throne in 1593, and attacked the troops of Murad III north and south of the Danube in an alliance with Transylvania's Sigismund Báthory and Moldavia's Aron Vodă (see Battle of Călugăreni). He soon placed himself under the suzerainty of Rudolf II, the Holy Roman Emperor, and, in 1599–1600, intervened in Transylvania against Poland's king Sigismund III Vasa, placing the region under his authority; his brief rule also extended to Moldavia later in the following year.[32] For a brief period, Michael the Brave unified all the territories where Romanians lived, rebuilding the mainland of the ancient Kingdom of Dacia.[33] Following Michael's downfall, Wallachia was occupied by the Polish-Moldavian army of Simion Movilă (see Moldavian Magnate Wars), who held the region until 1602, and was subject to Nogai attacks in the same year.[34]

Counties of Wallachia, 1601-1718

The last stage in the Growth of the Ottoman Empire brought increased pressures on Wallachia: political control was accompanied by Ottoman economical hegemony, the discarding of the capital in Târgovişte in favour of Bucharest (closer to the Ottoman border, and a rapidly growing trade center), the establishment of serfdom under Michael the Brave as a measure to increase manorial revenues, and the decrease in importance of low-ranking boyars (threatened with extinction, they took part in the seimeni rebellion of 1655).[35] Furthermore, the growing importance of appointment to high office in front of land ownership brought about an influx of Greek and Levantine families, a process already resented by locals during the rules of Radu Mihnea in the early 17th century.[36] Matei Basarab, a boyar appointee, brought a long period of relative peace (1632–1654), with the noted exception of the 1653 Battle of Finta, fought between Wallachians and the troops of Moldavian prince Vasile Lupu—ending in disaster for the latter, who was replaced with Prince Matei's favourite, Gheorghe Ştefan, on the throne in Iaşi. A close alliance between Gheorghe Ştefan and Matei's successor Constantin Şerban was maintained by Transylvania's George II Rákóczi, but their designs for independence from Ottoman rule were crushed by the troops of Mehmed IV in 1658–1659.[37] The reigns of Gheorghe Ghica and Grigore I Ghica, the sultan's favourites, signified attempts to prevent such incidents; however, they were also the onset of a violent clash between the Băleanu and Cantacuzino boyar families, which was to mark Wallachia's history until the 1680s.[38] The Cantacuzinos, threatened by the alliance between the Băleanus and the Ghicas, backed their own choice of princes (Antonie Vodă din Popeşti and George Ducas)[39] before promoting themselves—with the ascension of Șerban Cantacuzino (1678–1688).

Russo-Turkish Wars and the Phanariotes

The Balkans in 1699
Map of Wallachia by the Stolnic Constantin Cantacuzino
Wallachia 1771.
The Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1786, Italian map by G. Pittori, since the geographer Giovanni Antonio Rizzi Zannoni.

Wallachia became a target for Habsburg incursions during the last stages of the Great Turkish War ca.1690, when the ruler Constantin Brâncoveanu secretly and unsuccessfully negotiated an anti-Ottoman coalition. Brâncoveanu's reign (1688–1714), noted for its late Renaissance cultural achievements (see Brâncovenesc style), also coincided with the rise of Imperial Russia under Tsar Peter the Great—he was approached by the latter during the Russo-Turkish War of 1710–11, and lost his throne and life sometime after sultan Ahmed III caught news of the negotiations.[40] Despite his denunciation of Brâncoveanu's policies, Ștefan Cantacuzino attached himself to Habsburg projects and opened the country to the armies of Prince Eugene of Savoy; he was himself deposed and executed in 1716.[41]

Immediately following the deposition of Prince Ştefan, the Ottomans renounced the purely nominal elective system (which had by then already witnessed the decrease in importance of the Boyar Divan over the sultan's decision), and princes of the two Danubian Principalities were appointed from the Phanariotes of Constantinople. Inaugurated by Nicholas Mavrocordatos in Moldavia after Dimitrie Cantemir, Phanariote rule was brought to Wallachia in 1715 by the very same ruler.[42] The tense relations between boyars and princes brought a decrease in the number of taxed people (as a privilege gained by the former), a subsequent increase in total taxes,[43] and the enlarged powers of a boyar circle in the Divan.[44]

In parallel, Wallachia became the battleground in a succession of wars between the Ottomans on one side and Russia or the Habsburg Monarchy on the other. Mavrocordatos himself was deposed by a boyar rebellion, and arrested by Habsburg troops during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18, as the Ottomans had to concede Oltenia to Charles VI of Austria (the Treaty of Passarowitz).[45] The region, subject to an enlightened absolutist rule that soon disenchanted local boyars, was returned to Wallachia in 1739 (the Treaty of Belgrade, upon the close of the Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39)). Prince Constantine Mavrocordatos, who oversaw the new change in borders, was also responsible for the effective abolition of serfdom in 1746 (which put a stop to the exodus of peasants into Transylvania);[46] during this period, the ban of Oltenia moved his residence from Craiova to Bucharest, signalling, alongside Mavrocordatos' order to merge his personal treasury with that of the country, a move towards centralism.[47]

The troops of Prince Josias of Coburg in Bucharest, 1789
Principality of Wallachia, 1793–1812, highlighted in green

In 1768, during the Fifth Russo-Turkish War, Wallachia was placed under its first Russian occupation (helped along by the rebellion of Pârvu Cantacuzino).[48] The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) allowed Russia to intervene in favour of Eastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects, curtailing Ottoman pressures—including the decrease in sums owed as tribute[49]—and, in time, relatively increasing internal stability while opening Wallachia to more Russian interventions.[50]

Habsburg troops, under Prince Josias of Coburg, again entered the country during the Russo-Turkish-Austrian War, deposing Nicholas Mavrogenes in 1789.[51] A period of crisis followed the Ottoman recovery: Oltenia was devastated by the expeditions of Osman Pazvantoğlu, a powerful rebellious pasha whose raids even caused prince Constantine Hangerli to lose his life on suspicion of treason (1799), and Alexander Mourousis to renounce his throne (1801).[52] In 1806, the Russo-Turkish War of 1806–12 was partly instigated by the Porte's deposition of Constantine Ypsilantis in Bucharest—in tune with the Napoleonic Wars, it was instigated by the French Empire, and also showed the impact of the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca (with its permissive attitude towards Russian political influence in the Danubian Principalities); the war brought the invasion of Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich.[53] After the Peace of Bucharest, the rule of Jean Georges Caradja, although remembered for a major plague epidemic, was notable for its cultural and industrial ventures.[54] During the period, Wallachia increased its strategic importance for most European states interested in supervising Russian expansion; consulates were opened in Bucharest, having an indirect but major impact on Wallachian economy through the protection they extended to Sudiți traders (who soon competed successfully against local guilds).[55]

From Wallachia to Romania

The Legislative Assembly of Wallachia in 1837

Early 19th century

The death of prince Alexander Soutzos in 1821, coinciding with the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, established a boyar regency which attempted to block the arrival of Scarlat Callimachi to his throne in Bucharest. The parallel uprising in Oltenia, carried out by the Pandur leader Tudor Vladimirescu, although aimed at overthrowing the ascendancy of Greeks,[56] compromised with the Greek revolutionaries in the Filiki Eteria and allied itself with the regents,[57] while seeking Russian support[58] (see also: Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire).

On March 21, 1821, Vladimirescu entered Bucharest. For the following weeks, relations between him and his allies worsened, especially after he sought an agreement with the Ottomans;[59] Eteria's leader Alexander Ypsilantis, who had established himself in Moldavia and, after May, in northern Wallachia, viewed the alliance as broken—he had Vladimirescu executed, and faced the Ottoman intervention without Pandur or Russian backing, suffering major defeats in Bucharest and Drăgăşani (before retreating to Austrian custody in Transylvania).[60] These violent events, which had seen the majority of Phanariotes siding with Ypsilantis, made Sultan Mahmud II place the Principalities under its occupation (evicted by a request of several European powers),[61] and sanction the end of Phanariote rules: in Wallachia, the first prince to be considered a local one after 1715 was Grigore IV Ghica. Although the new system was confirmed for the rest of Wallachia's existence as a state, Ghica's rule was abruptly ended by the devastating Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829.[62]

The 1829 Treaty of Adrianople, without overturning Ottoman suzerainty, placed Wallachia and Moldavia under Russian military rule, awarding them the first common institutions and the semblance of a constitution (see Regulamentul Organic). Wallachia was returned ownership of Brăila, Giurgiu (both of which soon developed into major trading cities on the Danube), and Turnu Măgurele.[63] The treaty also allowed Moldavia and Wallachia to freely trade with countries other than the Ottoman Empire, which signalled substantial economic and urban growth, as well as improving the peasant situation.[64] Many of the provisions had been specified by the 1826 Akkerman Convention between Russia and the Ottomans (it had never been fully implemented in the three-year interval).[65] The duty of overseeing of the Principalities was left to Russian general Pavel Kiselyov; this interval was marked by a series of major changes, including the reestablishment of a Wallachian Army (1831), a tax reform (which nonetheless confirmed tax exemptions for the privileged), as well as major urban works in Bucharest and other cities.[66] In 1834, Wallachia's throne was occupied by Alexandru II Ghica—a move in contradiction with the Adrianople treaty, as he had not been elected by the new Legislative Assembly; removed by the suzerains in 1842, he was replaced with an elected prince, Gheorghe Bibescu.[67]

1840s–1850s

1848 revolutionaries carrying an early version of the flag of Romania. The text on the flag can be translated as: "Justice. Brotherhood".
Wallachia's ad hoc divan in 1857

Opposition to Ghica's arbitrary and highly conservative rule, together with the rise of liberal and radical currents, was first felt with the protests voiced by Ion Câmpineanu (quickly repressed);[68] subsequently, it became increasingly conspiratorial, and centered on those secret societies created by young officers such as Nicolae Bălcescu and Mitică Filipescu.[69] Frăţia, a clandestine movement created in 1843, began planning a revolution to overthrow Bibescu and repeal Regulamentul Organic in 1848 (inspired by the European rebellions of the same year). Their pan-Wallachian coup d'état was initially successful only near Turnu Măgurele, where crowds cheered the Islaz Proclamation (June 9); among others, the document called for political freedoms, independence, land reform, and the creation of a national guard.[70] On June 11–12, the movement was successful in deposing Bibescu and establishing a Provisional Government. Although sympathetic to the anti-Russian goals of the revolution, the Ottomans were pressured by Russia into repressing it: Ottoman troops entered Bucharest on September 13.[71] Russian and Turkish troops, present until 1851, brought Barbu Dimitrie Ştirbei to the throne, during which interval most participants in the revolution were sent into exile.

Wallachia (in green), after Treaty of Paris (1856)

Briefly under renewed Russian occupation during the Crimean War, Wallachia and Moldavia were given a new status with a neutral Austrian administration (1854–1856) and the Treaty of Paris: a tutelage shared by Ottomans and a Congress of Great Powers (Britain, France, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the Austrian Empire, Prussia, and, albeit never again fully, Russia), with a kaymakam-led internal administration. The emerging movement for a union of the Danubian Principalities (a demand first voiced in 1848, and a cause cemented by the return of revolutionary exiles) was advocated by the French and their Sardinian allies, supported by Russia and Prussia, but was rejected or suspicioned by all other overseers.[72]

After an intense campaign, a formal union was ultimately granted: nevertheless, elections for the ad hoc divans of 1859 profited from a legal ambiguity (the text of the final agreement specified two thrones, but did not prevent any single person from simultaneously taking part in and winning elections in both Bucharest and Iaşi). Alexander John Cuza, who ran for the unionist Partida Naţională, won the elections in Moldavia on January 5; Wallachia, which was expected by the unionists to carry the same vote, returned a majority of anti-unionists to its divan.[73]

Those elected changed their allegiance after a mass protest of Bucharest crowds,[73] and Cuza was voted prince of Wallachia on February 5 (January 24 Old Style), consequently confirmed as Domnitor of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (of Romania from 1862). Internationally recognized only for the duration of his reign, the union was irreversible after the ascension of Carol I in 1866 (coinciding with the Austro-Prussian War, it came at a time when Austria, the main opponent of the decision, was not in a position to intervene).

Society

Slavery

Slavery (Romanian: robie) was part of the social order from before the founding of the Principality of Wallachia, until it was abolished in stages during the 1840s and 1850s. Most of the slaves were of Roma (Gypsy) ethnicity.[74] The very first document attesting the presence of Roma people in Wallachia dates back to 1385, and refers to the group as aţigani (from the Greek athinganoi, the origin of the Romanian term ţigani, which is synonymous with "Gypsy").[75]

The exact origins of slavery are not known. Slavery was a common practice in Europe at the time, and there is some debate over whether the Romani people came to Wallachia as free men or as slaves. In the Byzantine Empire, they were slaves of the state and it seems the situation was the same in Bulgaria and Serbia until their social organization was destroyed by the Ottoman conquest, which would suggest that they came as slaves who had a change of 'ownership'. Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma people's arrival with the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era, the Romanians taking the Roma from the Mongols as slaves and preserving their status. Other historians consider that they were enslaved while captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the Mongols.[74] While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars, the bulk of them came from south of the Danube at the end of the 14th century, some time after the foundation of Wallachia. The arrival of the Roma made slavery a widespread practice.[76]

Traditionally, Roma slaves were divided into three categories. The smallest was owned by the hospodars, and went by the Romanian-language name of ţigani domneşti ("Gypsies belonging to the lord"). The two other categories comprised ţigani mănăstireşti ("Gypsies belonging to the monasteries"), who were the property of Romanian Orthodox and Greek Orthodox monasteries, and ţigani boiereşti ("Gypsies belonging to the boyars"), who were enslaved by the category of landowners.[75][77]

The abolition of slavery was carried out following a campaign by young revolutionaries who embraced the liberal ideas of the Enlightenment. The earliest law which freed a category of slaves was in March 1843, which transferred the control of the state slaves owned by the prison authority to the local authorities, leading to their sedentarizing and becoming peasants. During the Wallachian Revolution of 1848, the agenda of the Provisional Government included the emancipation (dezrobire) of the Roma as one of the main social demands. By the 1850s the movement gained support from almost the whole of Romanian society, and the law from February 1856 emancipated all slaves to the status of taxpayers (citizens).[74][75]

Geography

The present-day counties comprising Wallachia

With an area of approximately 77,000 km2 (30,000 sq mi), Wallachia is situated north of the Danube (and of present-day Bulgaria), east of Serbia and south of the Southern Carpathians, and is traditionally divided between Muntenia in the east (as the political center, Muntenia is often understood as being synonymous with Wallachia), and Oltenia (a former banat) in the west. The division line between the two is the Olt River.

Wallachia's traditional border with Moldavia coincided with the Milcov River for most of its length. To the east, over the Danube north-south bend, Wallachia neighbours Dobruja (Northern Dobruja). Over the Carpathians, Wallachia shared a border with Transylvania; Wallachian princes have for long held possession of areas north of the line (Amlaş, Ciceu, Făgăraş, and Haţeg), which are generally not considered part of Wallachia-proper.

The capital city changed over time, from Câmpulung to Curtea de Argeş, then to Târgovişte and, after the late 17th century, to Bucharest.

Population

Historical population

Contemporary historians estimate the populatian of Wallachia in the 15th century, at 500,000 people.[78] In 1859, the population of Wallachia was 2,400,921 (1,586,596 in Muntenia and 814,325 in Oltenia).[79]

Current population

According to the latest 2002 census data, the region has a total population of approximately 8,750,000 inhabitants, distributed among the ethnic groups as follows: Romanians (97%), Roma (2.5%), others (0.5%).[80]

Cities

The largest cities (as per the 2011 census) in the Wallachia region are:

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Romania & Moldova
  2. 1 2 Giurescu, Istoria Românilor, p.481
  3. ↑ Почему молдаване не румыны
  4. ↑ Dinu C. Giurescu, "Istoria ilustrată a românilor", Editura Sport-Turism, Bucharest, 1981, p.236
  5. ↑ Giurescu, p.37; Ştefănescu, p.155
  6. ↑ Giurescu, p.38
  7. ↑ Warren Treadgold, A Concise History of Byzantium, New York, St Martin's Press, 2001
  8. ↑ Giurescu, p.39–40
  9. 1 2 Giurescu, p.39
  10. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.111
  11. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.114
  12. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.119
  13. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.93–94
  14. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.94
  15. ↑ Petre Dan, Hotarele românismului în date, Editura, Litera International, Bucharest, 2005, p.32, 34. ISBN 973-675-278-X
  16. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.139
  17. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.97
  18. ↑ Giurescu, Istoria Românilor, p.479
  19. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.105
  20. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.105–106
  21. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.106
  22. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.110
  23. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.115–118
  24. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.117–118; 125
  25. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.146
  26. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.140–141
  27. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.141–144
  28. 1 2 Ştefănescu, p.144–145
  29. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.162
  30. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.163–164
  31. ↑ Berza; Djuvara, p.24–26
  32. ↑ Ştefănescu, p.169–180
  33. ↑ Rezachevici, Constantin, Mihai Viteazul et la "Dacie" de Sigismund Báthory en 1595, Ed. Argessis, 2003, 12, p.155-164
  34. ↑ Giurescu, p.65, 68
  35. ↑ Giurescu, p.68–69, 73–75
  36. ↑ Giurescu, p.68–69, 78, 268
  37. ↑ Giurescu, p.74
  38. ↑ Giurescu, p.78
  39. ↑ Giurescu, p.78–79
  40. ↑ Djuvara, p.31, 157, 336
  41. ↑ Djuvara, p.31, 336
  42. ↑ Djuvara, p.31–32
  43. ↑ Djuvara, p.67–70
  44. ↑ Djuvara, p.124
  45. ↑ Djuvara, p.48, 92; Giurescu, p.94–96
  46. ↑ Djuvara, p.48, 68, 91–92, 227–228, 254–256; Giurescu, p.93
  47. ↑ Djuvara, p.59, 71; Giurescu, p.93
  48. ↑ Djuvara, p.285; Giurescu, p.98–99
  49. ↑ Berza
  50. ↑ Djuvara, p.76
  51. ↑ Giurescu, p.105–106
  52. ↑ Djuvara, p.17–19, 282; Giurescu, p.107
  53. ↑ Djuvara, p.284–286; Giurescu, p.107–109
  54. ↑ Djuvara, p.165, 168–169; Giurescu, p.252
  55. ↑ Djuvara, p.184–187; Giurescu, p.114, 115, 288
  56. ↑ Djuvara, p.89, 299
  57. ↑ Djuvara, p.297
  58. ↑ Giurescu, p.115
  59. ↑ Djuvara, p.298
  60. ↑ Djuvara, p.301; Giurescu, p.116–117
  61. ↑ Djuvara, p.307
  62. ↑ Djuvara, p.321
  63. ↑ Giurescu, p.122, 127
  64. ↑ Djuvara, p.262, 324; Giurescu, p.127, 266
  65. ↑ Djuvara, p.323
  66. ↑ Djuvara, p.323–324; Giurescu, p.122–127
  67. ↑ Djuvara, p.325
  68. ↑ Djuvara, p.329; Giurescu, p.134
  69. ↑ Djuvara, p.330; Giurescu, p.132–133
  70. ↑ Djuvara, p.331; Giurescu, p.133–134
  71. ↑ Djuvara, p.331; Giurescu, p.136–137
  72. ↑ Giurescu, p.139–141
  73. 1 2 Giurescu, p.142
  74. 1 2 3 Viorel Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, Central European University Press, Budapest, 2004, ISBN 963-9241-84-9
  75. 1 2 3 Neagu Djuvara, Între Orient şi Occident. Ţările române la începutul epocii moderne, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995. ISBN 973-28-0523-4 (Romanian)
  76. ↑ Ştefan Ştefănescu, Istoria medie a României, Vol. I, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, Bucharest, 1991 (Romanian)
  77. ↑ Will Guy, Between Past and Future: The Roma of Central and Eastern Europe, University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 2001. ISBN 1-902806-07-7
  78. ↑ East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500, Jean W. Sedlar, page 255, 1994
  79. ↑ Gypsies in Romanian Principalities (Romanian)
  80. ↑ Institutul Naţional de Statistică

References

External links

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Coordinates: 44°25′N 26°06′E / 44.417°N 26.100°E / 44.417; 26.100

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