Populism

"Populist" redirects here. For other uses, see Populist (disambiguation).
Il Quarto Stato by Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo, 1901

Populism is a doctrine that appeals to the interests and conceptions (such as hopes and fears) of the general population, especially when contrasting any new collective consciousness push against the prevailing status quo interests of any predominant political sector.[1]

Political parties and politicians often use the terms populist and populism as pejoratives against their opponents. Such a view sees populism as merely empathising with the public, (usually through rhetoric or "unrealistic" proposals) in order to increase appeal across the political spectrum (cf. demagogy).[2]

Academic definitions

Academic definitions of populism have varied widely over the centuries, and the term has often been employed in loose and inconsistent ways to denote appeals to "the people", "demagogy" and "catch-all" politics or as a label for new types of parties whose classifications are unclear. A factor traditionally held to diminish the value of "populism" as a category has been that, as Margaret Canovan notes in her 1981 study Populism, unlike conservatives or socialists, populists rarely call themselves "populists" and usually reject the term when it is applied to them.[3]

Nonetheless, in recent years academic scholars have produced definitions of populism which enable populist identification and comparison. Daniele Albertazzi and Duncan McDonnell define populism as an ideology that "pits a virtuous and homogeneous people against a set of elites and dangerous ‘others’ who are together depicted as depriving (or attempting to deprive) the sovereign people of their rights, values, prosperity, identity, and voice".[4]

Rather than viewing populism in terms of specific social bases, economic programs, issues, or electorates — as discussions of right-wing populism have tended to do[5] — this type of definition is in line with the approaches of scholars such as Ernesto Laclau,[6] Pierre-Andre Taguieff,[7] Yves Meny and Yves Surel,[8] who have all sought to focus on populism per se, rather than treating it simply as an appendage of other ideologies.

Although in the US and Europe, it currently tends to be associated with right-wing parties, the central tenet of populism that democracy should reflect the pure and undiluted will of the people, means it can sit easily with ideologies of both right and left. However, while leaders of populist movements in recent decades have claimed to be on either the left or the right of the political spectrum, there are also many populists who reject such classifications and claim not to be "left wing", "centrist" or "right wing."[9][10][11]

Although "populist" is often used pejoratively in the media and in political debate, exceptions to this do exist, notably in the United States. In this case, it appears likely that this is due to the memories and traditions of earlier democratic movements (for example, farmers' movements, New Deal reform movements, and the civil rights movement) that were often called populist, by supporters and outsiders alike.[12]

Some scholars argue that populist organizing for empowerment represents the return of older "Aristotelian" politics of horizontal interactions among equals who are different, for the sake of public problem solving.[13][14] Populism has taken left-wing, right-wing, and even centrist[15] forms, as well as forms of politics that bring together groups and individuals of diverse partisan views.[16] The use of populist rhetoric in the United States has recently included references such as "the powerful trial lawyer lobby",[17][18] "the liberal elite", or "the Hollywood elite".[19] Examples of populist rhetoric on the other side of the political spectrum is the anti-corporate greed views of the Occupy Wall Street movement and the theme of "Two Americas" in the 2004 Presidential Democratic Party campaign of John Edwards.

Populists are seen by some politicians as a largely democratic and positive force in society, while a wing of scholarship in political science contends that populist mass movements are irrational and introduce instability into the political process. Margaret Canovan argues that both these polar views are faulty, and has defined two main branches of modern populism worldwide—agrarian and political—and mapped out seven disparate sub-categories:

Agrarian

Main article: Agrarianism

Political

Fascism and populism

Scholars have argued that populist elements have sometimes appeared in authoritarian or fascist movements.[21][22][23][24][25][26] Conspiracist scapegoating employed by various populist movements can create "a seedbed for fascism."[27] National socialist populism interacted with and facilitated fascism in interwar Germany.[28] In this case, distressed middle–class populists during the pre-Nazi Weimar period mobilized their anger at government and big business. The Nazis "parasitized the forms and themes of the populists and moved their constituencies far to the right through ideological appeals involving demagoguery, scapegoating, and conspiracism."[29] According to Fritzsche:

The Nazis expressed the populist yearnings of middle–class constituents and at the same time advocated a strong and resolutely anti-Marxist mobilization....Against "unnaturally" divisive parties and querulous organized interest groups, National Socialists cast themselves as representatives of the commonwealth, of an allegedly betrayed and neglected German public....Breaking social barriers of status and caste, and celebrating at least rhetorically the populist ideal of the people's community...[30]

In Argentina in the 1940s, a local brand of authoritarian populism emerged known as Peronism, after its leader Juan Perón. It emerged from an intellectual authoritarian movement in the 1920s and 1930s that delegitimized democracy.[31]

History in Europe

Classical populism

The word populism is derived from the Latin word populus, which means people in English (in the sense of "folk", "nation", as in: "The Roman People" (populus Romanus), not in the sense of "multiple individual persons" as in: "There are people visiting us today"). Therefore, populism espouses government by the people as a whole (that is to say, the masses). This is in contrast to aristocracy, synarchy or plutocracy, each of which is an ideology that espouse government by a small, privileged group above the masses.

Populism has been a common political phenomenon throughout history. The Populares were an unofficial faction in the Roman senate whose supporters were known for their populist agenda. They tried to rule by mobilizing masses of Romans. Some of the best known of these were Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Marius, Julius Caesar and Caesar Augustus, all of whom eventually used referenda to bypass the Roman Senate and appeal to the people directly.[32]

Early modern period in Europe

Populism rose during the Reformation; Protestant groups like the Anabaptists formed ideas about ideal theocratic societies, in which peasants would be able to read the Bible themselves. Attempts to establish these societies were made during the German Peasants' War (1524–1525) and the Münster Rebellion (1534–1535). The peasant movement ultimately failed as cities and nobles made their own peace with the princely armies, which restored the old order under the nominal overlordship of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, represented in German affairs by his younger brother Ferdinand.[33]

The same conditions contributed to the outbreak of the English Revolution of 1642–1651, also known as the English Civil War. Conditions led to a proliferation of ideologies and political movements among peasants, self-employed artisans, and working-class people in England. Many of these groups had a dogmatic Protestant religious bent. They included Puritans and the Levellers.[34]

Latin America

Populism has been an important force in Latin American political history, where many charismatic leaders have emerged since the beginning of the 20th century, as the paramountcy of agrarian oligarchies had been dislocated by the onset of industrial capitalism, allowing for the emergence of an industrial bourgeoisie and the activation of an urban working class,[35] causing the emergence of reformist and multi-class nationalist politics, centered on a charismatic leadership,[36] such as Aprismo in Peru, the MNR in Bolivia, and the political movements gravitating around Getúlio Vargas in Brazil, Perón in Argentina, Lázaro Cárdenas in Mexico, Ecuador's Velasco Ibarra and others.[37] Ideologically, Latin American populism, with its emphasis on nation-building under an authoritarian leadership as a prerequisite for technological modernization, betrayed the earlier influence of Comtean positivism. Socially, for many authors—such as Brazil's Octavio Ianni—populism should be understood as the political alliance between an emerging industrial bourgeoisie and a newly organizing urban working class, in which the former accepts social reforming for the latter's sake as long as the working class remains politically subordinated to both a more or less authoritarian State and private enterprise,[38] in a process of controlled inclusion of the "masses" into the political system,[39] a co-opting process some Marxist authors like Brazil's Francisco Weffort ascertain was accepted by the newly urbanized working class given their lack of a previously developed class consciousness.[40]

Despite efforts to charter an ideological pedigree to Populism in Latin America, as has been attempted by some, working, e.g., with concepts taken from Perón's Third Position,[41] Latin American countries have not always had a clear and consistent political ideology under populism. Populist practitioners and movements in Latin America usually adapt politically to the prevailing mood of the nation, moving within the ideological spectrum from left to right many times during their political lives. If populist movements in 1930s and 1940s Latin America had apparent fascist overtones and based themselves on authoritarian politics, as was the case of Vargas' Estado Novo dictatorship in Brazil (1937–1945),[42] or of some of Peron's openly expressed sympathies,[43] in the 1950s populism adapted—not without considerable unease from its political leadership[44]—to heightened levels of working-class mobilization. Therefore, it is not surprising that 1960s populism was associated mainly with radical, left-leaning petty-bourgeois nationalism, which emptied the State of its function as a coercive class-rule apparatus and saw it instead as an organ of representation of the Nation as a whole.[45] Such was the case, for instance, of the Goulart government (1961–1964) in Brazil, Goulart being described as a fiery populist who identified—mainly rhetorically—with the dispossessed and tried to foster a reformist agenda through ties to the organized Left.[46] The fact that Goulart was eventually ousted by the military shows that, in the views of some authors, other populist leaders of the time faced a jeopardy: they were reformists who, in the pursuit of their agenda, had to encourage popular mobilization and class conflict they ultimately abhorred.[47] Consequently, populism was eventually identified by the 1970s military dictatorships as "demagogery" and as a risk to the stability of the existing social order.[48]

If "left", reformist and nationalist populism never died out altogether during the 1970s Latin American military dictatorships—as offered proof by the prompt and successful return of a populist like Brazil's Leonel Brizola to electoral politics in the early 1980s[49]—a different streak of populism appeared in the post-military dictatorship era. This 1980s populism, in the persons of leaders like Argentina's Carlos Menem or Brazil's Fernando Collor, adapted itself to prevailing neoliberal policies of economic adjustment, setting aside nationalistic reforms and retaining the need for charismatic leadership policies, mass support and a concern for the plight of the "common people".[50] In the 1990s and 2000s, with the emergence of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela—albeit Chavez refuses himself to be labelled as "populist"[51]—reformist and nationalism Latin American populism has resurfaced with new patterns, as what is called by some authors socialist populism[52][53] that appeals to masses of poor by promising redistributive policies[53] and state control of the nation's energy resources.[54]—a blueprint that had already appeared, however—albeit with no openly "socialist" rhetoric, viz., in the nationalist policies—including the launch of the State-owned oil-company Petrobrás—that were the hallmark of Vargas' second term as Brazil's democratically elected president (1951–1954) and that led to his eventual suicide.[55]

In some countries, Populism has been fiscally supported in Latin America during periods of growth such as the 1950s and 1960s and during commodity price booms such as in oil and precious metals. Political leaders could gather followers among the popular classes with broad redistributive programs during these boom times. Conversely, in others countries, Populism has been historically associated with countering the relative decline of export agriculture with deficit spending and import-substitution policies aimed at developing an internal market for industrial consumer goods.[56] Populism in Latin America has been sometimes criticized for the fiscal policies of many of its leaders, but has also been defended for having allowed historically weak states to alleviate disorder and achieve a tolerable degree of stability while initiating large-scale industrialization. Though populist fiscal and monetary policies may be criticized by conservative economic historians and policy makers, who see in it the ultimately dysfunctional subordination of economic policy to political goals,[57] some authors acknowledge populism to have allowed non-radical leaders and parties to co-opt the radical ideas of the masses so as to redirect them in a non revolutionary direction.[58] It's generally regarded that populists hope "to reform the system, not to overthrow it".[59]

Often adapting a nationalist vocabulary and rhetorically convincing manner, populism was used to appeal to broad masses while remaining ideologically ambivalent. Notwithstanding, there have been notable exceptions. 21st-century Latin-American populist leaders have had a decidedly—even if mostly rhetorical[60]—socialist bent.[52][53]

When populists take strong positions on economic philosophies such as capitalism versus socialism, the position sparks strong emotional responses regarding how best to manage the nation's current and future social and economic position. Mexico's 2006 Presidential election was hotly debated among supporters and opponents of populist candidate Andrés Manuel López Obrador.[61]

Inequality

Populism in Latin American countries has both an economic and an ideological edge. Populism in Latin America has mostly addressed the problem, not of capitalist economic development as such but its inclusiveness,[62] in the backdrop of highly unequal societies in which people are divided between a relative few wealthy groups and masses of poor, even in the case of societies such as Argentina, where strong and educated middle classes are a significant segment of the population.[63] Therefore, the key role of the State in Latin American populism, as an institution, is to mediate between traditional elites and the "people" in general.[64] In appealing to the masses of poor people prior to gaining power, populists may promise widely demanded food, housing, employment, basic social services, and income redistribution. Once in political power, they may not always be financially or politically able to fulfill all these promises. However, they are very often successful in providing many broad and basic services.[65][66]

US policy

Since one of the ideological hallmarks of Latin American populism was the empowerment of the national and its identification with the state,[67] including nationalization of the land, natural resources and key industries as common practice,[68] it was seen almost from the start by American policy makers to offer a challenge to US hegemony over the Americas. The US has intervened in Latin American governments on many occasions where populism was seen threatening its interests: the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, when the populist Arbenz government was overthrown by a coup backed by the American company United Fruit and the American ambassador in 1954, and the support given by the US to the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état[69] are just two cases of American intervention. Another example of US intervention has been seen in Colombia, particularly since the assassination of the populist leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán in April 1948. Gaitán supported land reform and other populist initiatives, and his murder is assumed to have foreclosed subsequent development of populism in mainstream Colombian politics.[70]

Populist socialism

Hugo Chavez, founder of the PSUV and former President of Venezuela.

Populism has remained a significant force in Latin America. Populism has recently been reappearing on the left with promises of far-reaching socialist changes as seen in Venezuela under Hugo Chávez, and in Bolivia under Evo Morales- a process, however, seen by some as contradictory as it tries to meld the populist traditional celebration of folk wisdom and charismatic leadership with doctrinaire socialism.[71] And, in fact, "socialist" changes in today's Venezuela have mostly included the expenditure of oil revenue to benefit the working poor as a form of social welfare to help enable an eventual (and imprecise) socialist transformation. For some authors, as far as ideology is concerned, Chávez's political blueprint is more of a "throwback" to traditional populist nationalism and redistributivism.[72] The Venezuelan government often spars verbally with the United States and accuses it of attempting to overthrow Chavez after supporting a failed coup against him. Chavez had been one of the most outspoken and blunt critics of U.S. foreign policy. Nevertheless, a large commodity trade continues between Venezuela and the U.S. because of the economic constraints of oil delivery and the proximity of the two countries.[73]

As populist tradition ascertains the paramountcy of the "people" (instead of class) as a political subject,[74] it suffices to say that, in the 21st century, the large numbers of voters living in extreme poverty in Latin America has remained a bastion of support for new populist candidates. By early 2008 governments with varying forms of populism and with some form of left leaning (albeit vague)social democratic or democratic socialist platform had come to dominate virtually all Latin American nations with the exceptions of Colombia, El Salvador and Mexico.[75] This political shift includes both more developed nations such as Argentina's Front for Victory and Chile's Socialist Party, and smaller income countries like Bolívia with its Movement towards Socialism and Paraguay with the Patriotic Alliance for Change. Even in middle-income Mexico, a populist candidate like López Obrador, albeit defeated, nevertheless appeared as part of a strong neopopulist reaction.[76] Nevertheless, populist candidates have been more successful in poorer Latin American countries such as Bolivia (under Morales), Ecuador (under Rafael Correa) and Nicaragua (under Daniel Ortega). By the use of broad grassroots movements populist groups have managed to gain power from better organized, funded and entrenched groups such as the Bolivian Nationalist Democratic Action and the Paraguayan Colorado Party.[75]

Countries in Latin America with high rates of poverty, whose governments maintain and support unpopular privatizations and more orthodox economic policies that don't deliver general societal gains, will be under pressure from populist politicians and movements[77] accusing them of benefiting the upper and upper-middle classes[78][79] and of being allied to foreign and business interests.[80][81]

Mexico

In Mexico, Andres Manuel López Obrador's candidacy sparked very emotional debates throughout the country regarding policies that affect ideology, class, equality, wealth, and society. Andres Manuel López Obrador's most controversial economic policies included his promise to expand monthly stipends to the poor and elderly from Mexico City to the rest of the country and to re-negotiate the North American Free Trade Agreement to protect the Mexican poor.

The ruling party in Mexico, the National Action Party (PAN), portrayed him as a danger to Mexico's hard-earned economic stability. In criticizing his redistributive promises that would create new entitlement programs somewhat similar to social security in the US (though not as broad in scope) and his trade policies that would not fully uphold prior agreements (such as NAFTA), the economic debate between capitalists and socialists became a major part of the debate. Felipe Calderón, the PAN candidate, portrayed himself as not just a standard-bearer for recent economic policy, but as a more proactive candidate, to distance himself from the main criticisms of his predecessor Vicente Fox regarding inaction. He labeled himself the "jobs president" and promised greater national wealth for all through steady future growth, fiscal prudence, international trade, and balanced government spending.

During the immediate aftermath of the tight elections in which the country's electoral court was hearing challenges to the vote tally that had Calderon winning, López Obrador showed the considerable influence over the masses that are a trademark of populist politicians. He effectively led huge demonstrations, filling the central plaza with masses of sympathizers who supported his challenge. The demonstrations lasted for several months and eventually dissipated after the electoral court did not find sufficient cause from the challenges presented to overturn the results.[82][83]

Canada

For the populist movement in Canada, see Populism in Canada.

Populist political ideology in Canada has been a strong phenomenon in Western Canada and Quebec as promoted by provincial Social Credit parties in the western provinces and Quebec, and in federal politics as promoted by the Social Credit Party of Canada and the Reform Party of Canada.

United States

George Wallace, four-time Governor of Alabama and founder of the American Independent Party.

Populist sentiment contributed to the American Revolutionary War, and continued to shape the young United States afterward.[84]

There have been several versions of a populist party in the United States, some inspired by the Populist Party of the 1890s. This was the party of the early U.S. populist movement in which millions of farmers and other working people successfully enacted their anti-trust agenda.[85]

Other early populist political parties in the United States included the Greenback Party, the Progressive Party of 1912 led by Theodore Roosevelt, the Progressive Party of 1924 led by Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and the Share Our Wealth movement of Huey Long in 1933–35.[86][87]

George Wallace, four-term Governor of Alabama, led a populist movement that carried five states and won 13.5% of the popular vote in the 1968 presidential election. Campaigning against intellectuals and liberal reformers, Wallace gained a large share of the white working class vote in Democratic primaries in 1972.[88][89]

Populism continues to be a force in modern U.S. politics, especially in the 1992 and 1996 elections. The media have identified numerous populist candidates in recent years.[90] The third-party presidential campaigns of billionaire Ross Perot, the 1996, 2000, 2004, and the 2008 presidential campaigns of Ralph Nader had a strong populist cast. The 2004 and 2008 Democratic presidential candidate John Edwards has been described by many[91] (and by himself) as a "one economic community, one commonwealth"[91] populist.

From its beginnings in early 2009, the Tea Party movement has used populist rhetoric, particularly in areas and states where Democrats are in power. Boyer et al. states:

The Tea Party's name, large outdoor rallies, populist rhetoric, and use of patriotic symbols (notably, the 'Don't Tread On Me' Gadsden Flag, which emerged as the movement's standard) tapped into the historical legacy of the Antifederalist movement of the 1780s.[92]

In upstate New York, Carl Paladino and his conservative-populist Taxpayers Party of New York have used the motto "Paladino for the People" and have attempted to woo common people to vote for them by pitting them against the state government and the special interests that have influence in it.[93]

In the most recent example of populist movements, participants of the Occupy movement chose the slogan "We are the 99%". The Occupy leadership used the phrase "the 1%" to refer to the 1% of Americans who are most wealthy. The Occupy movement believed that the 1% was creating economic instability and undermining the social safety nets implemented during the New Deal. Political science professors Joe Lowndes and Dorian Warren were among those to pose the question, "Is Occupy Wall Street a Populist Movement?". They both concluded that it was the "first major populist movement on the U.S. left since the 1930s."[94][95]

Germany

Further information: Völkisch movement

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, a Lutheran Minister, a professor at the University of Berlin and the "father of gymnastics", introduced the concept of Volkstum, a racial notion that draws on the essence of a people that was lost in the Industrial Revolution. Adam Mueller went a step further by positing the state as a bigger totality than the government institution. This paternalistic vision of aristocracy concerned with social orders had a dark side in that the opposite force of modernity was represented by the Jews, who were said to be eating away at the state.[96] Populism also played a role in mobilizing middle class support for the Nazi Party in Weimar Germany.[97] In this case, distressed middle–class populists during the pre-Nazi Weimar period mobilized their anger at government and big business. According to Fritzsche:

The Nazis expressed the populist yearnings of middle–class constituents and at the same time advocated a strong and resolutely anti-Marxist mobilization.... Against "unnaturally" divisive parties and querulous organized interest groups, National Socialists cast themselves as representatives of the commonwealth, of an allegedly betrayed and neglected German public....[b]reaking social barriers of status and caste, and celebrating at least rhetorically the populist ideal of the people's community...[30]

France

In the late 18th century, the French Revolution, though led by wealthy intellectuals, could also be described as a manifestation of populist sentiment against the elitist excesses and privileges of the Ancien Régime.[98]

In France, the populist and nationalist picture was more mystical, metaphysical and literarian in nature.[99] Historian Jules Michelet (sometimes called a populist[100]) fused nationalism and populism by positing the people as a mystical unity who are the driving force of history in which the divinity finds its purpose.[98] Michelet viewed history as a representation of the struggle between spirit and matter; he claims France has a special place because the French became a people through equality, liberty, and fraternity. Because of this, he believed, the French people can never be wrong. Michelet's ideas are not socialism or rational politics, and his populism always minimizes, or even masks, social class differences.

In the 1950s, Pierre Poujade was the leader of the right-wing populist movement Union de Defense Commercants et Artisans (UDCA).[101] Jean Marie Le Pen (who was UDCA's youngest deputy in the 1950s)[102] can be characterized as right-wing populist[103] or extreme-right populist.[102] The French National Front, currently led by Marine Le Pen, is one of the more successful populist parties in Europe.

Italy

Silvio Berlusconi, leader of Forza Italia and Prime Minister of Italy for almost ten years.

An example of modern populism can be studied in current Italian politics. When Silvio Berlusconi entered in politics in 1994 with his new party Forza Italia, he created a new kind of populism focused on media control.[104] Berlusconi and his allies won three elections, in 1994, 2001 and, with his new right-wing People of Freedom party, in 2008; he was Prime Minister of Italy for almost ten years.[105]

Another Italian populist party is the Lega Nord,[106] founded in 1991 as a federation of several regional parties of northern (and central-northern) Italy, most of which had sprung up and expanded their share of the electorate during the 1980s. Lega Nord was the principal ally of Berlusconi's parties including, most recently, People of Freedom. The Lega Nord's political program advocates the transformation of Italy into a federal state, fiscal federalism and greater regional autonomy, especially for the Northern regions. At times it has advocated the secession of the North, which it calls Padania. The Lega Nord also fights for the implementation of stricter rules and laws in order to contrast the expansion of Islam into Europe. It is opposed to Turkish membership of the European Union and is considered one of the eurosceptic movements. It also emphasizes the fight against illegal immigration. Lega Nord's best electoral result has been in 1996 general election, where it gained the 10.8% of votes. In the 2008 election Lega supported Berlusconi's right-wing coalition, helping him win, having gained 8.3% of votes, 60 deputies and 26 senators.[107]

In 2009 Beppe Grillo, a former comedian, blogger and activist, founded the Five Star Movement. It advocates direct democracy, free access to the Internet, and condemns corruption. The M5S's programme also contains elements of both left-wing and right-wing populism and American-style libertarianism. The party is considered populist, ecologist, and partially Eurosceptic.[108] Grillo himself described the Five Star Movement as being populist in nature during a political meeting he held in Rome on October 30, 2013.[109] In 2013 Italian election the Five Star Movement gained 25.5% of votes, with 109 deputies and 54 senators, becoming the main populist and Eurosceptic party in the European Union.[110]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ "the political doctrine that supports the rights and powers of the common people in their struggle with the privileged elite."Princeton University http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=populism
  2. ↑ The Irish Times. O'Halloran, Marie. http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ff-education-bill-a-populist-stunt-says-government-1.963336 January 21, 2013
  3. ↑ Canovan, Margaret (1981). Populism. Houghton Mifflin Hmh. p. 5.
  4. ↑ Albertazzi, Daniele; McDonnell, Duncan (2008). "Twenty-First Century Populism" (PDF). Palgrave MacMillan. p. 3.
  5. ↑ Kitschelt, Herbert (with McGann, Anthony), 1995, The Radical Right in Western Europe. A Comparative Analysis, Ann Arbor: University of Michighan Press
  6. ↑ Laclau, Ernesto, 2005, On Populist Reason, London: Verso
  7. ↑ Taguieff, Pierre-Andre, 2002, L'illusion populiste, Paris: Berg International
  8. ↑ Meny, Yves and Surel, Yves, 2002, Democracies and the Populist Challenge, London: Palgrave Macmillan
  9. ↑ Canovan, Margaret. 1981. Populism.
  10. ↑ Betz, Hans-Georg. 1994. Radical Right-wing Populism in Western Europe.
  11. ↑ Kazin, Michael. 1995.The Populist Persuasion: An American History.
  12. ↑ Boyte, Populism and John Dewey
  13. ↑ Harry C. Boyte. "Introduction: Reclaiming Populism as a Different Kind of Politics." The Good Society 21.2 (2012): 173-176. Project MUSE. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. <http://muse.jhu.edu/>(login needed to view journal)
  14. ↑ Harry C. Boyte, "A Different Kind of Politics", Dewey Lecture, University of Michigan, 2002. Online at Project MUSE (login needed to see PDF file)
  15. ↑ "The basic ideology of the middle class is populism.... Their ideal was an independent small property owning class consisting of merchants, mechanics, and farmers. This element...now designated as middle class, sponsored a system of private property, profit, and competition on an entirely different basis from that conceived by capitalism....From its very inception it opposed "big business" or what has now become known capitalism." David J. Saposs, quoted in "Political Man", Lipset
  16. ↑ Richard L. Wood, Faith in Action: Religion, Race, and Democratic Organizing in America, 2002
  17. ↑ Bob Dole, Column Right: Ignore the Lawyers, Help the People – The powerful trial lawyers lobby must not be allowed to stymie tort reform. Los Angeles Times, April 27, 1995
  18. ↑ "Trial Lawyer Lobby Scores Several Big Victories — But Signs Of Hope In A Tough Election Year".
  19. ↑ And The Winner Is…The Hollywood Elite, January 27, 2009
  20. ↑ Canovan, Populism, pp. 13, 128–138
  21. ↑ Ferkiss 1957.
  22. ↑ Dobratz and Shanks–Meile 1988
  23. ↑ Berlet and Lyons, 2000
  24. ↑ Peter Fritzsche (1990). Rehearsals for fascism: populism and political mobilization in Weimar Germany. Oxford University Press.
  25. ↑ Catherine Fieschi (2004). Fascism, Populism and the French Fifth Republic: In the Shadow of Democracy. Manchester U.P.
  26. ↑ Gino Germani (1978). Authoritarianism, Fascism, and National Populism. Transaction Publishers.
  27. ↑ Mary Rupert 1997: 96.
  28. ↑ Fritzsche 1990: 149–150.
  29. ↑ Berlet 2005.
  30. 1 2 Fritzsche 1990: 233–235
  31. ↑ Cyprian Blamires (2006). World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 56.
  32. ↑ Paul A. Zoch (2000). Ancient Rome: An Introductory History. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 147.
  33. ↑ Tom Scott, The Early Reformation in Germany: Between Secular Impact and Radical Vision (Ashgate, 2013.
  34. ↑ Christopher Hill, The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas in the English Revolution (2nd ed. 1991
  35. ↑ Guillermo A. O'Donnell, Bureaucratic authoritarianism: Argentina, 1966–1973, in comparative perspective. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988, ISBN 0-520-04260-3, pages 9/10
  36. ↑ John D. French, The Brazilian workers' ABC: class conflict and alliances in modern São Paulo. University of North Carolina Press, 1992, ISBN 0-8078-4368-7, page 4.
  37. ↑ Walter Laqueur,ed. Fascism: A Readers' Guide : Analysis, Interpretations, Bibliography. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978, ISBN 0-520-03642-5, page 255
  38. ↑ Rafael Torres Quintero & Rafael Quintero López, El mito del populismo: análisis de los fundamentos del Estado ecuatoriano.Quito: Universidad Central del Ecuador, 1980, page 27
  39. ↑ Mehmet Uğur & Nergis Canefe, eds., Turkey and European integration: accession prospects and issues. London, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0-415-32656-7, page 51
  40. ↑ Alberto Aggio, Agnaldo de Sousa Barbosa, Hercídia Mara Facuri Coelho Lambert, Política e sociedade no Brasil, 1930–1964. São Paulo: Anna Blume, 2002, ISBN 85-7419-242-2, page 74
  41. ↑ [links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3816(195311)15%3A4%3C582%3APA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23]
  42. ↑ Octavio Rodríguez Araujo, Derechas y ultraderechas en el mundo. Mexico: Siglo XXI, 2004, ISBN 968-23-2519-6, page 140
  43. ↑ Íñigo Bolinaga, Breve historia del fascismo. Madrid: Nowtilus, 2008, ISBN 978-84-9763-452-6, page 242
  44. ↑ In 1952, viz., Vargas' Labor Minister in Brazil saw his tasks in fervently anticommunist terms: to battle ideologies opposed to "traditions" of social peace—John D. French, Drowning in laws: labor law and Brazilian political culture. University of North Carolina Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8078-5527-8, page 81
  45. ↑ Francisco Weffort, O populismo na política brasileira. Rio de Janeiro:Paz e Terra, 1978, page 43.
  46. ↑ Stephen G. Rabe, The most dangerous area in the world: John F. Kennedy confronts Communist Revolution in Latin America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8078-4764-X, page 66
  47. ↑ John D. French, The Brazilian workers' ABC: class conflict and alliances in modern São Paulo, page 262
  48. ↑ Mary P. Lassiter,ed., Economics, politics and social issues in Latin America. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60021-182-9, page 25
  49. ↑ Thomas E. Skidmore, The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964–1985. New York: Oxford University Press US, 1989, ISBN 0-19-506316-3, page 265
  50. ↑ Jolle Demmers, Alex E. Fernández Jilberto, Barbara Hogenboom, eds. Miraculous metamorphoses: the neoliberalization of Latin American populism. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001, ISBN 1-85649-887-5, page 11
  51. ↑ Kirk Andrew Hawkins, Venezuela's Chavismo and Populism in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-76503-9, page 51
  52. 1 2 Héctor E. Schamis – Populism, socialism and democratic institutions
  53. 1 2 3 "Search". Retrieved 25 April 2015.
  54. ↑ Anonymous. "Populist Left in South America".
  55. ↑ Thomas F. O'Brien, The century of U.S. capitalism in Latin America. University of New Mexico Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8263-1996-3, page 101
  56. ↑ Luiz Renato Vieira, Consagrados e malditos: os intelectuais e a Editora Civilização Brasileira. Brasília: Thsaurus, 1998, ISBN 85-7062-139-6, page 41
  57. ↑ Rüdiger Dornbusch & Sebastian Edwards, eds. The Macroeconomics of populism in Latin America. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1991, ISBN 0-226-15844-6, page 16
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  59. ↑ Rüdiger Dornbusch & Sebastian Edwards, eds. The Macroeconomics of populism in Latin America, 47.
  60. ↑ Jeffery R Webber,"Venezuela under Chávez: The Prospects and Limitations of Twenty-First Century Socialism, 1999–2009", Études socialistes, Vol 6, No 1 (2010)
  61. ↑ January 24, 2007: Mexican Political Polarization Limited to Elites Despite Contested Election, APSA Press Release
  62. ↑ Dornbusch & Edwards, The Macroeconomics of populism in Latin America, page 1
  63. ↑ CURRENT ECONOMIC ISSUES IN ARGENTINA A TEACHING MODULE, Z. Edward O'Relley, November, 2001
  64. ↑ Elizabeth Montes Garcés, ed., Relocating identities in Latin American cultures. Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2007, ISBN 978-1-55238-209-7, page 74
  65. ↑ DEALING WITH POLITICAL FERMENT IN LATIN AMERICA: THE POPULIST REVIVAL, THE EMERGENCE OF THE CENTER, AND IMPLICATIONS OR U.S. POLICY
  66. ↑ The Impact of "Populism" on Social, Political, and Economic Development in the Hemisphere, Vladimir Torres
  67. ↑ James M. Malloy, ed. Authoritarianism and corporatism in Latin America. University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977, ISBN 0-8229-5275-0, page 11
  68. ↑ Víctor Alba, Historia del movimiento obrero en America latina. Eng. trans., Stanford: University of Stanford Press, 1968, page 31
  69. ↑ Brian Loveman, For la Patria: politics and the armed forces in Latin America. Wilmington: Scholary Resources, Inc., 1999, ISBN 0-8420-2773-4, page 186
  70. ↑ Robert C. Neville, ed., The human condition. Albany: SUNY Press, 2002, ISBN 0-7914-5346-4, page 25
  71. ↑ Kirk Andrew Hawkins, Venezuela's Chavismo and Populism in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-76503-9, page 84
  72. ↑ Steve Ellner & Daniel Hellinger, eds., Venezuelan politics in the Chávez era: class, polarization, and conflict. Boulder: Lyne Rienner, 2003, ISBN 1-58826-297-9, page 67
  73. ↑ "BBC NEWS - Business - Venezuela-US trade under the microscope".
  74. ↑ Carlos De La Torre, Populist Seduction in Latin America, 2nd. Edition. Ohio University, 2010, ISBN 978-0-89680-279-7, page xii
  75. 1 2 "More leftist leaders in Latin America - World news - Americas - NBC News". msnbc.com.
  76. ↑ Scott Mainwaring &Timothy Scully, eds., Democratic Governance in Latin America. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-8047-6084-3, page 254
  77. ↑ Patricio Navia and Ignacio Walker, Chapter 8, Political Institutions, Populism, and Democracy in Latin America, in Scott and Timothy R. Scully (ed), Democratic Governance in Latin America, Stanford University Press, 2008, pp. 2 – 3
  78. ↑ "En 16 años, los gobiernos neoliberales democratizaron el hambre. Discurso de Daniel Ortega en Estelí".
  79. ↑ Pemex y los GOBIERNOS NEOLIBERALES, ALBERTO TORRENTERA
  80. ↑ Upside Down World. "Bolivia y el mandato progresista en Latinoamérica". Retrieved 25 April 2015.
  81. ↑ Roberto. "¡A babor!".
  82. ↑ "Mexico". Retrieved 25 April 2015.
  83. ↑ The Challenge of Closely Fought Elections, Whitehead, Laurence Project MUSE – Journal of Democracy, Volume 18, Number 2, April 2007
  84. ↑ For the People: American Populist Movements from the Revolution to the 1850s. Formisano, Robert P. https://books.google.com/books?id=HzHorlMiLpMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
  85. ↑ Michael Kazin, The Populist Persuasion: An American History (1995).
  86. ↑ Steven J. Rosenstone, Third parties in America (Princeton University Press, 1984)
  87. ↑ Ronald P. Formisano, For the People: American Populist Movements from the Revolution to the 1850s (2009)
  88. ↑ Behind the Backlash.
  89. ↑ Joel Rogers (1 June 2000). "America's Forgotten Majority". The Atlantic.
  90. ↑ Stephen L. Vaughn (2007). Encyclopedia of American Journalism. Routledge. p. 397.
  91. 1 2 "Peter Levine".
  92. ↑ Paul Boyer; et al. (2012). The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People, concise edition. Cengage Learning. p. 805.
  93. ↑ Alexandra Kindell and Elizabeth S. Demers (2014). Encyclopedia of Populism in America: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 703–4.
  94. ↑ Joe Lowndes and Dorian Warren, Occupy Wall Street: A Twenty-First Century Populist Movement? Dissent October 21, 2011
  95. ↑ Sheetal D. Agarwal, et al., "Grassroots organizing in the digital age: considering values and technology in Tea Party and Occupy Wall Street." Information, Communication & Society (2014) 17#3 pp: 326-341.
  96. ↑ Vokabular des Nationalsozialismus.
  97. ↑ Fritzsche 1990: 149–150, 1998
  98. 1 2 "PEUPLE ! QUEL PEUPLE ! - DÉRIVES POPULISTES - LE PEUPLE ! QUEL… - LE PEUPLE ! QUEL… - Le blog de alain laurent-faucon".
  99. ↑ Le mythe du peuple et la société française du XIXe siècle, JSTOR
  100. ↑ "Le populisme, voilà l'ennemi !, par Serge Halimi (Le Monde diplomatique, avril 1996)". Retrieved 25 April 2015.
  101. ↑ Fascism, Populism and the French Fifth Republic.
  102. 1 2 French shopkeepers on the march, Mary Dejevsky, Sunday, 5 November 1995, The Independent
  103. ↑ Europeanized Nationalism? – European Right-Wing Populist Parties and the Notion of European Identity
  104. ↑ Biorcio, Roberto (2003), "The Lega Nord and the Italian Media System", The Media and Neo-Populism (Praeger Publishers), p. 85
  105. ↑ Ruzza, Carlo; Fella, Stefano (2009), Re-inventing the Italian Right: Territorial politics, populism and 'post-fascism', Routledge, p. 227
  106. ↑ SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg, Germany (28 September 2010). "Continent of Fear: The Rise of Europe's Right-Wing Populists". SPIEGEL ONLINE.
  107. ↑ "Europe | Italy returns Berlusconi to power". BBC News. 2008-04-15. Retrieved 2014-05-20.
  108. ↑ Archived February 18, 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  109. ↑ "We appeal to the instincts of people. We are populists for real. There is nothing to be ashamed of" Grillo, confessione a eletti M5S: ‘Finzione politica l’impeachment di Napolitano’ Il Fatto Quotidiano, October 30, 2013
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External links

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