Plug-in electric vehicle
A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from an external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subset of electric vehicles that includes all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[3][4][5]
Plug-in cars have several benefits compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. They have lower operating and maintenance costs, and produce little or no local air pollution. They reduce dependence on petroleum and may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the onboard source of power, depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation to charge the batteries. Plug-in hybrids capture most of these benefits when they are operating in all-electric mode. Despite their potential benefits, market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles has been slower than expected as adoption faces several hurdles and limitations. As of 2016, plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive than conventional vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery packs. Other factors discouraging the adoption of electric cars are the lack of public and private recharging infrastructure and, in the case of all-electric vehicles, drivers' fear of the batteries running out of energy before reaching their destination due to the limited range of existing electric cars. Plug-in hybrids eliminate the problem of range anxiety associated to all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are depleted, giving PHEVs driving range comparable to other vehicles with gasoline tanks.
Several national and local governments have established tax credits, subsidies, and other incentives to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of plug-in electric vehicles depending on their battery size and all-electric range. The term "plug-in electric drive vehicle" is formally used in U.S. federal legislation to grant this type of consumer incentive. In China, plug-in electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles (NEVs), and only pure electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are subject to purchase incentives.
As of September 2015, there were almost 70 models of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty utility vans available for retail sales in the world. As of December 2015, the Nissan Leaf is the world's all-time top selling highway-capable all-electric car, with global sales of more than 200,000 units, followed by the Tesla Model S with over 107,000 units sold worldwide, and the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, which together with its sibling the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera has combined global sales of over 106,000 units.[1][2] Ranking next are the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with over 90,000 units sold through December 2015,[6] and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid with about 75,000 delivered worldwide through November 2015.[7] Combined sales of the top five plug-in models represented almost half of the plug-in segment cumulative global sales through November 2015.[7]
As of December 2015, over 1.2 million highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles have been sold worldwide, with the United States as the leading country market with a stock of about 410,000 plug-in electric cars delivered since 2008, representing 33% of the global stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, followed by China with over 258,000 light-duty units sold since 2011 (21%).[8] Japan ranks third with about 130,000 plug-in units sold since 2009 (10%).[8][9] As of December 2015, over 419,000 plug-in electric passenger cars have been registered in Europe.[10][11] European sales in the light-duty plug-in electric segment, which includes utility vans, are led by the Netherlands with almost 90,000 units registered, followed by Norway with almost 78,000 units registered, and France with over 74,000.[8] As of 31 December 2015, there were over 100,000 registered light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in the Nordic countries.[12] As of December 2015, China is the world's leader in the plug-in heavy-duty segment, including electric buses, plug-in trucks, and sanitation/garbage trucks.[13][14] Over 160,000 commercial new energy vehicles have been sold between 2011 and 2015.[9][15] China is also the world's largest electric bus market.[16]
Terminology
Plug-in electric vehicle
A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle with rechargeable battery packs that can be charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on board drives or contributes to drive the wheels for propulsion.[3][4] Plug-in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid-enabled vehicles (GEV)[4] and also as electrically chargeable vehicles.[17]
PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[3][4] Even though conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have a battery that is continually recharged with power from the internal combustion engine and regenerative braking, they can not be recharged from an off-vehicle electric energy source, and therefore, they do not belong to the category of plug-in electric vehicles.[3][4]
"Plug-in electric drive vehicle" is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for federal tax credits depending on battery size and their all-electric range.[18][19] In some European countries, particularly in France, "electrically chargeable vehicle" is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives.[20] While the term "plug-in electric vehicle" most often refers to automobiles or "plug-in cars", there are several other types of plug-in electric vehicle, including scooters, motorcycles, neighborhood electric vehicles or microcars, city cars, vans, light trucks or light commercial vehicles, buses, trucks or lorries, and military vehicles.[21]
Battery electric vehicles
A battery electric vehicle (BEV) uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs as its only source for propulsion.[4][22] BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion.[4]
A plug-in hybrid operates as an all electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge-depleting mode, but it switches to charge-sustaining mode after the battery has reached its minimum state of charge (SOC) threshold, exhausting the vehicle's all-electric range (AER).[23][24]
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV or PHV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source.[4][25] A plug-in hybrid shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle and an all-electric vehicle: it uses a gasoline engine and an electric motor for propulsion, but a PHEV has a larger battery pack that can be recharged, allowing operation in all-electric mode until the battery is depleted.[25][26][27]
Aftermarket conversions
An aftermarket electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.[28][29][30]
There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions. The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug-in hybrid, but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker, the easiest conversions are for 2004–2009 Toyota Prius and for the Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner Hybrid.[28]
New energy vehicles
In China the term new energy vehicles (NEVs) refers to vehicles that are partially or fully powered by electricity, such as battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs). The Chinese government began implementation of its NEV program in 2009 to foster the development and introduction of new energy vehicles.[31]
Advantages
Lower operating and maintenance costs
Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motors, on the other hand, are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking.[32][33] Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80%.[32]
In the United States, as of early 2010 with a national average electricity rate of US$0.10 per kWh,[35] the cost per mile for a plug-in electric vehicle operating in all-electric mode is estimated between $0.02 to $0.04, while the cost per mile of a standard automobile varies between $0.08 to $0.20, considering a gasoline price of $3.00 per gallon.[32] As petroleum price is expected to increase in the future due to oil production decline and increases in global demand, the cost difference in favor of PEVs is expected to become even more advantageous.[32]
According to Consumer Reports, as of December 2011 the Nissan Leaf has a cost of 3.5 cents per mile and the Chevrolet Volt has a cost in electric mode of 3.8 cents per mile. The Volt cost per mile is higher because it is heavier than the Leaf. These estimates are based on the fuel economy and energy consumption measured on their tests and using a U.S. national average rate of 11 cents per kWh of electricity. When the Volt runs in range-extended mode using its premium gasoline-powered engine, the plug-in hybrid has a cost of 12.5 cents per mile. The out-of-pocket cost per mile of the three most fuel efficient gasoline-powered cars as tested by the magazine are the Toyota Prius, with a cost of 8.6 cents per miles, the Honda Civic Hybrid with 9.5 cents per mile, the Toyota Corolla with 11.9 cents per mile, and the Hyundai Elantra 13.1 cents per mile. The analysis also found that on trips up to 100 mi (160 km), the Volt is cheaper to drive than the Prius and the other three cars due to the Volt's 35 mi (56 km) driving range on electricity. The previous operating costs do not include maintenance, depreciation or other costs.[36]
All-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.[32][33]
The following table compares out-of-pocket fuel costs estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency according to its official ratings for fuel economy (miles per gallon gasoline equivalent in the case of plug-in electric vehicles) for series production all-electric passenger vehicles rated by the EPA as of December 2015,[37] versus EPA rated most fuel efficient plug-in hybrid with long distance range (Chevrolet Volt - second generation ), gasoline-electric hybrid car (Toyota Prius Eco - fourth generation),[38][39][40] and EPA's average new 2016 vehicle, which has a fuel economy of 25 mpg-US (9.4 L/100 km; 30 mpg-imp).[37][38]
| Comparison of fuel efficiency and costs for all the electric cars rated by the EPA for the U.S. market as of December 2015 against EPA rated most fuel efficient plug-in hybrid, hybrid electric vehicle and 2016 average gasoline-powered car in the U.S. (Fuel economy and operating costs as displayed in the Monroney label)[37][41] | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | Model year |
EPA rated Combined fuel economy |
EPA rated City fuel economy |
EPA rated Highway fuel economy |
Cost to drive 25 miles |
Annual fuel cost |
Notes |
| BMW i3[42] | 2014/15 | 124 mpg-e (27 kWh/100 mi) | 137 mpg-e (25 kWh/100 mi) | 111 mpg-e (30 kWh/100 mi) | $0.91 | $550 | (1) (3) (4) (5) |
| Scion iQ EV[43] | 2013 | 121 mpg-e (28 kWh/100 mi) | 138 mpg-e (24 kWh/100 mi) | 105 mpg-e (32 kWh/100 mi) | $0.91 | $550 | (1) |
| Chevrolet Spark EV[44] | 2014/15/16 | 119 mpg-e (28 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 128 mpg-e (26 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 109 mpg-e (31 kWh/100 mi) | $0.91 | $550 | (1) |
| Honda Fit EV[45] | 2013/14 | 118 mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi) | 132 mpg-e (26 kWh/100 mi) | 105 mpg-e (32 kWh/100 mi) | $0.94 | $550 | (1) |
| Fiat 500e[46] | 2013/14/15 | 116 mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi) | 122 mpg-e (28 kWh/100 mi) | 108 mpg-e (31 kWh/100 mi) | $0.95 | $550 | (1) |
| Volkswagen e-Golf[47] | 2015/16 | 116 mpg-e (29 kWh/100 mi) | 126 mpg-e (27 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 105 mpg-e (33 kW-hrs/100 mi) | $0.95 | $550 | (1) |
| Nissan Leaf (24 kW-hr)[48] | 2013/14/15/16 | 114 mpg-e (30 kWh/100 mi) | 126 mpg-e (27 kWh/100 mi) | 101 mpg-e (33 kWh/100 mi) | $0.96 | $600 | (1) (6) |
| Mitsubishi i[49] | 2012/13/14/16 | 112 mpg-e (30 kWh/100 mi) | 126 mpg-e (27 kWh/100 mi) | 99 mpg-e (34 kWh/100 mi) | $0.98 | $600 | (1) |
| Nissan Leaf (30 kW-hr)[48] | 2016 | 112 mpg-e (30 kWh/100 mi) | 124 mpg-e (28 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 101 mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 mi) | $0.97 | $600 | (1) |
| Fiat 500e[50] | 2016 | 112 mpg-e (30 kWh/100 mi) | 121 mpg-e (28 kWh/100 mi) | 103 mpg-e (33 kWh/100 mi) | $0.97 | $600 | (1) |
| Smart electric drive[51] | 2013/14/15/16 | 107 mpg-e (32 kWh/100 mi) | 122 mpg-e (28 kWh/100 mi) | 93 mpg-e (36 kWh/100 mi) | $1.02 | $600 | (1) (7) |
| Kia Soul EV[52] | 2015/16 | 105 mpg-e (32 kWh/100 mi) | 120 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 92 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 mi) | $1.04 | $600 | (1) |
| Ford Focus Electric[53] | 2012/13/14/15/16 | 105 mpg-e (32 kWh/100 mi) | 110 mpg-e (31 kWh/100 mi) | 99 mpg-e (34 kWh/100 mi) | $1.04 | $600 | (1) |
| Tesla Model S AWD - 70D[37][54] | 2015/16 | 101 mpg-e (33 kWh/100 mi) | 101 mpg-e (33 kWh/100 mi) | 102 mpg-e (33 kWh/100 mi) | $1.07 | $650 | (1) |
| Tesla Model S AWD - 85D[37][55] | 2015/16 | 100 mpg-e (34 kWh/100 mi) | 95 mpg-e (35 kWh/100 mi) | 106 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 mi) | $1.10 | $650 | (1) (8) |
| Tesla Model S AWD - 90D[37][54] | 2015/16 | 100 mpg-e (34 kWh/100 mi) | 95 mpg-e (35 kWh/100 mi) | 106 mpg-e (32 kWh/100 mi) | $1.10 | $650 | (1) |
| Tesla Model S (60 kWh)[37][54] | 2014/15/16 | 95 mpg-e (35 kWh/100 mi) | 94 mpg-e (36 kWh/100 mi) | 97 mpg-e (35 kWh/100 mi) | $1.14 | $700 | (1) |
| Tesla Model S AWD - P85D[37][55] | 2015/16 | 93 mpg-e (36 kWh/100 mi) | 89 mpg-e (38 kWh/100 mi) | 98 mpg-e (35 kW-hrs/100 mi) | $1.17 | $700 | (1) (8) |
| Tesla Model S AWD - P90D[37][54] | 2015/16 | 93 mpg-e (36 kWh/100 mi) | 89 mpg-e (38 kWh/100 mi) | 98 mpg-e (35 kWh/100 mi) | $1.17 | $700 | (1) |
| Tesla Model X AWD – 90D[56] | 2016 | 92 mpg-e (34 kWh/100 mi) | 90 mpg-e (37 kWh/100 mi) | 94 mpg-e (32 kWh/100 mi) | $1.20 | $700 | (1) |
| Tesla Model X AWD – P90D[56] | 2016 | 89 mpg-e (38 kWh/100 mi) | 89 mpg-e (38 kWh/100 mi) | 90 mpg-e (38 kWh/100 mi) | $1.23 | $750 | (1) |
| Tesla Model S (85 kWh)[57] | 2012/13/14/15 | 89 mpg-e (38 kWh/100 mi) | 88 mpg-e (38 kWh/100 mi) | 90 mpg-e (37 kWh/100 mi) | $1.23 | $750 | (1) |
| Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive[58] | 2014/15/16 | 84 mpg-e (40 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 85 mpg-e (40 kWh/100 mi) | 83 mpg-e (41 kWh/100 mi) | $1.30 | $800 | (1) |
| Toyota RAV4 EV[59] | 2012/13/14 | 76 mpg-e (44 kWh/100 mi) | 78 mpg-e (43 kWh/100 mi) | 74 mpg-e (46 kWh/100 mi) | $1.43 | $850 | (1) |
| BYD e6[37][60] | 2012/13/14/15/16 | 63 mpg-e (54 kWh/100 mi) | 61 mpg-e (55 kWh/100 mi) | 65 mpg-e (52 kWh/100 mi) | $1.76 | $1,050 | (1) |
| Second gen Chevrolet Volt[37][61][62] Plug-in hybrid (PHEV) Electricity only/ gasoline only | 2016 | 106 mpg-e (31 kWh/100 mi) 42 mpg | 113 mpg-e/43 mpg | 99 mpg-e/42 mpg | $1.01/$1.23 | $650 | (1) (2) (9) |
| 2016 Toyota Prius Eco (4th gen)[39] Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) Gasoline-electric hybrid | 2016 | 56 mpg | 58 mpg | 53 mpg | $0.92 | $550 | (2) (10) |
| Ford Fusion AWD A-S6 2.0L[37][63] Gasoline-powered (Average new vehicle) | 2016 | 25 mpg | 22 mpg | 31 mpg | $2.06 | $1,250 | (2) (11) |
| Notes: All estimated fuel costs based on 15,000 miles annual driving, 45% highway and 55% city (1) Values rounded to the nearest $50. Electricity cost of $0.13/kWh (as of 3 December 2015). Conversion 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kWh. | |||||||
The following table compares EPA's estimated out-of-pocket fuel costs and fuel economy ratings of serial production plug-in hybrid electric vehicles rated by EPA as of December 2015 expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e),[37] versus the most fuel efficient gasoline-electric hybrid car, the 2016 Toyota Prius Eco (fourth generation), rated 56 mpg-US (4.2 L/100 km; 67 mpg-imp), and EPA's average new 2016 vehicle, which has a fuel economy of 25 mpg-US (9.4 L/100 km; 30 mpg-imp).[37][66][39] The table also shows the fuel efficiency for plug-in hybrids in all-electric mode expressed as KW-hrs/100 mile, the metric used by EPA to rate electric cars before November 2010.[67]
| Comparison of out-of-pocket fuel costs and fuel economy for plug-in hybrid electric cars rated by EPA as of December 2015 with MPGe and conventional MPG(1) (as displayed in the Monroney label and the US DoE fueleconomy.gov website) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | Year model | Operating mode (EV range) | EPA rated Combined fuel economy | EPA rated city fuel economy | EPA rated highway fuel economy | Fuel cost to drive 25 miles | Annual fuel cost(1) (15,000 mi) | Notes |
| BMW i3 REx[68][69] | 2014/15 | Electricity only (72 mi) | 117 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 97 mpg-e (35 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 79 mpg-e (44 kW-hrs/100 mi) | $0.94 | $650 | The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid while CARB as a range-extended battery-electric vehicle (BEVx). The 2014 i3 REx is the most fuel efficient EPA-certified current year vehicle with a gasoline engine with a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 88 mpg-e (city 97 mpg-e/hwy 79 mpg-e).[70][71] |
| Gasoline only (78 mi) | 39 mpg | 41 mpg | 37 mpg | $1.61 | ||||
| Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid[72] | 2014 | Electricity and gasoline (13 mi) | 115mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $1.03 | $650 | The 2014 Accord is the most fuel efficient plug-in hybrid in blended EV mode with a rating of 115 mpg-e. The Accord has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 57 mpg-e.[73] |
| Gasoline only | 46 mpg | 47 mpg | 46 mpg | $1.11 | ||||
| Chevrolet Volt (2nd gen)[74][75] | 2016 | Electricity only (53 mi) | 106 mpg-e (31 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 113 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 99 mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 mi) | $1.01 | $650 | The 2016 Volt has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 77 mpg-e (city 82 mpg-e/hwy 72 mpg-e).[70] Regular gasoline. |
| Gasoline only | 42 mpg | 43 mpg | 42 mpg | $1.21 | ||||
| Hyundai Sonata PHEV[76] | 2016 | Electricity and gasoline (27 mi) | 99mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $1.19 | $700 | During the first 27 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 27 mi.[76] |
| Gasoline only | 40 mpg | - | - | $1.28 | ||||
| Chevrolet Volt (1st gen)[74][77] | 2013/15 | Electricity only (38 mi) | 98 mpg-e (35 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $1.14 | $800 | The 2013/15 Volt has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 62 mpg-e (city 63 mpg-e/hwy 61 mpg-e).[70] Premium gasoline. |
| Gasoline only | 37 mpg | 35 mpg | 40 mpg | $1.70 | ||||
| Toyota Prius PHV[78] | 2012/15 | Electricity and gasoline (11 mi) | 95 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi plus 0.2 gallons/100 mi) | - | - | $1.03 | $600 | After the first 11 miles the car functions like a regular Prius hybrid The 2012/15 Prius has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 58 mpg-e (city 59 mpg-e/hwy 56 mpg-e).[70] |
| Gasoline only | 50 mpg | 51 mpg | 49 mpg | $1.02 | ||||
| Chevrolet Volt[79] | 2011/12 | Electricity only | 94 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 95 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 93 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 mi) | $1.17 | $800 | Premium gasoline. |
| Gasoline only | 37 mpg | 35 mpg | 40 mpg | $1.70 | ||||
| Ford C-Max Energi[80] Ford Fusion Energi[80] | 2013/16 | Electricity and gasoline (20 mi) | 88 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 95 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 mi) | 81 mpg-e (42 kW-hrs/100 mi) | $1.25 | $750 | The Energi did not use any gasoline for the first 20 miles in EPA tests, but depending on the driving style, the car may use both gasoline and electricity during EV mode. The Energi models have a combined EV/hybrid operation rating of 51 mpg-e (city 55 mpg-e/hwy 46 mpg-e).[70] |
| Gasoline only | 38 mpg | 40 mpg | 36 mpg | $1.34 | ||||
| Audi A3 e-tron ultra[81] | 2016 | Electricity only (17 mi) | 86 mpg-e (38 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $1.37 | $900 | During the first 17 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 17 mi.[81] |
| Gasoline only | 39 mpg | - | - | $1.61 | ||||
| Cadillac ELR[82] | 2014/15 | Electricity only (37 mi) | 82 mpg-e (41 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $1.33 | $900 | The 2014/15 ELR has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 54 mpg-e (city 54 mpg-e/hwy 55 mpg-e).[70] |
| Gasoline only | 33 mpg | 31 mpg | 35 mpg | $1.90 | ||||
| Audi A3 e-tron[81] | 2016 | Electricity only (16 mi) | 83 mpg-e (40 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $1.49 | $950 | During the first 16 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 16 mi.[81] |
| Gasoline only | 35 mpg | - | - | $1.79 | ||||
| BMW i8[68][83] | 2014/15 | Electricity and gasoline (15 mi) | 76 mpg-e (43 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $1.77 | $1,150 | The i8 does not run on 100% electricity as it consumes 0.1 gallons per 100 mi in EV mode (all-electric range = 0 mi) The i8 has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 37 mpg-e.[73] |
| Gasoline only | 28 mpg | 28 mpg | 29 mpg | $2.24 | ||||
| Porsche 918 Spyder[68][84] | 2015 | Electricity only (12 mi) | 67 mpg-e (50 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $1.62 | $1,500 | Premium gasoline. |
| Gasoline only | 22 mpg | 20 mpg | 24 mpg | $2.85 | ||||
| BMW X5 xDrive40e[85] | 2016 | Electricity only (14 mi) | 56 mpg-e (59 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $2.23 | $1,450 | During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 14 mi.[85] |
| Gasoline only | 24 mpg | - | - | $2.61 | ||||
| Mercedes-Benz S500e[86] | 2015 | Electricity only (14 mi) | 58 mpg-e (59 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $2.13 | $1,350 | During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 to 12 mi.[86] Premium gasoline. |
| Gasoline only | 26 mpg | - | - | $2.41 | ||||
| Fisker Karma[87] | 2012 | Electricity only (33 mi) | 54 mpg-e (62 kW-hrs/100 mi) | - | - | $2.02 | $1,450 | Premium gasoline. |
| Gasoline only | 20 mpg | 20 mpg | 21 mpg | $3.14 | ||||
| Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid[88] | 2016 | Electricity and gasoline (16 mi) | 51 mpg-e (51 kWh/100 mi) | - | - | $2.15 | $1,350 | The all-electric range is between 0 to 15 mi Premium gasoline. |
| Gasoline only | 25 mpg | 23 mpg | 29 mpg | $2.51 | ||||
| Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid[88] | 2014/15 | Electricity and gasoline (16 mi) | 50 mpg-e (52 kWh/100 mi) | - | - | $2.18 | $1,400 | The all-electric range is between 0 to 15 mi The S E-Hybrid has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 31 mpg-e.[73] |
| Gasoline only | 25 mpg | 23 mpg | 29 mpg | $2.51 | ||||
| Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid[68][89] | 2015/16 | Electricity and gasoline (14 mi) | 47 mpg-e (69 kWh/100 mi) | - | - | $2.24 | $1,550 | Premium gasoline. |
| Gasoline only | 22 mpg | 21 mpg | 24 mpg | $2.85 | ||||
| McLaren P1[68][90] | 2014/15 | Electricity and gasoline (19 mi) | 18 mpg-e (25 kWh/100 mi) | - | - | $3.79 | $2,200 | The P1 does not run on 100% electricity as it consumes 4.8 gallons per 100 mi in EV mode (all-electric range = 0 mi)[90] The P1 has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 17 mpg-e.[73] |
| Gasoline only | 17 mpg | 16 mpg | 20 mpg | $3.69 | ||||
| 2016 Toyota Prius Eco (4th gen)[39] | 2016 | Gasoline-electric hybrid | 56 mpg | 58 mpg | 53 mpg | $0.91 | $550 | Most fuel efficient hybrid electric car.[37] |
| Ford Fusion AWD 2.0L[37][63] (Average new vehicle) | 2016 | Gasoline only | 25 mpg | 22 mpg | 31 mpg | $2.04 | $1,200 | Other 2016 MY cars achieving 25 mpg combined city/hwy include the Honda Accord 3.5L, Toyota Camry 3.5L and Toyota RAV4 2.5L.[37][63] |
| Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. Electricity cost of US$0.13/kw-hr, premium gasoline price of US$2.51 per gallon (used by the 2015 Volt, i3 REx, ELR, i8, Mercedes S500e, Karma and all Porsche models), and regular gasoline price of US$2.04 per gallon (as of 18 December 2015). Conversion 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kW-hr. | ||||||||
The Edison Electric Institute (EEI) conducted an analysis that demonstrated that between January 1976 and February 2012 the real price for gasoline has been much more volatile than the real price of electricity in the United States. The analysis is based on a plug-in electric vehicle with an efficiency of 3.4 miles per kW-hr (like the Mitsubishi i MiEV) and a gasoline-powered vehicle with a fuel economy rated at 30 mpg-US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg-imp) (like the 2012 Fiat 500). The EEI estimated that operating a plug-in would have had an equivalent cost of around US$1.50 a gallon in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and around US$1.00 a gallon since the late 1990s. In contrast, the price to operate an internal combustion engine vehicle has had much ample variations, costing more than US$3.50 per gallon during the 1979 energy crisis, then had a couple of lows with prices at less than US$1.50 during 1999 and 2001, only to climb and reach a maximum of more than US$4.00 before the beginning of the 2007–2009 financial crisis, by early 2012 has fluctuated around US$3.50. The analysis found that the cost of an equivalent electric-gallon of gasoline would have been not only cheaper to operate during the entire analysis period but also that equivalent electricity prices are more stable and have been declining in terms of equivalent dollars per gallon.[91][92]
Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions
Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants.[33] In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. This fact has been referred to as the long tailpipe of plug-in electric vehicles. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.[3][33] On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicles.[33][93] In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy.[3]
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; California, where most energy comes from natural gas, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The U.K. also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as natural gas plants dominate the generation mix. On the other hand, emission benefits in Germany, China, India, and the central regions of the United States are limited or non-existent because most electricity is generated from coal.[33][94] However these countries and regions might still obtain some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas. Cities with chronic air pollution problems, such as Los Angeles, México City, Santiago, Chile, São Paulo, Beijing, Bangkok and Kathmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.[33]
Carbon footprint during production
- Ricardo
A report published in June 2011, prepared by Ricardo in collaboration with experts from the UK's Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership, found that hybrid electric cars, plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles, but still have a lower overall carbon footprint over the full life cycle. The higher carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the production of batteries. As an example, 43 percent of production emissions for a mid-size electric car are generated from the battery production, while for standard mid-sized gasolineinternal combustion engine vehicle, around 75% of the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel used in the vehicle glider.[95] The following table summarizes key results of this study for four powertrain technologies:
| Comparison of full life cycle assessment(well-to-wheels) of carbon emissions and carbon footprint during production for four different powertrain technologies[95] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Type of vehicle (powertrain) | Estimated emissions in production (tonnes CO2e) | Estimated lifecycle emissions (tonnes CO2e) | Percentage of
emissions |
| Standard gasoline vehicle | 5.6 | 24 | 23% |
| Hybrid electric vehicle | 6.5 | 21 | 31% |
| Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle | 6.7 | 19 | 35% |
| Battery electric vehicle | 8.8 | 19 | 46% |
| Notes: Estimates based upon a 2015 model vehicle assuming 150,000 km (93,000 mi) full life travel using 10% ethanol blend and 500g/kWh grid electricity. | |||
The Ricardo study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid-sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical, and that the greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production emissions.[95]
- Volkswagen
In 2014 Volkswagen published the results of life-cycle assessment of its electric vehicles certified by TÜV NORD, and independent inspection agency. The study found that CO
2 emissions during the use phase of its all-electric VW e-Golf are 99% lower than those of the Golf 1.2 TSI when powers comes from exclusively hydroelectricity generated in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Accounting for the full lifecycle, the e-Golf reduces emissions by 61%, offsetting higher production emissions. When the actual EU-27 electricity mix is considered, the e-Golf emissions are still 26% lower than those of the conventional Golf 1.2 TSI. Similar results were found when comparing the e-Golf with the Golf 1.6 TDI. The analysis considered recycling of the three vehicles at the end of their lifetime.[96]
Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in the U.S.
- Environmental Protection Agency
The following table compares tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for all series production model year 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market. Total emissions include the emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity used to charge the vehicle, and for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, it also includes emissions associated with tailpipe emissions produced from the internal combustion engine. These figures were published by the EPA in October 2014 in its annual report "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2014." All emissions are estimated considering average real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city and 45% highway driving. For the first time, the 2014 Trends report presents an analysis of the impact of alternative fuel vehicles, with emphasis in plug-in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1%, the EPA concluded that PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and CO2 emissions.[97][98]
For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions, the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between plug-in hybrids. Some, like the Chevrolet Volt, can operate in all-electric mode without using gasoline, and others operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV, which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle, but that can deliver substantial all-electric driving in blended mode. In addition, since the all-electric range of plug-in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection of the share of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver, for both, electric only and blended EV modes. Since all-electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions, the utility factor applies only to plug-in hybrids. The following table shows the overall fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market, and EPA's best estimate of the CO2 tailpipe emissions produced by these PHEVs.[97]
In order to account for the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity, and since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end scenario corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rocky Mountains. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO2/kWh in California to 986 g CO2/kWh in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g CO2/kWh.[97]
| Comparison of tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market[97] | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | Overall fuel economy (mpg-e) | Utility factor(2) (share EV miles) | Tailpipe CO2 (g/mi) | Tailpipe + Total Upstream CO2 | ||
| Low (g/mi) | Avg (g/mi) | High (g/mi) | ||||
| BMW i3 | 124 | 1 | 0 | 93 | 175 | 266 |
| Chevrolet Spark EV | 119 | 1 | 0 | 97 | 181 | 276 |
| Honda Fit EV | 118 | 1 | 0 | 99 | 185 | 281 |
| Fiat 500e | 116 | 1 | 0 | 101 | 189 | 288 |
| Nissan Leaf | 114 | 1 | 0 | 104 | 194 | 296 |
| Mitsubishi i | 112 | 1 | 0 | 104 | 195 | 296 |
| Smart electric drive | 107 | 1 | 0 | 109 | 204 | 311 |
| Ford Focus Electric | 105 | 1 | 0 | 111 | 208 | 316 |
| Tesla Model S (60 kWh) | 95 | 1 | 0 | 122 | 229 | 348 |
| Tesla Model S (85 kWh) | 89 | 1 | 0 | 131 | 246 | 374 |
| BMW i3 REx(3) | 88 | 0.83 | 40 | 134 | 207 | 288 |
| Mercedes-Benz B-Class ED | 84 | 1 | 0 | 138 | 259 | 394 |
| Toyota RAV4 EV | 76 | 1 | 0 | 153 | 287 | 436 |
| BYD e6 | 63 | 1 | 0 | 187 | 350 | 532 |
| Chevrolet Volt | 62 | 0.66 | 81 | 180 | 249 | 326 |
| Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid | 58 | 0.29 | 133 | 195 | 221 | 249 |
| Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid | 57 | 0.33 | 130 | 196 | 225 | 257 |
| Cadillac ELR | 54 | 0.65 | 91 | 206 | 286 | 377 |
| Ford C-Max Energi | 51 | 0.45 | 129 | 219 | 269 | 326 |
| Ford Fusion Energi | 51 | 0.45 | 129 | 219 | 269 | 326 |
| BMW i8 | 37 | 0.37 | 198 | 303 | 351 | 404 |
| Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid | 31 | 0.39 | 206 | 328 | 389 | 457 |
| McLaren P1 | 17 | 0.43 | 463 | 617 | 650 | 687 |
| Average MY 2014 gasoline car | 24.2 | 0 | 367 | 400 | 400 | 400 |
| Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid[97][37] | ||||||
- Union of Concerned Scientists
The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) published a study in 2012 that assessed average greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. resulting from charging plug-in car batteries from the perspective of the full life-cycle (well-to-wheel analysis) and according to fuel and technology used to generate electric power by region. The study used the model year 2011 Nissan Leaf all-electric car to establish the analysis baseline, and electric-utility emissions are based on EPA's 2009 estimates. The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of greenhouse gases or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per year in order to make the results more friendly for consumers. The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas, nuclear, hydroelectric or renewable sources, the potential of plug-in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant. On the other hand, in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal, hybrid electric cars produce less CO2 equivalent emissions than plug-in electric cars, and the best fuel efficient gasoline-powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a PEV. In the worst-case scenario, the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal, a plug-in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city/highway driving fuel economy of 30 mpg-US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg-imp). In contrast, in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas, the PEV would be equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 50 mpg-US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp).[99][100]
The study concluded that for 45% of the U.S. population, a plug-in electric car will generate lower CO2 equivalent emissions than a gasoline-powered car capable of combined 50 mpg-US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp), such as the Toyota Prius and the Prius c. The UCS also found that for 37% of the population, the electric car emissions will fall in the range of a gasoline-powered car rated at a combined fuel economy of 41 to 50 mpg-US (5.7 to 4.7 L/100 km; 49 to 60 mpg-imp), such as the Honda Civic Hybrid and the Lexus CT200h. Only 18% of the population lives in areas where the power-supply is more dependent on burning carbon, and the greenhouse gas emissions will be equivalent to a car rated at a combined fuel economy of 31 to 40 mpg-US (7.6 to 5.9 L/100 km; 37 to 48 mpg-imp), such as the Chevrolet Cruze and Ford Focus.[100][101][102] The study found that there are no regions in the U.S. where plug-in electric cars will have higher greenhouse gas emissions than the average new compact gasoline engine automobile, and the area with the dirtiest power supply produces CO2 emissions equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 33 mpg-US (7.1 L/100 km).[99]
In September 2014 the UCS published an updated analysis of its 2012 report. The 2014 analysis found that 60% of Americans, up from 45% in 2009, live in regions where an all-electric car produce fewer CO2 equivalent emissions per mile than the most efficient hybrid. The UCS study found several reasons for the improvement. First, electric utilities have adopted cleaner sources of electricity to their mix between the two analysis. The 2014 study used electric-utility emissions based on EPA's 2010 estimates, but since coal use nationwide is down by about 5% from 2010 to 2014, actual efficiency in 2014 is better than estimated in the UCS study. Second, electric vehicles have become more efficient, as the average 2013 all-electric vehicle used 0.33 kWh per mile, representing a 5% improvement over 2011 models. Also, some new models are cleaner than the average, such as the BMW i3, which is rated at 0.27 kWh by the EPA. An i3 charged with power from the Midwest grid would be as clean as a gasoline-powered car with about 50 mpg-US (4.7 L/100 km), up from 39 mpg-US (6.0 L/100 km) for the average electric car in the 2012 study. In states with a cleaner mix generation, the gains were larger. The average all-electric car in California went up to 95 mpg-US (2.5 L/100 km) equivalent from 78 mpg-US (3.0 L/100 km) in the 2012 study. States with dirtier generation that rely heavily on coal still lag, such as Colorado, where the average BEV only achieves the same emissions as a 34 mpg-US (6.9 L/100 km; 41 mpg-imp) gasoline-powered car. The author of the 2014 analysis noted that the benefits are not distributed evenly across the U.S. because electric car adoptions is concentrated in the states with cleaner power.[103][104]
In November 2015 the Union of Concerned Scientists published a new report comparing two battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with similar gasoline vehicles by examining their global warming emissions over their full life-cycle, cradle-to-grave analysis. The two BEVs modeled, midsize and full-size, are based on the two most popular BEV models sold in the United States in 2015, the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. The study found that all-electric cars representative of those sold today, on average produce less than half the global warming emissions of comparable gasoline-powered vehicles, despite taken into account the higher emissions associated with BEV manufacturing. Considering the regions where the two most popular electric cars are being sold, excess manufacturing emissions are offset within 6 to 16 months of average driving. The study also concluded that driving an average EV results in lower global warming emissions than driving a gasoline car that gets 50 mpg-US (4.7 L/100 km) in regions covering two-thirds of the U.S. population, up from 45% in 2009. Based on where EVs are being sold in the United States in 2015, the average EV produces global warming emissions equal to a gasoline vehicle with a 68 mpg-US (3.5 L/100 km) fuel economy rating. The authors identified two main reason for the fact that EV-related emissions have become even lower in many parts of the country since the first study was conducted in 2012. Electricity generation has been getting cleaner, as coal-fired generation has declined while lower-carbon alternatives have increased. In addition, electric cars are becoming more efficient. For example, the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt, have undergone improvements to increase their efficiencies compared to the original models launched in 2010, and other even more efficient BEV models, such as the most lightweight and efficient BMW i3, have entered the market.[105][106]
- National Bureau of Economic Research
One criticism to the UCS study is that the analysis was made using average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day.[107][108] An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), published in November 2014, developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States. The marginal analysis, applied to plug-in electric vehicles, found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, CO2 emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car. However, in other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand.[108]
Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in several countries
A study published in the UK in April 2013 assessed the carbon footprint of plug-in electric vehicles in 20 countries. As a baseline the analysis established that manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/km for an electric car and 40 g CO2/km for a petrol car. The study found that in countries with coal-intensive generation, PEVs are no different from conventional petrol-powered vehicles. Among these countries are China, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa and India. A pure electric car in India generates emissions comparable to a 20 mpg-US (12 L/100 km; 24 mpg-imp) petrol car.[109][110]
The country ranking was led by Paraguay, where all electricity is produced from hydropower, and Iceland, where electricity production relies on renewable power, mainly hydro and geothermal power. Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO2/km, which is equivalent to a 220 mpg-US (1.1 L/100 km; 260 mpg-imp) petrol car, and correspond to manufacturing emissions. Next in the ranking are other countries with low carbon electricity generation, including Sweden (mostly hydro and nuclear power ), Brazil (mainly hydropower) and France (predominantly nuclear power). Countries ranking in the middle include Japan, Germany, the UK and the United States.[109][110][111]
The following table shows the emissions intensity estimated in the study for those countries where electric vehicle are available, and the corresponding emissions equivalent in miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car:
| Country comparison of full life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric cars and emissions equivalent in terms of miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car[109][111] | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country | PEV well-to-wheels carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per electric car expressed in (CO2e/km) | Power source | PEV well-to-wheels emissions equivalent in terms of mpg US of petrol-powered car | Equivalent petrol car |
 Sweden | 81 | Low carbon | 159 mpg-US (1.48 L/100 km) | Hybrid multiples |
 France | 93 | 123 mpg-US (1.91 L/100 km) | ||
 Canada | 115 | Fossil light | 87 mpg-US (2.7 L/100 km) | Beyond hybrid |
 Spain | 146 | 61 mpg-US (3.9 L/100 km) | ||
 Japan | 175 | Broad mix | 48 mpg-US (4.9 L/100 km) | New hybrid |
 Germany | 179 | 47 mpg-US (5.0 L/100 km) | ||
 United Kingdom | 189 | 44 mpg-US (5.3 L/100 km) | ||
 United States | 202 | Fossil heavy | 40 mpg-US (5.9 L/100 km) | Efficient petrol |
 Mexico | 203 | 40 mpg-US (5.9 L/100 km) | ||
 China | 258 | Coal-based | 30 mpg-US (7.8 L/100 km) | Average petrol |
 Australia | 292 | 26 mpg-US (9.0 L/100 km) | ||
 India | 370 | 20 mpg-US (12 L/100 km) | ||
| Note: Electric car manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/km Source: Shades of Green: Electric Cars’ Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink That Footprint, February 2013.[111] | ||||
Less dependence on imported oil
For many net oil importing countries the 2000s energy crisis brought back concerns first raised during the 1973 oil crisis. For the United States, the other developed countries and emerging countries their dependence on foreign oil has revived concerns about their vulnerability to price shocks and supply disruption. Also, there have been concerns about the uncertainty surrounding peak oil production and the higher cost of extracting unconventional oil. A third issue that has been raised is the threat to national security because most proven oil reserves are concentrated in relatively few geographic locations, including some countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostile to U.S. interests.[33][112][113] In addition, for many developing countries, and particularly for the poorest African countries, high oil prices have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments, all leading to lower economic growth.[114][115]
Through the gradual replacement of internal combustion engine vehicles for electric cars and plug-in hybrids, electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the transport sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more resilient energy supply.[33][112][113][116]
Vehicle-to-grid
Plug-in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the power grid, thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks.[117] A vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid. In the U.S this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car.[118] In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.[117][119][120]
Disadvantages
Cost of batteries and cost of ownership
As of 2013, plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery pack. According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council, the cost of a lithium-ion battery pack is about US$1,700/kWh of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV-10 requires about 2.0 kWh and a PHEV-40 about 8 kWh, the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV-10 is around US$3,000 and it goes up to US$14,000 for a PHEV-40.[121][122] As of June 2012, and based on the three battery size options offered for the Tesla Model S, the New York Times estimated the cost of automotive battery packs between US$400 to US$500 per kilowatt-hour.[123] A 2013 study by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy reported that battery costs came down from US$1,300 per kWh in 2007 to US$500 per kWh in 2012. The U.S. Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research of US$300 per kWh in 2015 and US$125 per kWh by 2022. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[124]
A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center, Harvard University, found that the gasoline costs savings of plug-in electric cars do not offset their higher purchase prices when comparing their lifetime net present value of purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market at 2010 prices, and assuming no government subidies. According to the study estimates, a PHEV-40 is US$5,377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while a battery electric vehicles is US$4,819 more expensive.[125] These findings assumed a battery cost of US$600 per kWh, which means that the Chevrolet Volt battery pack cost around US$10,000 and the Nissan Leaf pack costs US$14,400. The study also assumed a gasoline price of US$3.75 per gallon (as of mid June 2011), that vehicles are driven 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per year, an average price of electricity of US$0.12 per kWh, that the plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time, and that the owner of PEVs pay US$1,500 to install a Level II 220/240 volt charger at home.[126]
The study also include hybrid electric vehicles in the comparison, and analyzed several scenarios to determine how the comparative net savings will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase, and also assuming higher fuel efficiency of conventional cars, among other scenarios. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars (US$1,155 to US$7,181 cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. The reason for the different savings among PEVs is because BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines. The following table summarizes the results of four of the seven scenarios analyzed by the study.[126]
| Comparison of net lifetime savings among conventional gasoline-powered cars, hybrids and plug-in electric cars for several scenarios (U.S. market at 2010 prices)[126] | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Description | Conventional ICE | Hybrid electric (HEV) | Plug-in hybrid (PHEV) | Battery electric (BEV) |
| Scenario: 2010 costs (battery US$600 per kWh, gasoline US$3.75 per gallon, and electricity US$0.12 per kWh) | ||||
| Purchase price | US$21,390 | US$22,930 | US$30,235 | US$33,565 |
| Total net present cost | US$32,861 | US$33,059 | US$38,239 | US$37,680 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | US$197 | US$5,377 | US$4,819 |
| Scenario: Future Costs - Lower battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices (battery US$300 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh) | ||||
| Total net present cost | US$34,152 | US$32,680 | US$34,601 | US$30,674 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | (US$1,472) | US$449 | (US$3,478) |
| Scenario: Future Costs - Low battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices (battery US$150 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh) | ||||
| Total net present cost | US$34,152 | US$32,080 | US$32,549 | US$26,971 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | (US$2,072) | (US$1,603) | (US$7,181) |
| Scenario: Higher fuel efficiency ICEs:50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp) HEVs and PHEVs: 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) (battery US$300 per kWh, gasoline US$4.50 per gallon, and electricity US$0.15 per kWh) | ||||
| Total net present cost | US$32,829 | US$31,366 | US$34,403 | US$30,674 |
| Cost differential with conventional car | - | (US$463) | US$2,574 | (US$1,155) |
| Note: Assumes vehicles are driven 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per year and plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time. Does not take into account other differences in cost of ownership. | ||||
According to a study by the Electric Power Research Institute published in June 2013, the total cost of ownership of the 2013 Nissan Leaf SV is substantially lower than that of comparable conventional and hybrid vehicles. For comparison, the study constructed average hybrid and conventional vehicles and assumed an average US distance per trip distribution. The study took into account the manufacturer's suggested retail price, taxes, credits, destination charge, electric charging station, fuel cost, maintenance cost, and additional cost due to the use of a gasoline vehicle for trips beyond the range of the Leaf.[127]
| Electric Power Research Institute comparison of the Leaf versus average conventional and hybrid cars. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | Operating mode (powertrain) | Total ownership cost | |||||||
| US Average | California | ||||||||
| Nissan Leaf SV | All-electric | $37,288 | $35,596 | ||||||
| Chevrolet Volt | Plug-in hybrid | $44,176 | $40,800 | ||||||
| Average Conventional | Gasoline | $44,949 | $46,561 | ||||||
| Average Hybrid | Gasoline-electric hybrid | $44,325 | $45,416 | ||||||
| Notes: Costs are based on a gasoline price of $3.64 per gallon, an electricity rate of $0.12/kWh, and a vehicle lifetime of 150,000 miles. The average conventional car was constructed by averaging of Honda Civic EX, Chevrolet Cruze LTZ, Ford Focus Titanium, and Volkswagen Passat. The average hybrid car was constructed from Ford Fusion Hybrid, Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid XLE, and Toyota Prius trim IV. | |||||||||
Availability of recharging infrastructure
Despite the widespread assumption that plug-in recharging will take place overnight at home, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might be less likely to buy plug-in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed.[128][129] Electrical outlets or charging stations near their places of residence, in commercial or public parking lots, streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination, commonly called range anxiety.[129][130] Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers.[131] However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.[130]
Several cities in California and Oregon, and particularly San Francisco and other cities in the San Francisco Bay Area and Silicon Valley, already have deployed public charging stations and have expansion plans to attend both plug-ins and all-electric cars.[130] Some local private firms such as Google and Adobe Systems have also deployed charging infrastructure. In Google's case, its Mountain View campus has 100 available charging stations for its share-use fleet of converted plug-ins available to its employees.[130][132] Solar panels are used to generate the electricity, and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily basis and performance results are published on the RechargeIT website.[132] As of December 2013, Estonia is the first and only country that had deployed an EV charging network with nationwide coverage, with 165 fast chargers available along highways at a minimum distance of between 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi), and a higher density in urban areas.[133][134][135]
Battery swapping
A different approach to resolve the problems of range anxiety and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by Better Place. Its business model considers that electric cars are built and sold separately from the battery pack. As customers are not allowed to purchase battery packs, they must lease them from Better Place which will deploy a network of battery swapping stations thus expanding EVs range and allowing long distance trips. Subscribed users pay a per-distance fee to cover battery pack leasing, charging and swap infrastructure, the cost of sustainable electricity, and other costs.[136][137] Better Place signed agreement for deployment in Australia, Denmark, Israel, Canada, California, and Hawaii.[138] The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the electric car built with switchable battery technology sold for the Better Place network.[139] The robotic battery-switching operation was completed in about five minutes.[140]
After implementing the first modern commercial deployment of the battery swapping model in Israel and Denmark, Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about US$850 million in private capital, and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Less than 1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in Israel and around 400 units in Denmark.[141][142]
Tesla Motors designed its Model S to allow fast battery swapping.[143] In June 2013, Tesla announced their goal to deploy a battery swapping station in each of its supercharging stations. At a demonstration event Tesla showed that a battery swap operation with the Model S takes just over 90 seconds, about half the time it takes to refill a gasoline-powered car used for comparison purposes during the event.[144][145] The first stations are planned to be deployed along Interstate 5 in California where, according to Tesla, a large number of Model S sedans make the San Francisco-Los Angeles trip regularly. These will be followed by the Washington, DC to Boston corridor.[144]
Other charging solutions
The REVA NXR exhibited in the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and the Nissan Leaf SV trim both have roof-mounted solar panels. These solar panels are designed to trickle charge the batteries when the car is moving or parked.[146][147][148] Another proposed technology is REVive, by REVA. When the REVA NXR's batteries are running low or are fully depleted, the driver is able to send an SMS to REVive and unlock a hidden reserve in the battery pack. REVA has not provided details on how the system will work.[149][150] The Fisker Karma uses solar panel in the roof to recharge the 12-volt lead-acid accessory battery.[151] The Nissan Leaf SL trim also has a small solar panel at the rear of the roof/spoiler that can trickle charge the auxiliary 12-volt lead-acid battery.[152]
Potential overload of the electrical grid
The existing electrical grid, and local transformers in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in owners to recharge mostly overnight, when rates are lower.[130][153]
General Motors is sponsoring the Pecan Street demonstration project in Austin, Texas. The project objective is to learn the charging patterns of plug-in electric car owners, and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same, which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug-in cars return home in the evening. The Mueller neighborhood is the test ground, and as of June 2013, the community has nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone. This cluster of Volts was achieved thanks to GM's commitment to match the federal government's $7,500 rebate incentive, which effectively halves the purchase price of the plug-hybrid electric cars.[154]
Risks associated with noise reduction
Electric cars and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by an internal combustion engine, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects. However, blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence plug-in electric cars and conventional hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds.[155][156]
Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (30 km/h) for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired.[157][158][159] At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise.[156] However, a 2011 study, commissioned by the UK Department for Transport (DfT) and conducted by the Transport Research Laboratory, found little correlation between pedestrian vehicle involvement density and noise level for the majority of vehicles. In addition, the analysis found no evidence of a pattern in pedestrian vehicle involvement densities when only considering those accidents occurring on 30 mph (48 km/h) or slower roads, or where the pedestrian was disabled. A previous study did not found an increased pedestrian vehicle involvement density for electric and hybrid vehicles with respect to their conventional counterparts which raised the question as to whether added sound is necessarily required.[160]
Some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety issue, and as a result, the new Nissan Leaf electric car and Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, both launched in December 2010, as well as the Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid launched in 2011 launched in 2012, include electric warning sounds to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to their presence.[161][162][163][164][165] As of January 2014, most of the hybrids and plug-in electric and hybrids available in the United States, Japan and Europe make warning noises using a speaker system. The Tesla Model S is one of the few electric cars without warning sounds, because Tesla Motors will await until regulations are enacted.[166] Volkswagen and BMW also decided to add artificial sounds to their electric drive cars only when required by regulation.[167]
The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism issued guidelines for hybrid and other near-silent vehicles in January 2010.[168] In the United States the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives in December 2010.[169][170][171] The act does not stipulate a specific speed for the simulated noise but requires the U.S. Department of Transportation to study and establish a motor vehicle safety standard that would set requirements for an alert sound.[169][172] A proposed rule was published for comment by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in January, 2013. It would require hybrids and electric vehicles traveling at less than 18.6 miles per hour (30 km/h) to emit warning sounds that pedestrians must be able to hear over background noises. According to the NHTSA proposal carmakers would be able to pick the sounds the vehicles make from a range of choices, and similar vehicles would have to make the same sounds. The rules were scheduled to go into effect in September 2014.[173][174] However, in January 2015 the NHTSA rescheduled the date for a final ruling to the end of 2015. Since the regulation comes into force three years after being rendered as a final rule, compliance was delayed to 2018.[175]
On 6 February 2013, the European Parliament approved a draft law to tighten noise limits for cars to protect public health, and also to add alerting sounds to ensure the audibility of hybrid and electric vehicles to improve the safety of vulnerable road users in urban areas, such as blind, visually and auditorily challenged pedestrians, cyclists and children. The draft legislation states a number of tests, standards and measures that must first be developed for an Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems (AVAS) to be compulsory in the future.[176][177] The approved amendment establishes that the sound to be generated by the AVAS should be a continuous sound and should be easily indicative of vehicle behavior and should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine."[177] In April 2014 the European Parliament approved legislation that requires the mandatory use of the AVAS for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles and car manufacturers have to comply within 5 years.[178][179]
Risks of battery fire
Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion.[180] To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range.[181][182] When handled improperly, or if manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating. Especially prone to thermal runaway are lithium-ion batteries. Reports of exploding cellphones have been reported in newspapers. In 2006, batteries from Apple, HP, Toshiba, Lenovo, Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions.[183][184][185][186] Also, during the Boeing 787 Dreamliner's first year of service, at least four aircraft suffered from electrical system problems stemming from its lithium-ion batteries, resulting in the whole Dreamliner fleet being voluntarily grounded in January 2013.[187][188]
Several plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have taken place since the introduction of mass-production plug-in electric vehicles in 2008. Most of them have been thermal runaway incidents related to the lithium-ion batteries and have involved the Zotye M300 EV, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, BYD e6, Dodge Ram 1500 Plug-in Hybrid, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Mitsubishi i-MiEV and Outlander P-HEV. As of November 2013, four fires after a crash have been reported associated with the batteries of all-electric cars involving a BYD e6 and three Tesla Model S cars.
The first modern crash-related fire was reported in China in May 2012, after a high-speed car crashed into a BYD e6 taxi in Shenzhen.[189] The second reported incident occurred in the United States in October 1, 2013, when a Tesla Model S caught fire after the electric car hit metal debris on a highway in Kent, Washington state, and the debris punctured one of 16 modules within the battery pack.[190][191] A second reported fire occurred on October 18, 2013 in Merida, Mexico. In this case the vehicle was being driven at high speed through a roundabout and crashed through a wall and into a tree. On November 6, 2013, a Tesla Model S being driven on Interstate 24 near Murfreesboro, Tennessee caught fire after it struck a tow hitch on the roadway, causing damage beneath the vehicle.[192]
The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is conducting a study due in 2014 to establish whether lithium-ion batteries in plug-electric vehicles pose a potential fire hazard. The research is looking at whether the high-voltage batteries can cause fires when they are being charged and when the vehicles are involved in an accident.[193] Both General Motors and Nissan have published a guide for firefighters and first responders to properly handle a crashed plug-in electric-drive vehicle and safely disable its battery and other high voltage systems.[194][195]
Rare earth metals availability and supply security
Common technology for plug-ins and electric cars is based on the lithium-ion battery and an electric motor which uses rare earth elements. The demand for lithium, heavy metals, and other specific elements (such as neodymium, boron and cobalt) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term.[196][197] The Toyota Prius battery contains more than 20 pounds (9.1 kg) of the rare earth element lanthanum,[198] and its motor magnets use neodymium and dysprosium.[199]
Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.[196][197][200][201]
- Lithium
The main deposits of lithium are found in China and throughout the Andes mountain chain in South America. In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China, Argentina, and Australia.[197][203] In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[204][205]
Nearly half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia,[197][200] and according to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium.[200][204] Other important reserves are located in Chile, China, and Brazil.[197][204] Since 2006 the Bolivian government have nationalized oil and gas projects and is keeping a tight control over mining its lithium reserves. Already the Japanese and South Korean governments, as well as companies from these two countries and France, have offered technical assistance to develop Bolivia's lithium reserves and are seeking to gain access to the lithium resources through a mining and industrialization model suitable to Bolivian interests.[200][206][207]
According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California Berkeley, the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles, as the study estimated that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries could be built with current reserves, as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey.[208] Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found that there are sufficient lithium resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required for the potential widespread use of hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles. The study estimated global lithium reserves at 39 million tons, and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed at 12-20 million tons, depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.[209]
- Rare earth elements
China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare earth elements, the United States has 13%, and Russia, Australia, and Canada have significant deposits. Until the 1980s, the U.S. led the world in rare earth production, but since the mid-1990s China has controlled the world market for these elements. The mines in Bayan Obo near Baotou, Inner Mongolia, are currently the largest source of rare earth metals and are 80% of China's production. In 2010 China accounted for 97% of the global production of 17 rare earth elements.[198] Since 2006 the Chinese government has been imposing export quotas reducing supply at a rate of 5% to 10% a year.[201][210][211]
Prices of several rare earth elements increased sharply by mid-2010 as China imposed a 40% export reduction, citing environmental concerns as the reason for the export restrictions. These quotas have been interpreted as an attempt to control the supply of rare earths. However, the high prices have provided an incentive to begin or reactivate several rare earth mining projects around the world, including the United States, Australia, Vietnam, and Kazakhstan.[210][211][212][213]
In September 2010, China temporarily blocked all exports of rare earths to Japan in the midst of a diplomatic dispute between the two countries. These minerals are used in hybrid cars and other products such wind turbines and guided missiles, thereby augmenting the worries about the dependence on Chinese rare earth elements and the need for geographic diversity of supply.[211][214] A December 2010 report published by the US DoE found that the American economy vulnerable to rare earth shortages and estimates that it could take 15 years to overcome dependence on Chinese supplies.[215][216] China raised export taxes for some rare earths from 15 to 25%, and also extended taxes to exports of some rare earth alloys that were not taxed before. The Chinese government also announced further reductions on its export quotas for the first months of 2011, which represent a 35% reduction in tonnage as compared to exports during the first half of 2010.[217]
On September 29, 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Rare Earths and Critical Materials Revitalization Act of 2010 (H.R.6160).[218][219] The approved legislation is aimed at restoring the U.S. as a leading producer of rare earth elements, and would support activities in the U.S. Department of Energy (US DoE) to discover and develop rare earth sites inside of the U.S. in an effort to reduce the auto industry's near-complete dependence on China for the minerals.[219][220] A similar bill, the Rare Earths Supply Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010 (S. 3521), is being discussed in the U.S. Senate.[219][221]
In order to avoid its dependence on rare earth minerals, Toyota Motor Corporation announced in January 2011 that it is developing an alternative motor for future hybrid and electric cars that does not need rare earth materials. Toyota engineers in Japan and the U.S. are developing an induction motor that is lighter and more efficient than the magnet-type motor used in the Prius, which uses two rare earths in its motor magnets. Other popular hybrids and plug-in electric cars in the market that use these rare earth elements are the Nissan Leaf, the Chevrolet Volt and Honda Insight. For its second generation RAV4 EV due in 2012, Toyota is using an induction motor supplied by Tesla Motors that does not require rare earth materials. The Tesla Roadster and the Tesla Model S use a similar motor.[199]
Car dealers reluctance to sell
With the exception of Tesla Motors, almost all new cars in the United States are sold through dealerships, so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles, and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug-in electric vehicles.[222][223] Dealers decide which cars they want to stock, and a salesperson can have a big impact on how someone feels about a prospective purchase. Sales people have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars while they do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of overall sales.[222] As with any new technology, and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles, retailers are central to ensuring that buyers, especially those switching to a new technology, have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology.[223]
There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug-in electric vehicles. PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as gasoline-powered car. Plug-in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required, which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in loss of service revenue, and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits, their service departments. According to the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales. However, a NADS spokesman said there was not sufficient data to prove that electric cars would require less maintenance.[222] According to the New York Times, BMW and Nissan are among the companies whose dealers tend to be more enthusiastic and informed, but only about 10% of dealers are knowledgeable on the new technology.[222]
A study conducted at the Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS), at the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) published in 2014 found that many car dealers are less than enthusiastic about plug-in vehicles. ITS conducted 43 interviews with six automakers and 20 new car dealers selling plug-in vehicles in California’s major metro markets. The study also analyzed national and state-level J.D. Power 2013 Sales Satisfaction Index (SSI) study data on customer satisfaction with new car dealerships and Tesla retail stores. The researchers found that buyers of plug-in electric vehicles were significantly less satisfied and rated the dealer purchase experience much lower than buyers of non-premium conventional cars, while Tesla Motors earned industry-high scores. According to the findings, plug-in buyers expect more from dealers than conventional buyers, including product knowledge and support that extends beyond traditional offerings.[223][224]
In 2014 Consumer Reports published results from a survey conducted with 19 secret shoppers that went to 85 dealerships in four states, making anonymous visits between December 2013 and March 2014. The secret shoppers asked a number of specific questions about cars to test the salespeople’s knowledge about electric cars. The consumer magazine decided to conduct the survey after several consumers who wanted to buy a plug-in car reported to the organization that some dealerships were steering them toward gasoline-powered models. The survey found that not all sales people seemed enthusiastic about making PEV sales; a few outright discouraged it, and even one dealer was reluctant to even show a plug-in model despite having one in stock. And many sales people seemed not to have a good understanding of electric-car tax breaks and other incentives or of charging needs and costs. Consumer Reports also found that when it came to answering basic questions, sales people at Chevrolet, Ford, and Nissan dealerships tended to be better informed than those at Honda and Toyota. The survey found that most of the Toyota dealerships visited recommended against buying a Prius Plug-in and suggested buying a standard Prius hybrid instead. Overall, the secret shoppers reported that only 13 dealers “discouraged sale of EV,” with seven of them being in New York. However, at 35 of the 85 dealerships visited, the secret shoppers said sales people recommended buying a gasoline-powered car instead.[225]
The ITS-Davis study also found that a small but influential minority of dealers have introduced new approaches to better meet the needs of plug-in customers. Examples include marketing carpool lane stickers, enrolling buyers in charging networks, and preparing incentive paperwork for customers. Some dealers assign seasoned sales people as plug-in experts, many of whom drive plug-ins themselves to learn and be familiar with the technology and relate the car’s benefits to potential buyers. The study concluded also that carmakers could do much more to support dealers selling PEVs.[223]
Government incentives
Several national and local governments around the world have established tax credits, grants and other financial and non-financial incentives for consumers to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle as a policy to promote the introduction and mass market adoption of this type of vehicles.
Asia
- Japan
In May 2009 the Japanese Diet passed the "Green Vehicle Purchasing Promotion Measure" that went into effect on June 19, 2009, but retroactive to April 10, 2009.[226] The program established tax deductions and exemptions for environmentally friendly and fuel efficient vehicles, according to a set of stipulated environmental performance criteria, and the requirements are applied equally to both foreign and domestically produced vehicles. The program provides purchasing subsidies for two type of cases, consumers purchasing a new passenger car without trade-in (non-replacement program), and for those consumers buying a new car trading an used car registered 13 years ago or earlier (scrappage program).[226][227]
- China
On June 1, 2010, The Chinese government announced a trial program to provide incentives up to 60,000 yuan (~US$8,785) for private purchase of new battery electric vehicles and 50,000 yuan (~US$7,320) for plug-in hybrids in five cities.[228][229]
Europe
As of April 2010, 17 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of PEVs and hybrid vehicles.[20][230] In the UK the Plug-in Car Grant scheme provides a 25% incentive towards the cost of new plug-in electric cars that qualify as ultra-low carbon vehicles, but the benefit is capped at £5,000 (US$7,800).[231] Both private and business fleet buyers are eligible for the government grant.[232]
North America
- United States
In the United States the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) granted tax credits for new qualified plug-in electric vehicles.[18] The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug-ins, though the credit is lower than for new PEVs.[19]
The federal tax credit for new plug-in electric vehicles is worth $2,500 plus $417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 5 kWh, and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed $5,000. Therefore, the total amount of the credit allowed for a new PEV is $7,500.[18] Several states have established incentives and tax exemptions for BEVs and PHEV, and other non-monetary incentives.
President Barack Obama set the goal of bringing 1 million plug-in electric vehicles on the road by 2015.[233][234] However, considering the actual slow rate of PEV sales, as of mid-2012 several industry observers have concluded that this goal is unattainable.[235][236][237] In September 2014 Governor of California Jerry Brown signed a bill, the Charge Ahead California Initiative, that sets a goal of placing at least 1 million zero-emission vehicles and near-zero-emission vehicles on the road in California by January 1, 2023.[238]
- Canada
Ontario established a rebate between CA$5,000 to CA$8,500 (~US$4,900 to US$8,320), depending on battery size, for purchasing or leasing a new plug-in electric vehicle after July 1, 2010. The rebates are available to the first 10,000 applicants who qualify.[239]
Quebec offers rebates of up to CA$8,500 (US$8,485) from January 1, 2012, for the purchase of new plug-in electric vehicles equipped with a minimum of 4 kWh battery, and new hybrid electric vehicles are eligible for a CA$1,000 rebate. All-electric vehicles with high-capacity battery packs are eligible for the full C$8,000 rebate, and incentives are reduced for low-range electric cars and plug-in hybrids.[240][241]
Production plug-in electric vehicles available
During the 1990s several highway-capable plug-in electric cars were produced in limited quantities, all were battery electric vehicles, and they were available through leasing mainly in California. Popular models included the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV. Some of the latter were sold to the public and are in use still today.[242] In the late 2000s began a new wave of mass production plug-in electric cars, motorcycles and light trucks. However, as of 2011, most electric vehicles in the world roads were low-speed, low-range neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) or electric quadricycles. Pike Research estimated there were almost 479,000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011.[243] Just in China, a total of 200,000 low-speed small electric cars were sold in 2013, most of which are powered by lead-acid batteries.[244] As of October 2015, the GEM neighborhood electric vehicle is the market leader in North America, with global sales of more than 50,000 units since 1998.[245]
As of August 2015, there were almost 70 models of highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars and light-utility vans available mainly in world, with 45 different plug-in electric passenger car models offered in Europe, 20 available in North America, 19 in China, 14 in Japan, and 7 in Australia.[246] There are also available several commercial models of plug-in motorcycles and all-electric buses and trucks.
As of December 2015, the Renault-Nissan Alliance is the leading electric vehicle manufacturer with global sales of 302,000 all-electric vehicles delivered since December 2010, representing about half of the global light-duty all-electric market segment.[2] Mitsubishi Motors ranks second, with global sales of about 135,000 plug-in electric vehicles since 2009 through December 2015, consisting of all-electric cars of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV family, all-electric Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV utility vans and trucks, and the plug-in hybrid Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV.[247] Ranking third is General Motors with combined global sales since December 2010 of almost 113,000 vehicles through December 2015, consisting of over 106,000 plug-in hybrids of the Volt/Ampera family, over 4,300 Chevrolet Spark EVs, and over 2,400 Cadillac ELRs.[1][248][249][250] Next is Tesla Motors with over 109,800 electric cars sold between 2008 and December 2015.[1][251][252]
BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with around 60,000 units sold, followed by Tesla Motors, with 50,580 units sold in 2015.[1][253]
Sales and main markets
| Market share of 2012 global sales of highway-capable BEVs and PHEVs by country[254] | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All-electric cars | Plug-in hybrid cars | ||||||||
| Ranking | Country | Market share(1) |
Ranking | Country | Market share(1) | ||||
| 1 | Japan | 28% | 1 | United States | 70% | ||||
| 2 | United States | 26% | 2 | Japan | 12% | ||||
| 3 | China | 16% | 3 |  Netherlands | 8% | ||||
| 4 | France | 11% | 4 | Canada | 2% | ||||
| 5 |  Norway | 7% | 5 | China | 2% | ||||
| Note: (1) Market share as % total global sales of pure electric cars or plug-in hybrids. | |||||||||
By mid-September 2015, the global stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the one million sales milestone.[13] When global sales are broken down by type of powertrain, all-electric cars have oversold plug-in hybrids, with the pure electrics capturing 62% of global sales as of September 2015.[13] Between 2007 and 2010, only 11,768 plug-in electric vehicles were sold worldwide.[255] By comparison, during the Golden Age of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century, the EV stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles.[256]
After the introduction of the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt in December 2010, the first mass-production plug-in cars by major carmakers, PEV sales jumped in 2011 to 45,000 units,[257] increased to 119,300 in 2012,[258][259] and reached 206,000 plug-in electric cars and utility vans in 2013.[257] Sales rose to over 300,000 units in 2014, up about 50% from 2013.[257][260] Global sales of highway capable light-duty plug-in electric vehicles reached about 520,000 units in 2015, up about 70% from 2014, and cumulative global sales reached 1,235,000 plug-in cars and utility vans.[8] In 2015 Europe and China passed the U.S. as the largest plug-in electric car markets in terms of total annual sales, with China ranking as the world's best-selling plug-in electric passenger car country market in 2015.[8][261] JATO Dynamics, based on LMC Automotive’s forecasts, estimates the global market is expected to reach sales in excess of 700,000 units in 2016 due to strong growth in China, Europe and the United States.[246]JATO Dynamics, based on LMC Automotive’s forecasts, estimates the global market is expected to reach sales in excess of 700,000 units in 2016 due to strong growth in China, Europe and the United States.[246]
As of December 2015, cumulative sales by country are led by the United States with about 410,000 highway legal plug-in electric cars delivered since 2008, representing 33% of global sales, followed by China with over 258,000 light-duty units sold since 2011 (21%).[8] Japan ranks third with about 130,000 plug-in units sold since 2009 (10%).[8][9] As of December 2015, over 419,000 plug-in electric passenger cars have been registered in Europe, making the continent the world's largest plug-in segment regional market.[10][11] As of December 2015, European sales in the light-duty plug-in electric segment, which includes utility vans, are led by the Netherlands with 88,991 units registered, followed by Norway with 77,897, and France with 74,291 registered since 2010.[8] Other top selling countries are the UK with almost 54,000 plug-in cars registered, Germany with about 50,000 cars registered through December 2015.[263][264] As of August 2015, other top selling countries were Canada with 14,429 plug-in cars sold since 2011 and Sweden with 12,786.[13] In the heavy-duty segment, China is the world's leader, with over 65,000 buses and sanitation trucks sold through August 2015.[13]
Sales of series production PEVs during its first two years in the global market have been lower than initially expected in all countries.[265][266] However, an analysis by Scientific American found that at the international level and considering the global top selling PEVs over a 36-month introductory period, monthly sales of the Volt, Prius PHV and Leaf are performing better than the conventional Prius during their respective introductory periods, with the exception of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, which has been outsold most of the time by the Prius HEV over their 36-month introductory periods.[267] A similar trend was found by the U.S. Department of Energy for the American market. Combined sales of plug-in hybrids and battery electric cars are climbing more rapidly and outselling by more than double sales of hybrid-electric vehicles over their respective 24 month introductory periods, as shown in the graph at the left.[262]
During 2014, four of the ten top selling countries achieved plug-in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1% of new car sales, Norway (13.84%), the Netherlands (3.87%), Sweden (1.53%), and Japan (1.06%).[260][268] Also two small countries achieved this mark in 2014, Iceland (2.71%)[269] and Estonia (1.57%).[269] The following table presents the top ranking countries according to their PEV market share of total new car sales in 2014. The table also shows the corresponding market share for 2013 for the overall segment, and for each of the following segments: all-electric (BEV), and plug-in hybrid (PHEV).
| Top 10 countries by PEV market share of total new car sales in 2014 and 2013 | Top 10 countries by plug-in electric-drive segment in 2013(1) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ranking | Country | PEV market share(%) |
Ranking | Country | BEV market share(%) 2013[270] |
Ranking | Country | PHEV market share(%) 2013[270] | |
| 2014[260] | 2013[270] | ||||||||
| 1 | Norway | 13.84% | 6.10% | 1 | Norway | 5.75% | 1 | Netherlands | 4.72% |
| 2 | Netherlands | 3.87% | 5.55% | 2 | Netherlands | 0.83% | 2 | Sweden | 0.41% |
| 3 |  Iceland[269] | 2.71% | 0.94% | 3 | France | 0.79% | 3 | Japan | 0.40% |
| 4 |  Estonia[269] | 1.57% | 0.73% | 4 | Estonia | 0.73% | 4 | Norway | 0.34% |
| 5 | Sweden[268] | 1.53% | 0.71% | 5 | Iceland | 0.69% | 5 | United States | 0.31% |
| 6 | Japan | 1.06% | 0.91% | 6 | Japan | 0.51% | 6 | Iceland | 0.25% |
| 7 |  Denmark[271] | 0.88% | 0.29% | 7 |  Switzerland | 0.39% | 7 |  Finland | 0.13% |
| 8 | Switzerland[272] | 0.75% | 0.44% | 8 | Sweden | 0.30% | 8 | United Kingdom | 0.05% |
| 9 | United States | 0.72% | 0.60% | 9 | Denmark | 0.28% | 9 | France | 0.05% |
| 10 | France | 0.70%(2) | 0.83% | 10 | United States | 0.28% | 10 | Switzerland | 0.05% |
| Note: (1) Market share of highway-capable plug-in electric-drive vehicles in the corresponding segment as percentage of total new car sales in the country in 2013. (2) The French market share corresponds to all-electric passenger cars and utility vans only. In France PHEVs are accounted together with regular hybrids. | |||||||||
Several countries experienced a rapid growth of their plug-in car market during 2014. Total sales of new energy vehicles in China, including heavy-duty vehicles, were up 320% year-on-year, and the plug-in hybrids segment experience a faster growth, up 880% from 2013.[273] The British market experienced a surge of plug-in car sales during 2014. Plug-in electric car registrations in the UK quadruple from 3,586 in 2013 to 14,498 units in 2014. Registrations in the plug-in hybrid segment were up 628% from 2013.[274][275][276] Registrations of plug-in super clean cars in Sweden in 2014 were up 202.1% from 2013.[268] Registrations of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Norway, including used imports, were up 119.9% from a year earlier, and sales of plug-in hybrids were up 411.6% from 2013.[277] The plug-in hybrid segment in the German market in 2014 experienced a growth of 226.9% year-over-year, and the overall plug-in segment increased 75.5% from a year earlier.[278][279] The surge of sales in the German market continued in 2015, the plug-in hybrid segment grew 125.1% year-over-year, while the all-electric segment climbed 91.2% from the previous year.[280]
United States
As of December 2015, the United States has the largest fleet of highway-capable plug-in electric vehicles in the world, with about 410,000 highway legal plug-in electric cars sold since the market launch of the Tesla Roadster in 2008, representing 33% of the global stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles.[8] California is the largest regional market with 173,811 plug-in electric vehicles delivered between December 2010 and September 2015, representing 47.2% of all plug-in cars sold in American market since 2010.[283][284][285] As of mid 2013, 52% of American plug-in electric car registrations were concentrated in five metropolitan areas: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Seattle, New York, and Atlanta.[286]
Nationwide sales climbed from 17,800 units delivered in 2011 to 53,200 during 2012, and reached 97,100 in 2013, up 83% from the previous year.[287] Cumulative plug-in electric car sales since 2008 reached the 250,000 unit milestone in August 2014.[288] During 2014 plug-in electric car sales totaled 123,208 units, up 27.2% from 2013.[248][249] About 115,000 plug-in electric cars were sold in 2015, down 6.5% from 2014.[8] The market share of plug-in electric passenger cars increased from 0.14% of new car sales in 2011 to 0.37% in 2012, 0.62% in 2013, and reached 0.75% of new car sales during 2014.[248][249][289][290] As plug-in car sales slowed down during 2015, the segment's market share fell to 0.66% of new car sales, with the all-electric segment up to 0.42% from 0.41% in 2014, while plug-in hybrids declined to 0.25 from 0.34% in 2014.[248] December 2015 is the best monthly plug-in sales volume on record ever, with over 13,000 units delivered.[248][291] The previous record month was May 2014, with over 12,000 units delivered, representing a market share of 0.78% of new car sales.[292][293] October 2013 achieved the best-ever market share for plug-in vehicles at 0.85% of new car sales.[294]
As of December 2014, cumulative sales of plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S. since December 2010 were led by plug-in hybrids, with 150,946 units sold representing 52.7% of all plug-in car sales, while 135,444 all-electric cars (47.3%) have been delivered to retail customers.[281] This trend was reversed in 2015, as the all-electric segment grew much faster, with a total of 72,303 all-electric cars sold, up 6.6% year-on-year, while plug-in hybrid were down 22.4% year-on-year, with 42,959 units sold.[248] As of December 2015, a total of 206,508 all-electric cars and 193,904 plug-in hybrids have been sold in the U.S. since 2010, with all-electrics representing 51.6% of cumulative sales.[281]
As of December 2015, plug-in electric car sales are led by the Nissan Leaf all-electric car with 89,591 units, followed by the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid with 88,750 units.[295] The Leaf passed the Chevrolet Volt as the top selling PEV in March 2015. Both plug-in cars were released in December 2010.[296][297] Launched in the U.S. market in June 2012, the Tesla Model S ranks as the third top selling plug-in electric car with 63,161 units,[251][290] followed by the Prius PHV, launched in February 2012, with 42,293 units. Ranking fifth is the Ford Fusion Energi with 27,389 units, followed closely by the Ford C-Max Energi with 25,552 units.[248][249][289][290]
Plug-in electric car sales in 2014 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 30,200 units, followed the Volt with 18,805, the Model S with 16,689 units, the Prius PHEV with 13,264 units, and the Fusion Energi with 11,550 units.[249][251] The Tesla Model S, with 25,202 units delivered, was the top selling plug-in car in the U.S., followed by the Nissan Leaf with 17,269 units, the Volt with 15,393, and the BMW i3 with 11,024.[248][251]
China
New energy vehicle sales between January 2011 and December 2015 totaled 444,447 units, of which, over 90% were sold during the last two years, with 331,092 units (74.5%) in 2015, and 74,763 (16.8%) in 2014. These figures include heavy-duty commercial vehicles such buses and sanitation trucks. These figures only include vehicles manufactured in the country as imports are not subject to government subsidies. The Chinese stock of plug-in electric vehicles consist of 324,088 all-electric vehicles (72.9%) and 120,359 plug-in hybrids (27.1%).[244][273][298][299][15]
As of December 2014, a total of 83,198 plug-in electric passenger cars had been registered in the country since 2008.[9] With 176,627 plug-in passenger cars sold in 2015, China passed the U.S., the top selling country in 2014, and became the world's best-selling plug-in electric car country market in 2015.[8][300] As of December 2015, in terms of light-duty plug-in electric car stock, China ranks second after the United States, with cumulative sales of 258,328 plug-in cars, representing 21% of the global stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars.[8]
As of December 2015, China is the world's leader in the plug-in heavy-duty segment, including electric buses, plug-in trucks, particularly sanitation/garbage trucks.[13][14] Over 160,000 heavy-duty new energy vehicles have been sold between 2011 and 2015, of which, 123,710 (77.2%) were sold in 2015.[9][15] Sales of commercial new energy vehicles in 2015 consisted of 100,763 all-electric vehicles (81.5%)and 22,947 plug-in hybrid vehicles (18.5%).[15] The share of all-electric bus sales in the Chinese bus market climbed from 2% in 2010 to 9.9% in 2012, and was expected to be closed to 20% for 2013.[301] As of December 2014, China had about 36,500 all-electric buses.[9] As of December 2015, China is the world's largest electric bus market, and by 2020, the country is expected to account for more than 50% of the global electric bus market.[16]
A total of 8,159 new energy vehicles were sold in China during 2011, including passenger cars (61%) and buses (28%). Of these, 5,579 units were all-electric vehicles and 2,580 plug-in hybrids.[298] Electric vehicle sales represented 0.04% of total new car sales in 2011.[302] Sales of new energy vehicles in 2012 reached 12,791 units, which includes 11,375 all-electric vehicles and 1,416 plug-in hybrids.[299] New energy vehicle sales in 2012 represented 0.07% of the country's total new car sales.[303] During 2013 new energy vehicle sales totaled 17,642 units, up 37.9% from 2012 and representing 0.08% of the nearly 22 million new car sold in the country in 2013. Deliveries included 14,604 pure electric vehicles and 3,038 plug-in hybrids.[244][304] The QQ3 EV was the top selling new energy car in China between 2011 and 2013, with 2,167 units sold in 2011, 3,129 in 2012, and 5,727 in 2013.[14] Cumulative sales since January 2011 through March 2014 reached 13,039 units.[14][305]
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New energy vehicle sales during 2014 reached 74,763 units, up 320% from 2013, and representing a market share of 0.32% of the 23.5 million new car sales sold in the country that year.[273] Of these, 71% were passenger cars, 27% buses, and 1% trucks.[307] A total of 45,048 all-electric vehicles were sold in 2014, up 210% from a year earlier, and 29,715 plug-in hybrids, up 880% from 2013.[273] The BYD Qin plug-in hybrid, introduced in December 2013, ranked as the top selling plug-in electric car in China in 2014 with 14,747 units sold,[307] and became the country's top selling passenger NEV ever.[306] The Qin was followed by the all-electrics Zotye Zhidou E20, with 7,341 units, and BAIC E150 EV, with 5,234.[307]
Domestically produced new energy vehicle sales in 2015 totaled a record 331,092 units, consisting of 247,482 all-electric vehicles and 83,610 plug-in hybrid vehicles, up 449% and 191% from 2014, respectively.[15] Sales of plug-in passenger cars, excluding imports, totaled 176,627 units in 2015, allowing China to rank as the world's best-selling plug-in electric car country market in 2015.[8] The plug-in electric passenger car segment market share rose to 0.84% in 2015, up from 0.25% in 2014.[309] The top selling passenger models in 2015 were the BYD Qin plug-in hybrid with 31,898 units sold,[308] followed by the BYD Tang (18,375),[310] and the all-electrics Kandi EV (16,736), BAIC E150/160/200 EV (16,488), and the Zotye Z100 EV (15,467).[311]
As of December 2015, the BYD Qin continues to rank as the all-time top selling plug-in passenger car in the country, with cumulative sales of 46,787 units since its introduction.[244][306][307][308] The BYD Qin was the world's second best selling plug-in hybrid car in 2015 after the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, and also ranked fifth among the world's top selling plug-in electric cars in 2015.[1] As a reflexion of the explosive growth of the Chinese plug-in electric car market in 2015, BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with around 60,000 units sold, ahead of Tesla Motors (50,580).[1][253]
Japan
As of December 2015, the stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Japan is the third largest in the world after the United States and China, with about 130,000 highway legal plug-in electric vehicles sold in the country since 2009.[8][9] During 2012, global sales of pure electric cars were led by Japan with a 28% market share of total sales, followed by the United States with a 26% share. Japan ranked second after the U.S. in terms of its share of plug-in hybrid sales in 2012, with a 12% of global sales.[254] A total of 30.587 highway-capable plug-in electric vehicles were sold in Japan in 2013.[260] In 2014 the segment sales remained flat with 30,390 units sold, and a market share of 1.06% of total new car sales in the country (kei cars not included).[260]
As of December 2014, the Nissan Leaf is the market leader with 48,641 units sold since December 2010,[313] followed by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with 19,672 units sold since January 2013.[314] The Prius PHV has sold 19,100 units between January 2012 and September 2014,[315] and the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, launched for fleet customers in Japan in late July 2009, with cumulative sales of 10,423 i-MiEVs through September 2014.[314][316] Combined sales of the van and truck version of the Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV reached 6,291 units through December 2014.[314] Other models available in Japan are the Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid, Tesla Model S, BMW i3, BMW i8, and the Nissan e-NV200, but official sales figures are not available.[317]
During 2013 sales were led by the Nissan Leaf with 13,021 units, followed by the Outlander P-HEV with 9,608 units.[314][318][319] The Leaf continued as the market leader in 2014 with 14,177 units sold,[320] followed by the Outlander P-HEV with 10,064 units,[314] together representing about 80% of the plug-in segment sales in Japan in 2014 (30,390).[317]
Europe
| Annual sales of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in Europe by type of powertrain (2011-2014) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Total BEV sales(1) |
Growth (BEVs) |
Total PHEV sales |
Growth (PHEVs) |
Total PEV sales(2) |
Growth (PEVs) |
PEV market share(3) |
| 2010 | 2,919[321] | - | 0 | - | 2,919 | - | 0.01%[322] |
| 2011 | 13,779[321] | 372.0% | 304[323] | - | 14,083 | 382.5% | 0.08%[324] |
| 2012 | 24,713[325] | 79.4% | 9,620[323][326] | 3,064% | 34,333 | 143.8% | 0.23%[327] |
| 2013 | 40,496[325] | 63.9% | 31,447[328] | 226.9% | 71,943 | 109.5% | 0.53%[329] |
| 2014 | 65,199[330] | 61.0% | 39,547[328] | 25,8% | 104,746 | 45.6% | 0.75% [331] |
| Total | 147,106 | - | 80,918 | - | 228,024 | - | - |
| Notes: (1) Battery electric vehicles (BEV) includes all-electric passenger cars and utility vans. (2) Includes all-electric passenger cars, all-electric utility vans, and plug-in hybrids. (3) Market share of the plug-in passenger segment of total new car sales (utility vans not included). | |||||||
Over 419,000 highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars have been registered in Europe through December 2015, of which, 186,170 units (44.4%) were registered in 2015.[10][11] A total of 1,614 all-electric cars and 1,305 light-utility vehicles were sold in 2010. Sales jumped from 2,919 units in 2010 to 13,779 in 2011, consisting of 11,271 pure electric cars and 2,508 commercial vans.[321] In addition, over 300 plug-in hybrids were sold in 2011, mainly Opel Amperas.[323]
Light-duty plug-in vehicle sales totaled 34,333 units in 2012, consisting of 24,713 all-electric cars and vans, and 9,620 plug-in hybrids.[323][325][326] The plug-in segment sales more than double to 71,943 units in 2013. Pure electric passenger and light commercial vehicles sales increased by 63.9% to 40,496 units.[325] In addition, a total of 31,477 extended-range cars and plug-in hybrids were sold in 2013.[328] Registrations reached 104,746 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in 2014, up 45.6% from 2013. A total of 65,199 pure electric cars and light-utility vehicles were registered in Europe in 2014, up 60.9% from 2013. All-electric passenger cars represented 87% of the European all-electric segment registrations.[330] Extended-range cars and plug-in hybrid registrations totaled 39,547 units in 2014, up 25.8% from 2013.[328]
During 2013 took place a surge in sales of plug-in hybrids in the European market, particularly in the Netherlands, with 20,164 PHEVs registered during the year.[332][333] Out of the 71,943 highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans sold in the region during 2013, plug-in hybrids totaled 31,447 units, representing 44% of the plug-in electric vehicle segment sales that year.[325][328] This trend continued in 2014. Plug-in hybrids represented almost 30% of the plug-in electric drive sales during the first six months of 2014, and with the exception of the Nissan Leaf, sales of the previous best selling models fell significantly, while recently introduced models captured a significant share of the segment sales, with the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, Tesla Model S, BMW i3, Renault Zoe, Volkswagen e-Up!, and the Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid ranking among the top ten best selling models.[334]
In 2014 Norway was the top selling country in the light-duty all-electric market segment, with 18,649 passenger cars and utility vans registered, more than doubling its 2013 sales. France ranked second with 15,046 units registered, followed by Germany with 8,804 units, the UK with 7,730 units, and the Netherlands with 3,585 car and vans registrations.[335] The Netherlands was the top selling country in the plug-in hybrid segment with 12,425 passenger cars registered,[336] followed by the UK with 7,821,[274] Germany with 4,527,[279] and Sweden 3,432 units.[268]
The Opel/Vauxhall Ampera plug-in hybrid was Europe's top selling plug-in electric car in 2012 with 5,268 units, closely followed by the all-electric Nissan Leaf with 5,210 units.[323][337] In 2013 the top selling plug-in was the Leaf with 11,120 units sold,[338] followed by the Outlander P-HEV with 8,197 units.[339] The Mitsubishi Outlander plug-in hybrid was the top selling plug-in electric vehicle in Europe in 2014 with 19,980 units sold, surpassing of the Nissan Leaf (14,658), which fell to second place.[340] Ranking third was the Renault Zoe with 11,231 units,[341] followed by the Tesla Model S with 9,497 units,[342] and the BMW i3 with 8,290 units registered, including the REx variant.[343]
As of December 2014, and accounting for cumulative sales since 2010, the Leaf is the top selling plug-in electric car in the region with 33,481 new units delivered,[313] followed by the Outlander P-HEV with 28,177 units,[339][340] Renault Zoe with 20,091 units, Renault Kangoo Z.E. all-electric utility van with 16,688 units,[341] and Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid with 13,597 units,[344][345][346] closely followed by the Tesla Model S with about 13,400 units sold.[342][347]
| Top 10 selling plug-in electric car models in Europe (as of December 2014) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ranking | Model | Total sales | 2014 | 2013 | 2012 | 2011 | Ranking | Model | Total sales | 2014 | 2013 | 2012 | 2011 |
| 1 | Nissan Leaf[313][323][338][340] | 33,481 | 14,658 | 11,120 | 5,210 | 1,728 | 6 | Tesla Model S[342][347] | 13,397 | 9,497 | ~3,900 | ||
| 2 | Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV[339][340] | 28,177 | 19,980 | 8,197 | 7 | BMW i3[343][348] | 9,767 | 8,290 | 1,477 | ||||
| 3 | Renault Zoe[341] | 20,091 | 11,231 | 8,792 | 68 | 8 | Opel Ampera[323][349][350] | 9,695 | 939 | 3,184 | 5,268 | 304 | |
| 4 | Renault Kangoo Z.E.[341] | 16,688 | 4,197 | 5,850 | 5,260 | 991 | 9 | Toyota Prius PHV[351][352][353] | 9,423 | 1,352 | 4,591 | 3,496 | |
| 5 | Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid[344][345][346] | 13,549 | 5,441 | 8,066 | 42 | 10 | Smart electric drive[354][355] | 7,464 | 2,726 | 3,017 | 1,721(1) | ||
| Notes: (1) Total Smart fortwo ED sales from 2010 through October 2012. | |||||||||||||
As of December 2012, the leading countries in terms of EV penetration of the total auto fleet were Norway with four electric car per 1,000 automobiles registered in the country, Estonia with one electric car for every 1,000 cars, and the Netherlands with 0.6 electric cars per 1,000 registered cars.[356] During 2013 Norway kept the leadership in market penetration with 20,486 plug-in electric vehicles registered out of 2.49 million passenger cars registered in the country through December 2013, representing an EV penetration of 8.2 plug-in electric cars per 1,000 cars registered.[357][358][359] In March 2014 Norway became the first country with a market penetration of 10 plug-in electric cars for every 1,000 registered passenger cars (1%).[360]
During 2013 the plug-in electric-drive segment market share of new car sales in the top selling PEV markets increased significantly. Norway reached 5.6% of new car sales, the Netherlands 5.37%, Sweden 0.57% and France 0.49%. When all-electric utility vans are accounted for, the French market EV share climbs to 0.65%.[357] Five European countries achieved plug-in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1% of new car sales in 2014, Norway (13.84%), the Netherlands (3.87%), Iceland (2.71%), Estonia (1.57%), and Sweden (1.53%).[260][268][269] The following table presents the EV market share in 20 selected European countries for the combined registrations during 2011 and 2012:
| Plug-in electric car market share in 20 selected European countries[361] (Total registrations during 2011 and 2012) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ranking | Country | PEV market share(1) (%) |
PEVs registered 2011-12(1) |
Total vehicle registrations |
Ranking | Country | PEV market share(1) (%) |
PEVs registered 2011-12(1) |
Total vehicle registrations |
| 1 | Norway | 2.275% | 6,287 | 276,312 | 11 |  Czech Republic | 0.146% | 507 | 347,291 |
| 2 | Estonia | 1.723% | 562 | 32,617 | 12 |  Slovakia | 0.110% | 156 | 142,099 |
| 3 |  Portugal | 0.905% | 2,250 | 248,713 | 13 | .svg.png){kind=small} Belgium | 0.108% | 1,148 | 1,058,948 |
| 4 |  Austria | 0.711% | 4,924 | 692,155 | 14 | Germany | 0.105% | 6,553 | 6,256,138 |
| 5 | Netherlands | 0.570% | 6,030 | 1,058,390 | 15 | United Kingdom | 0.084% | 3,342 | 3,985,862 |
| 6 |  Poland | 0.2980% | 1,640 | 551,016 | 16 | Spain | 0.057% | 863 | 1,507,640 |
| 7 | Denmark | 0.290% | 987 | 340,799 | 17 |  Latvia | 0.051% | 13 | 25,636 |
| 8 | Switzerland | 0.227% | 1,472 | 647,097 | 18 |  Bulgaria | 0.036% | 14 | 38,541 |
| 9 | France | 0.219% | 8,989 | 4,102,989 | 19 |  Hungary | 0.035% | 34 | 98,162 |
| 10 | Sweden | 0.193% | 1,128 | 584,883 | 20 |  Greece | 0.001% | 2 | 156,164 |
| Note (1) Market penetration of highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars, only includes pure electric cars and plug-in hybrids. | |||||||||
Netherlands
As of December 2015, a total of 88,991 highway legal plug-in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands, consisting of 78,163 range-extended and plug-in hybrids, 9,368 pure electric cars, and 1,460 all-electric light utility vans. When buses, trucks, motorcycles, quadricycles and tricycles are accounted for, the Dutch plug-in electric-drive fleet climbs to 90,275 units.[362] The country's electric vehicle stock reaches 122,563 units when mopeds (3,610), electric bicycles (28,459), and microcars (219) are accounted for.[362] As of December 2015, the Netherlands has Europe's largest fleet light-duty plug-in vehicles and has the world's fourth largest stock after the U.S., China and Japan. With 43,971 plug-in passenger cars and utility vans registered in 2015, the Netherlands was the world's third best-selling country market for light-duty plug-in vehicles in 2015.[8]
The Netherlands is also among the country's with the highest EV market penetration in the world. Registrations of plug-in electric car represented a 0.57% share of total new car registrations in the country during 2011 and 2012.[361] During 2013 plug-in electric passenger car registrations totaled 22,415 units, climbing 338% from 2012, the highest rate of growth of any country in the world in 2013.[357][364] The segment's market share surged almost ten times from 2012 to 5.37% new car sales in the country during that year, the world's second highest in 2013 after Norway (5.6%). The rapid growth of segment during 2013, allowed the Netherlands to reach a market penetration for plug-in vehicles of around 1.71 vehicles per 1,000 people, second only to Norway (4.04).[357] The market share of the plug-in electric passenger car segment in 2014 fell to 3.86% of total new passenger car registrations, after the end of some of the tax incentives.[336][366] With 43,769 plug-in passenger cars registered in 2015, the segment market share rose to a record 9.7% of new car sales in the Dutch market in 2015, the second highest after Norway (22.4%).[8][367]
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In November 2013, a total of 2,736 Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEVs were sold, making the plug-in hybrid the top selling new car in the country that month, representing a market share of 6.8% of all the new cars sold.[368][369] Again in December 2013, the Outlander P-HEV ranked as the top selling new car in the country with 4,976 units, representing a 12.6% market share of new car sales, contributing to a world record plug-in vehicle market share of 23.8% of new car sales.[370][371] The Netherlands is the second country, after Norway, where plug-in electric cars have topped the monthly ranking of new car sales.[368][369][371] The strong increase of plug-in car sles during the last months of 2013 was due to the end of the total exemption of the registration fee for corporate cars, which is valid for 5 years. From January 1, 2014, all-electric vehicles pay a 4% registration fee and plug-in hybrids a 7% fee.[366]
A total of 15,678 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands in 2014, consisting of 12,425 plug-in hybrids, down 38.4% from 2013, 2,664 all-electric cars, up 18.3% from a year earlier, and 589 vans, up 236.6% from 2013.[372] Sales in 2014 were led by the Outlander P-HEV with 7,666 units,[373] followed by Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid with 3,126 units,[374] and Tesla Model S with 1,465 units sold.[375]
The top 5 best-selling plug-in electric cars in 2015 were all plug-in hybrids, led by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (8,757), followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE (8,183), Audi A3 e-tron (4,354), Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid (3,851), and Volkswagen Passat GTE (2,879). The top selling all-electric car was the Tesla Model S (1,842).[376] Plug-in car sales achieved its best monthly volume on record ever in December 2015, with about 15,900 units sold, and allowing the segment to reached a record market share of about 23%. The surge in plug-in car sales was due to reduction of the registration fees for plug-in hybrids. From January 1, 2016, all-electric vehicles continue to pay a 4% registration fee, but for a plug-in hybrid the fee rises from 7% to 15% if its CO2 emissions do not exceed 50 g/km. The rate for a conventional internal combustion car is 25% of its book value.[377][378]
As of December 2015, the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV continues as the all-time top-selling plug-in car in the country with 24,506 registered. Ranking second is the Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid (14,470), followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE (8,806), Opel Ampera (4,947 units), Tesla Model S (4,832), and Audi A3 e-tron (4,657).[379] A total of 78,163 plug-in hybrids out of 87,531 passenger plug-in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands as of 31 December 2015, meaning that plug-in hybrids dominate the Dutch market with a share of 89.3% of the country's highway legal plug-in electric car stock.[362][379]
Norway
As of December 2015, a total of 77,897 new plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in Norway.[8] As of September 2015, the country's plug-in electric drive stock consist of 66,276 all-electric passenger and light-duty vehicles, and 8,006 plug-in hybrids, including used imports.[381] The milestone of 50,000 all-electric cars on Norwegian roads was reached on 20 April 2015, more than two years earlier than expected by the government.[382][383]
As of December 2015, plug-in car registrations include over 10,000 used imports from neighboring countries, mainly of pure electric cars. Registrations of used all-electric cars totaled 2,086 units in 2013, 3,063 in 2014 and 5,122 in 2015.[380][277] In addition, about 1,300 used electric cars were imported into Norway before 2013. By September 2014 most imports came from France, particularly the Nissan Leaf model.[384] Out of the total all-electric stock registered through September 2013, over 1,440 units were heavy quadricycles, such as the Kewet/Buddy and the REVAi.[385]
The Norwegian fleet of electric cars is one of the cleanest in the world because almost 100% of the electricity generated in the country comes from hydropower.[386] Due to its population size, Norway is the country with the largest EV ownweship per capita in the world,[387][388] reaching 4.0 plug-in electric vehicles per 1,000 people in 2013, a market penetration nine times higher than the U.S., the world's largest plug-in electric car market.[357] In March 2014, Norway became the first country where over one in every 100 registered passenger cars is plug-in electric,[360] and the segment's market penetration reached 2% in March 2015.[389] The Norwegian plug-in electric vehicle market share of new car sales is the highest in the world, the EV segment market share rose from 1.6% in 2011, to 3.1% in 2012,[390] and reached 5.6% of new car sales in 2013.[358] Only the Netherlands, with 5.37% in 2013, has achieved a similar market share for the plug-in electric drive segment.[357] The Norwegian all-electric segment increased its market share of new car sales to 12.5% in 2014.[343] During the first quarter of 2015 the all-electric market share rose to 20.4%, while the plug-in hybrid segment reached 2.5%, for a combined PEV market share of almost 23% of all passenger cars sold during this period.[391]
Also, Norway was the first country in the world to have electric cars topping the new car sales monthly ranking. The Tesla Model S has been the top selling new car three times, twice in 2013, first in September and again in December,[392][393] and one more time in March 2014.[394] The Nissan Leaf has topped the monthly new car sales ranking twice, first in October 2013 and again in January 2014.[395][396][397] Both the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S were listed among the Norwegian top 20 best selling new cars in 2013, with the Leaf ranking third with 4,604 units and a 3.2% market share; and the Model S ranking 20th with a 1.4% market share of new car sales in 2013.[398] In March 2014 the Tesla Model S also broke the 28-year-old record for monthly sales of a single model regardless of its power source, with 1,493 units sold, surpassing the Ford Sierra, which sold 1,454 units in May 1986.[394][399] Sales of the Model S also contributed to achieve a record market share for the new all-electric car segment of 20.3% of total new car sales that month.[360][394][400] A new record market share of the plug-in electric vehicle segment was achieved in January, with 1,895 new all-electric cars registered reaching an 18.0% market share, plus 326 new plug-in hybrids reaching a 3.1% share, for a combined market share of 21.1% of total new car registrations that month.[401][402]
Plug-in electric vehicle registrations totaled 10,769 units in 2013, of which used imports represented 20%. This total includes 387 plug-in hybrids and 355 all-electric light commercial vans, together representing 6.9% of total 2013 car registrations in the Norwegian market.[358] The plug-in electric drive segment in Norway grew 129% from 2012 to 2013, achieving one of the highest EV rates of growth in the world, second only to the Netherlands (338%).[357] A total of 23,390 plug-in electric vehicles were registered in 2014, consisting of 18,094 new all-electric cars, 3,063 used imported all-electric cars, 1,678 new plug-in hybrid cars and 555 new all-electric vans.[277] Combined sales of new and used plug-in electric vehicles captured a 13.84% market share of total passenger car registrations in 2014.[260] Sales of the new all-electric car segment reached a market share of 12.5%.[343] New all-electric passenger car registrations were up 129.5% from 2013, and the plug-in hybrid segment grew 411.6% from a year earlier.[277] Norway ended 2014 as the top selling European country in the light-duty all-electric market segment, with 18,649 passenger cars and utility vans registered.[335]
During 2013, the Leaf continued as the top selling plug-in electric car, with 4,604 new units sold during the year, which represent 58.4% of plug-in electric car sales in 2013. The Tesla Model S ranked second with 1,986 units (25.2% share), followed by the Volkswagen e-Up! with 580 units (7.4% share).[403] In January 2014, the Leaf topped for a second time the ranking of top selling new cars in Norway, with 650 units sold, representing a 5.7% of new car sales that month.[397] The Model S was Norway's best selling new car during the first quarter of 2014, capturing a 5.6% market share of new car sales during this period.[360][394][400] During the first half of 2014, the Model S, with 3,136 units sold, ranked as the second best selling new car in Norway with a market share of 4.3% of new car sales.[404] Plug-in electric car sales in 2014 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 4,781 new registrations, followed by Tesla Model S with 4,040 units. The Leaf ended 2014 as the third top selling new car in Norway, capturing a 3.3% market share of total new car sales in the country that year.[277]
As of December 2014, a total of 12,056 new Leafs had been sold in the country.[277][403][405] In addition, there were 3,626 used imported Leafs registered in the country as of 30 September 2014.[406] With about 16,000 units registered including used imports, the Leaf ranks as the country's all-time top selling electric car, representing 39% of the country's all-electric registered fleet.[406] The Tesla Model S, released in August 2013, ranks second with cumulative sales of 6,023 new units up until December 2014,[277][403] with about 14% of the total registered plug-in electric vehicle stock.[406]
France
Since January 2010, a total of 74,294 highway legal all-electric vehicles have been registered in France through December 2015.[8] As of September 2015, the plug-in stock consisted of 39,595 passenger cars and 18,893 utility vans.[407][408][409][410][411][412] Electric car registrations increased from 184 units in 2010 to 2,630 in 2011. Sales in 2012 increased 115% from 2011 to 5,663 cars,[407][413][414] allowing France to rank 4th among the top selling EV countries, with an 11% market share of global all-electric car sales in 2012.[254] Registrations reached 8,779 electric cars in 2013, up 55.0% from 2012,[408] and the all-electric market share of total new car sales went up to 0.49% from 0.3% in 2012.[414][415]
In addition, 5,175 electric utility vans were registered in 2013, up 42% from 2012,[408] and representing a market share of 1.4% of all new light commercial vehicles sold in 2013.[415] Sales of electric passenger cars and utility vans totaled 13,954 units in 2013,[408] capturing a combined market share of 0.65 of these two segments new car sales.[357] When sales of pure electric cars and light utility vehicles are accounted together, France was the leading the European all-electric market in 2012 and 2013.[357][408][416][417]
During 2014 sales of all-electric vehicles in France passed the 10,000 unit milestone for the first time. A total of 15,045 all-electric cars and vans were registered in 2014, up 7.8% from 2013. A total of 10,560 pure electric passenger cars registered in 2014, up 20.3% from the previous year.[411] This figure rises to 10,968 units if the BMW i3 with range extender is accounted for.[418] All-electric utility vans continued to be a significant share of the all-electric segment, with 4,485 units registered in 2014, but down 13.3% from 2013.[411] All-electric cars captured a 0.59% market share of the 1.7 million new car registered in France in 2014, while light-duty electric vehicles reached a 1.22% market share of their segment. Combined both segments represented a market share of 0.70% of new registrations in the country in 2014.[419] Light-duty all-electric vehicle sales achieved its best monthly volume on record ever in December 2014, with 2,227 units registered, twice the volume registered the same month in 2013.[411] The slow down in sales that took place in the French EV market during the first half of 2014, allowed Norway, with 18,649 new all-electric vehicles registered, to end 2014 as the top selling European market in the light-duty all-electric segment, and France ranked second.[420][421] A total of 14,833 light-duty all-electric vehicles were sold during the first nine months of 2015, up 48% from 2014 year-on-year.[412]
In the French market plug-in hybrids or rechargeable hybrids are classified and accounted together with conventional hybrid electric vehicles. Almost 1,500 plug-in hybrids were registered during 2012 and 2013, 666 units in 2012,[422] and 808 units in 2013.[423][424] Plug-in hybrid car registrations totaled 1,519 units in 2014, almost doubling registrations from a year earlier.[425] Plug-in hybrid sales were driven by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, with 820 units registered in 2014, representing 54% of the segment registrations in France that year.[426] Between 2012 and 2014, cumulative plug-in hybrid registrations totaled 2,985 units, rising cumulative French registrations of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles since 2005 to 46,590 units,[421][422][423][425] just ahead of the Netherlands (45,020),[372] and making France the European country where there are more plug-in electric vehicles on the road.[421]
During 2012, all-electric car registrations in France were led by the Bolloré Bluecar with 1,543 units.[427] The Renault Kangoo Z.E. was the top selling utility electric vehicle with 2,869 units registered in 2012, representing a market share of 82% of the segment.[416][417] The Renault Twizy electric quadricycle, launched in March 2012, sold 2,232 units during 2012, surpassing the Bolloré Bluecar, and ranked as the second best selling plug-in electric vehicle after the Kangoo Z.E.[428] During 2013, registrations of pure electric cars were led by the Renault Zoe with 5,511 units, representing 62.8% of total EV sales.[408] Registrations of all-electric light utility vehicles were led by the Renault Kangoo Z.E. with 4,174 units, representing 80.7% of the segment sales.[408]
The Zoe continued leading all-electric vehicle registration in 2014, with 5,970 units registered, followed by the Kangoo Z.E. van with 2,657 registrations, and the Nissan Leaf ranked next with 1,600 units.[407][419] As of December 2014, the French leader in the all-electric segment is the Renault Zoe with 11,529 units registered since 2012, followed by the Kangoo Z.E. utility van with 10,483 units registered since 2010, the Bolloré Bluecar with 3,770 units, and the Nissan Leaf with 3,645 units.[407][408][419][429][430] Most units of the Bluecar are in operation for the Autolib' carsharing service in Paris, and similar carsharing programs in Lyon and Bordeaux.[431]
United Kingdom
Almost 54,000 plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in the UK up until December 2015, including plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars, and about 2,900 plug-in commercial vans. This figure includes a significant number of registered plug-in electric cars and vans which were not eligible for the grant schemes.[263][436] In addition, before the introduction of series production plug-in vehicles, a total of 1,096 all-electric vehicles were registered between 2006 and December 2010.[437] Since the launch of the Plug-in Car Grant in January 2011, a total of 49,866 eligible cars have been registered until January 2016.[438]
Electric car sales grew from 138 units in 2010 to 1,082 units during 2011.[433][439] Before 2011, the G-Wiz, a heavy quadricycle, listed as the top-selling EV for several years.[440] During 2012, a total of 2,254 plug-in electric cars were registered in the UK. Sales in 2012 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 699 units, followed by the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid with 470.[435][441][442] Vehicles eligible for the Plug-in Car Grant accounted for 0.1% of total new car sales in 2012.[443] Plug-in electric car registrations totaled 3,584 units in 2013, up 59.0% from 2012.[435][444] Plug-in car sales represented a 0.16% market share of new cars sold in the UK in 2013.[444] The top selling plug-in electric car in 2013 was the Nissan Leaf, with over 1,650 units sold,[445] and the Prius PHV ended 2013 as the top selling plug-in hybrid with 509 units.[444]
The British market experienced a rapid growth of plug-in car sales during 2014, driven by the introduction of new models such as the BMW i3, Tesla Model S, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, Renault Zoe, and Volkswagen e-Up!.[275][449][450] Plug-in electric car registrations in the UK quadruple from 3,586 in 2013 to 14,518 units in 2014.[275] Registrations consisted of 6,697 pure electrics and 7,821 plug-in hybrids. Total registrations in 2014 were up 305% from 2013, with all-electric cars growing 167% while plug-in hybrid registrations were up 628% from a year earlier.[274] The plug-in electric car segment captured a 0.59% market share of new car sales in 2014, up from 0.16% in 2013.[274][445] In November 2014 the passenger plug-in segment's market share passed 1% of monthly new car sales for the first time in the UK.[451][452]
The Mitsubishi plug-in hybrid became the top selling plug-in electric vehicle in July 2014 and captured 43% of all applications to the Plug-in Car Grants scheme that month.[454] The Outlander P-HEV ended 2014 as the top selling plug-in electric car in the UK that year with 5,370 units sold.[373][455] The Nissan Leaf sales also experienced a significant growth in 2014, with 4,051 units sold, up 124% from the 1,812 units sold in 2013.[275]
The surge in demand for plug-in cars continued during 2015.[456] Plug-in electric car registrations in the UK totaled 28,188 units in 2015, consisting of 9,934 pure electric cars and 18,254 plug-in hybrids. Total registrations in 2015 were up 94.0% from 2014, with all-electric cars growing 48.3% year-on-year, while plug-in hybrid registrations were up 133.0% year-on-year.[432] The plug-in electric car segment raised its market share of new car sales in 2015 to almost 1.1%, up from 0.59% in 2014.[274][263] The plug-in segment reached a record market share of 1.7% of new car sales in the UK, the highest ever.[263]
Sales of the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV in the British market reached the 10,000 unit milestone in March 2015, allowing the plug-in hybrid to overtake the Leaf as the all-time top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the UK.[453][457] Sales of the Nissan Leaf sales passed the 10,000 unit milestone in June 2015.[458] The top selling models in 2015 were the Outlander P-HEV with 11,681 units registered, up 118% from 2014, followed by the Leaf with 5,236 units (up 29%), and the BMW i3 with 2,213 units (up 59%).[446] As of December 2015, the Outlander P-HEV continued to rank as the top selling plug-in electric car in the UK ever, with 17,045 units registered,[446] and the Nissan Leaf, the top selling all-electric car ever, totaled 12,433 units registered.[446][275][445][447]
Germany
As of December 2015, there were around 50,000 plug-in electric cars registered in Germany.[264] About 73% of the segment registrations took place during the last two years, with 13,049 units registered in 2014, and 23,464 registered in 2015.[279][280] The official German definition of electric vehicles changed at the beginning of 2013, before that, official statistics only registered all-electric vehicles because plug-in hybrids were accounted together with conventional hybrids. As a result, the registrations figures for 2012 and older do not account for total new plug-in electric car registrations.[461] As of November 2014, the country had 4,800 public charging stations.[462]
Total plug-in electric car registrations increased from 1,558 units in 2009 to 2,307 in 2010. The total registered plug-in electric stock in 2011 increased 96.8% from 2010 to 4,541 cars, to 7,114 in 2012, and reached 12,156 registered cars on 1 January 2014.[463] Registrations of plug-in electric drive vehicles represented a 0.028% market share of all passenger vehicles registered in Germany at the beginning of 2014.[463] The plug-in hybrid segment in the German market in 2014 experienced an explosive growth of 226.9% year-over-year, and the overall plug-in segment increased 75.5% from a year earlier.[278][279] The surge in sales continued in 2015, the plug-in hybrid segment grew 125.1% year-over-year, while the all-electric segment climbed 91.2% from the previous year.[280]
During 2011, a total of 2,154 pure electric cars were registered in the country, up from 541 units in 2010.[459] All-electric car sales for 2011 were led by the Mitsubishi i-MiEV family with 683 i-MiEVs, 208 Peugeot iOns and 200 Citroën C-Zeros, representing 50.6% of all electric car registrations in 2011.[459] Plug-in hybrid registrations totaled 266 units in 2011, 241 Opel Amperas and 25 Chevrolet Volts, for a total of 2,420 plug-in electric vehicles registered in 2011.[464]
A total of 2,956 all-electric vehicles were registered in Germany during 2012, a 37.2% increase over 2011.[460] When 901 registered plug-in hybrids are accounted for, 2012 registrations climb to 3,857 units,[460][466] and sales of plug-in electric car represented a 0.12% market share of new passenger vehicles sold in the country in 2012.[467] Most sales in the country were made by corporate and fleet customers and 1,493 all-electric vehicles were registered by the automobile industry, as demonstration or research vehicles.[460] Registrations of plug-in electric-drive vehicles were led by the Opel Ampera extended-range electric car with 828 units, followed by the Smart electric drive with 734 units.[466][468] In addition, a total of 2,413 Renault Twizys were sold during 2012, making Germany the top selling European market for the electric quadricycle.[428][469]
A total of 5,042 plug-in electric cars were registered in Germany in 2013.[463] Registrations were led by the Smart electric drive with 2,146 units, followed by Renault Zoe with 1,019, the Nissan Leaf with 855 units, and the BMW i3 with 559.[470][471] During the first six months of 2014 the BMW i3 was the leader, with 1,378 units registered, followed by the Volkswagen e-Up! with 884 and the Smart ED with 645.[472][473] Accounting for registrations of plug-in electric cars between January 2010 and June 2014, the leading model is the Smart electric drive with 3,959 units registered, with a significant number in use by carsharing services, followed by the BMW i3 with 1,937 units, the Renault Zoe with 1,532, and the Opel Ampera with 1,450 units.[459][460][463][464][466][470][472][473]
Top selling PEV models
The world's top selling highway-capable all-electric car ever is the Nissan Leaf with global sales of more than 200,000 units through December 2015.[474][475][2] As of December 2015, the top markets for Leaf sales are the United States with over 89,000 units,[295] followed by Japan with over 57,000 units,[476] and Europe with over 49,000 Leafs.[313][477] The European market is led by Norway with over 15,000 new units registered up until December 2015.[277][403][405][380]
Ranking second is the all-electric Tesla Model S, with global deliveries of over 107,000 units through December 2015.[1][251] The United States is the leading market with about 63,161 units sold.[251][290] Norway is the Model S largest overseas market, with 10,062 new units registered,[403][277][380] followed by China with 5,524 units registered through September 2015.[478][479] The world's top selling all-electric light utility vehicle is the Renault Kangoo Z.E., with global sales of 21,220 electric vans delivered through December 2015.[480]
The Volt/Ampera family is the world's best selling plug-in hybrid and the third best selling plug-in electric car after the Model S, with combined sales of over 106,000 units worldwide through December 2015,[1] including over 9,900 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe.[481] As of December 2015, sales are led by the United States with 88,750 Volt delivered,[295] followed by Canada with 5,415 units.[250] The Netherlands is the leading Ampera market with 4,947 units registered as of December 2015.[379]
Ranking next is the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with over 90,000 units sold worldwide as of December 2015.[6] Sales are led by the European market with almost 60,000 units delivered, followed by Japan with over 30,500 units sold, both through December 2015.[6] European sales thorugh November 2015 are led by the Netherlands with 20,346 units, followed by the UK with 16,290, and Sweden with 4,433.[482]
The following table presents market launch date, global sales and main country markets of the top selling highway-capable plug-in electric vehicles produced between 2008 and June 2015. The table includes plug-in passenger cars and plug-in utility vans with around or over 25,000 units sold.
| Sales by country of the top selling PEVs available for retail sales or leasing (available for retail sales as of June 2015) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model | Market launch | Global sales | Top selling markets | ||
| Country | Sales | Comment | |||
| Nissan Leaf | December 2010 | Over 180,000 | Global sales by early June 2015.[312] | ||
| US | 82,138 | Sales through June 2015.[483] | |||
| Japan | ~53,500 | Sales by early June 2015.[312] | |||
| Norway | 13,667(1) | Sales through June 2015.[277][406][484][485] | |||
| UK | 10,161 | Sales through June 2015.[458] | |||
| France | 4,847 | Sales through June 2015.[407][486] | |||
| Chevrolet Volt | December 2010 | Around 95,000 | Combined global sales of Volt and Ampera models through June 2015.[487]
Includes over 9,800 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through June 2015.[323][349][488][489] | ||
| US | 78,979 | Volts sold through June 2015.[483] | |||
| Netherlands | 6,041 | 4,976 Amperas and 1,065 Volts registered on 31 December 2014.[363] | |||
| Canada | 4,377 | Volts sold through June 2015.[490] | |||
| Germany | 1,607 | 1,534 Amperas and 73 Volts registered through June 2015.[464][466][470][472][491] | |||
| UK | 1,349 | 1,226 Amperas and 123 Volts registered at the end March 2015.[492] | |||
| Tesla Model S | June 2012 | 78,359 | Global sales through June 2015.[493][487] Includes all battery pack and drive models. | ||
| US | ~49,720 | Sales through June 2015.[494] | |||
| Norway | 8,697 | Registered through June 2015.[277][403][484] | |||
| China | 4,646 | Sales through June 2015.[479][495] | |||
| Netherlands | 3,541 | Registered through June 2015.[363][375][496][497] | |||
| Canada | 2,564 | Sales through June 2015.[498] | |||
| Germany | 1,702 | Registered through June 2015.[470][472][491] | |||
| Toyota Prius PHV | January 2012 | 73,590 | Global sales through July 2015.[499] | ||
| US | 40,992 | Sales through June 2015.[249][289][290][500] | |||
| Japan | 21,657 | Sales through July 2015.[499] | |||
| Netherlands | 4,067 | Registered on 30 June 2015.[501] | |||
| UK | 1,395 | Registered at the end of March 2015.[492] | |||
| Sweden | 1,183 | Registrations through June 2015.[346][502][503][504] | |||
| France | 864 | Registered through June 2015.[505][506][507][508] | |||
| Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV | January 2013 | Over 63,000 | Sales through May 2015.[509][510][511][512] Europe is the main market with 40,000 units sold through May 2015,[510] | ||
| Japan | 22,599 | Sales through June 2015.[513] | |||
| Netherlands | 18,230 | Registered on 30 June 2015.[362] | |||
| UK | 11,795 | Registered by mid June 2015.[510] | |||
| Sweden | 3,488 | Registrations through June 2015.[504][510] | |||
| Norway | 2,795 | Sales through June 2015.[373][514] | |||
| Germany | 2,230 | Registrations through June 2015.[373][515] | |||
| Mitsubishi i MiEV | July 2009 | Over 50,000 | Global sales of i-MiEV family vehicles, including the rebadged variants Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero sold in Europe; and the Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV all-electric utility vans and trucks sold in Japan.[516][517] | ||
| Japan | 17,455 | 10,765 i-MiEVs, 5,854 Minicabs, and 836 Minitrucks through June 2015.[316][513] | |||
| Norway | 5,334 | 2,589 i-MiEVs, 1,393 iOns, and 1,352 C-Zeros through June 2015.[403][406][514][518] | |||
| France | 5,022 | 2,616 iOns, 2,293 C-Zeros, and 113 i-MiEVs through June 2015.[407][486] | |||
| Germany | 2,545 | 1,027 i-MiEVs, 965 C-Zeros, and 553 iOns through June 2015.[464][466][470][472][491] | |||
| US | 1,965 | Sales through June 2015.[519] | |||
| UK | 836 | 376 iOns, 254 i MiEVs, and 206 C-Zeros registered at the end of March 2015.[492] | |||
| Switzerland | 757 | 458 i MiEVs, 173 C-Zeros, and 126 iOns through June 2015.[520] | |||
| BYD Qin | November 2013 | 31,366 | Global sales through June 2015, mostly in China.[521][522] | ||
| China | 31,366 | Sales through June 2015.[521][522] | |||
| Renault Zoe | December 2012 | 28,795 | Global sales through June 2015, mostly in Europe.[480] | ||
| France | 16,469 | Registrations through June 2015.[407][486] | |||
| Germany | 4,015 | Registrations through June 2015.[470][472][491] | |||
| Netherlands | 978 | Registered on 30 June 2015.[362] | |||
| Switzerland | 951 | Sales through June 2015.[520] | |||
| Austria | 890 | Sales through June 2015.[523] | |||
| BMW i3 | November 2013 | 27,375 | Global sales through June 2015.[524][525][526] | ||
| US | 10,548 | Sales through June 2015.[249][289][290][500] | |||
| Germany | 3,781 | Registrations through June 2015.[470][472][491] | |||
| Norway | 2,775 | Registrations through June 2015.[518][527][528] | |||
| UK | 2,186 | Registered at the end of March 2015.[492] | |||
| Netherlands | 984 | Registrations through June 2015.[375][496][497] | |||
| Switzerland | 947 | Registrations through June 2015.[520] | |||
| Notes: (1) Norwegian figures correspond to new car registrations. If used imports from neighboring countries are included (3,626 through September 2014), total Nissan Leaf registrations rise to over 17,000 up until June 2015.[406] | |||||
See also
- All-electric vehicle (EV) or battery electric vehicle (BEV)
- Electric car
- Electric car use by country
- Electric motorcycle
- Electric vehicle battery
- Electric vehicle warning sounds
- Hybrid tax credit (U.S.)
- List of electric cars currently available
- List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
- Neighborhood electric car
- New energy vehicles in China
- Plug In America
- Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States
- Plug-in hybrid vehicle, (PHEV)
- RechargeIT (Google.org PHEV program)
References
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cobb, Jeff (2016-01-12). "Tesla Model S Was World’s Best-Selling Plug-in Car in 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-01-23. The Tesla Model S was the top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 (50,366), followed by the Nissan Leaf (about 43,000), the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV (over 40,000), the BYD Qin (31,898) and the BMW i3 (24,057). BYD Auto ended 2015 with 58,728 units sold in China (includes BYD Qin, Tang, e6 and e5 vehicles).
- 1 2 3 4 "Renault-Nissan Alliance Sells 8.5 Million Vehicles In 2015" (Press release). Paris: Renault-Nissan Alliance. 2016-02-04. Retrieved 2016-02-05. Through the end of December 2015, the Renault-Nissan Alliance has sold a cumulative 302,000 electric vehicles worldwide. As of 31 December 2015, the Nissan Leaf remains the world’s best-selling electric car with more than 201,000 vehicles sold since its launch in December 2010. Since Renault began selling electric vehicles in October 2011, Renault has sold a cumulative 83,000 electric vehicles worldwide, including the Twizy two-seater urban commuter. The Renault Kangoo Z.E. remains the top light commercial EV in Europe.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 David B. Sandalow, ed. (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. See definition on pp. 2.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs)". Center for Sustainable Energy, California. Retrieved 2010-03-31.
- ↑ "PEV Frequently Asked Questions". Duke Energy. Retrieved 2010-12-24.
- 1 2 3 Kane, Mark (2016-02-11). "Summary of Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Sales In Japan In 2015". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
- 1 2 Jeff Cobb (2015-12-08). "Plug-in Pioneers: Nissan Leaf and Chevy Volt Turn Five Years Old". HybriCars.com. Retrieved 2015-12-10. As of November 2015 Leaf sales totaled about 198,000 units worldwide, led by the U.S. (88,244), Japan (about 57,000), Europe (about 48,000), and Canada (3,076), Around 2,000 were sold in other markets. By early December 2015, the all-electric Nissan Leaf is the all-time best-selling plug-in car in the world with over 200,000 units sold, followed by the Chevy Volt and its variants with close to 104,000 units, the Tesla Model S at nearly 100,000, the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with almost 85,000 and the Prius PHV with about 75,000. See table with ranking: "World's Top Best Selling Plug-in Electric cars."
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Cobb, Jeff (2016-01-18). "Top Six Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries – 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-01-23. About 520,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles were sold worlwide in 2015, with cumulative global sales reaching 1,235,000. The United States is the leading market with 411,120 units sold since 2008, followed by China with 258,328 units sold since 2011. Japan ranks third, followed by the Netherlands (88,991), Norway (77,897), France (74,291), and the UK (53,254). Over 21,000 units were sold in Japan in 2015.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 International Energy Agency, Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) (March 2015). "Global EV Outlook 2015" (PDF). Clean Energy Ministerial. Retrieved 2015-03-14. The EV Outlook 2015 figures include only plug-in electric passenger cars and SUVs (excludes light-weight utility vehicles) and total sales/registrations figures correspond to the 16 EVI countries, which are estimated to represent 95% of the global PEV stock. As of December 2014, the Japanese stock of plug-in cars totaled 108,241 units, and China had about 36,500 all-electric buses.
- 1 2 3 Roger Schreffler (2015-09-23). "PSA, Toyota Lead Way as European Cars Get Cleaner". Ward's Auto. Retrieved 2016-02-08. Cumulative plug-in hybrid and all-electric sales in Europe totaled 233,022 units as of December 2014.
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- 1 2 3 4 Matt Ritchel (2015-11-24). "A Car Dealers Won't Sell: It's Electric". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-11-28.
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- ↑ "China Announces Plan to Subsidize EVs and Plug-in Hybrids in Five Major Cities". Edmunds.com. 2010-06-01. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
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- ↑ Woodyard, Chris (2010-07-14). "Obama pushes electric cars, battery power this week". USA Today.
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- ↑ Sharyl Attkisson (2012-06-02). "Electric vehicles fall drastically short of Obama's 1 million goal". CBS News. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ↑ David Shepardson (2012-04-17). "Battery-powered autos proving a tough sell". The Detroit News. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ↑ Melanie Mason and Patrick McGreevy (2014-09-21). "Gov. Jerry Brown signs bills to boost purchases of electric cars". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2014-09-22.
- ↑ "Ontario Paves The Way For Electric Vehicles". Newsroom Ontario. 2010-06-18. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ↑ Eric Loveday (2011-04-11). "Quebec to offer plug-in vehicle rebates of up to C$8,000". AutoblogGreen. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
- ↑ "Running on Green Power! Electric Vehicles: 2011-2020 Québec Action Plan" (PDF). Gouvernement du Québec. 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-08. See Table Box 7 for the rebate details and how it changes by year.
- ↑ Sherry Boschert (2006). Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, Canada. ISBN 978-0-86571-571-4.
- ↑ Danny King (2011-06-20). "Neighborhood Electric Vehicle Sales To Climb". Edmunds.com Auto Observer. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Jiang Xueqing (2014-01-11). "New-energy vehicles 'turning the corner'". China Daily. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
- ↑ Stephen Edelstein (2015-11-03). "Polaris Updates GEM Low-Speed Electric Vehicles". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
- 1 2 3 JATO Dynamics (November 2015). "From Fiction to Reality: The Evolution of Electric Vehicles 2013 - 2015" (PDF). Valencia News. Retrieved 2015-11-21. pp. 5-7 and 13.
- ↑ Jose, Pontes (2016-02-03). "2015 Top EV Automotive Groups". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Jeff Cobb (2016-01-06). "December 2015 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Jeff Cobb (2015-01-06). "December 2014 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2015-01-06. See sections: "December 2014 Plug-in Hybrid Car Sales Numbers" and "December 2014 Battery Electric Car Sales Numbers"
- 1 2 Klippenstein, Matthew (February 2016). "Canadian Plug-in Electric Vehicle Sales". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tesla Motors (2016-02-10). "Tesla Fourth Quarter & Full Year 2015 Update" (PDF). Tesla Motors. Retrieved 2016-02-10. A total of 17,478 units were delivered globaly during the fouth quarter of 2015, including 206 Model X vehicles. Model S sales in the United States totaled 16,689 units in 2014 and 25,202 in 2015.
- ↑ "SEC Form 10-K for Fiscal Year Ended Dec 31, 2012, Commission File Number: 001-34756, Tesla Motors, Inc.". SEC. 2016-02-06. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
As of December 31, 2012, we had delivered approximately 2,450 Tesla Roadsters to customers in over 30 countries.
- 1 2 John Voelcker (2016-01-15). "Who Sold The Most Plug-In Electric Cars In 2015? (It's Not Tesla Or Nissan)". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2016-01-17. BYD Auto delivered 31,898 Qins, 18,375 Tangs, and 7,029 e6s during 2015. Added to that are small numbers of the T3 small commercial van and e5 battery-electric compact sedan, along with 2,888 Denza EV compact hatchbacks built by its joint venture with Daimler. Altogether, BYD sold a total of 61,722 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in China in 2015.
- 1 2 3 International Energy Agency, Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (April 2013). "Global EV Outlook 2013 - Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020" (PDF). International Energy Agency. Retrieved 2013-04-20. See pp. 4, 6-8, and 11-12.
- ↑ John Reed (2012-07-20). "Electric cars struggle to build momentum". Financial Times. Retrieved 2013-02-17. See the infograph Electric car sales lack spark for yearly sales between 2007 and 2010.
- ↑ Justin Gerdes (2012-05-11). "The Global Electric Vehicle Movement: Best Practices From 16 Cities". Forbes. Retrieved 2014-10-20.
- 1 2 3 David Conway (2014-09-18). "Tesla Has Lots of Room to Run". ARK Investment Management. Retrieved 2014-10-20.
- ↑ Ma Jie and Yuki Hagiwara (2013-03-20). "In Ghosn We Trust Tested as Nissan Electric Push Falters". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 2013-03-20.
- ↑ Elisabeth Rosenthal (2013-02-09). "Plugging In, Dutch Put Electric Cars to the Test". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-02-11.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Jeff Cobb (2015-02-18). "Top 6 Plug-In Vehicle Adopting Countries – 2014". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
- ↑ Berman, Brad (2016-02-13). "US Falls Behind Europe and China in Global Plug-in Vehicle Market". Plugincars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-16.
- 1 2 U.S. Department of Energy (January 2013). "EV Everywhere Grand Challenge Blueprint" (PDF). Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy(EERE), US DoE. Retrieved 2013-02-24. See pp. 5.
- 1 2 3 4 Lane, Ben (2016-01-07). "UK plug-in car sales hit record levels". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- 1 2 Taylor, Edward (2016-02-03). "UPDATE 2-German car industry urges Merkel to help promote electric cars". Reuters. Retrieved 2016-02-08.
- ↑ Reuters (2013-01-31). "U.S. resets expectations for electric vehicle sales". Long Island Newsday. Retrieved 2013-02-24.
- ↑ Norihiko Shirouzu, Yoko Kubota and Paul Lienert (2013-02-04). "Insight: Electric cars head toward another dead end". Reuters. Retrieved 2013-02-24.
- ↑ Melissa C. Lott (2013-02-20). "Electric Vehicle Deployment – Where Should We Be Today?". Scientific American. Retrieved 2013-02-24.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Bil Sweden (2015-01-02). "Nyregistreringar december 2014 (prel)" [New registrations in December 2014 (preliminar)] (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2015-01-04. Download file "Nyregistreringar december 2014 (prel)" see tables: "Nyregistrerade supermiljöbilar december 2014" with summary of plug-in passenger car registrations by model for 2013 (revised) and 2014, and table "Nyregistrerade eldrivna lätta lastbilar (högst 3,5 ton) per modell:" for plug-in utility vans registrations for the same two years. A total of 303,866 new passenger vehicles were registered in 2014, and a total of 4,656 super clean cars, resulting in a PEV market share of 1.53% of new car sales.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2015-01-10). "Denmark December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-03-15. Denmark's PEV market shared in 2014 was 0.88% of total new car sales.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2015-01-18). "Switzerland December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-03-15. Switzerland's PEV market shared in 2014 was 0.75% of total new car sales.
- 1 2 3 4 5 China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) (2015-01-14). "The sales and production of new energy vehicles boomed". CAAM. Retrieved 2015-01-14.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2015-01-07). "December 2014 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2015-01-08. A total of 14,518 plug-in electric cars were registered during 2014, consisting of 6,697 pure electrics and 7,821 plug-in hybrids, up from 3,586 plug-in electric cars were registered in 2013. A total of 2,476,435 new cars were registered in 2014.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Will Nichols (2015-01-08). "Electric car sales quadruple during 2014". Business Green. Retrieved 2015-01-08. A total of 4,051 Leafs were sold in 2014.
- ↑ Martin Hesketh (2015-02-20). "Brookson Economic Outlook 2015: Automotive Sector". Brookson. Retrieved 2015-02-22.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2015). "Bilsalget i 2014" [Car sales in 2014] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2015-01-14. A total of 10,639 plug-in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in 2013, consisting of: 7,885 new electric cars, 2,086 used imported all-electric cars, 328 new plug-in hybrid cars and 340 new all-electric vans. A total of 23,390 plug-in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in 2014, consisting of: 18,094 new electric cars, 3,063 used imported all-electric cars, 1,678 new plug-in hybrid cars and 555 new all-electric vans.
- 1 2 3 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA). "Monatliche Neuzulassungen - Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2013" [Monthly registrations - New registrations Barometer in December 2013] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2014-09-06. A total of 1,385 plug-in hybrids and 6,051 all-electric cars were registered during 2013.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2015). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2014" [New Registrations Barometer December 2014] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2015-01-27. A total of 13,049 plug-in electric cars registered in Germany during 2014, consisting of 8,522 all-electric cars and 4,527 plug-in hybrids.
- 1 2 3 4 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2016). "Neuzulassungsbarometer im Dezember 2015" [New Registrations Barometer December 2015] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2015-01-21. A total of 23,464 plug-in electric cars registered in Germany during 2015, consisting of 12,363 all-electric cars and 11,101 plug-in hybrids.
- 1 2 3 Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA) (January 2016). "Electric Drive Sales Dashboard". EDTA. Retrieved 2016-01-21. Sales figures sourced from HybridCars.com and direct reports submitted by EDTA member companies. Sales reported do not include the Fisker Karma
- ↑ HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. "HybridCars Dashboard". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-07-07.
- ↑ Alan Ohnsman (2014-09-09). "Californians Propel Plug-In Car Sales With 40% of Market". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 2014-09-09.
- ↑ California New Car Dealers Association (CNCDA) (February 2015). "California Auto Outlook Covering Fourth Quarter 2014: New Light Vehicle Registrations Likely to Exceed 1.9 million units in 2015" (PDF). CNCDA. Retrieved 2015-03-15. Registrations through December 2014 since 2010.
- ↑ California New Car Dealers Association (CNCDA) (November 2015). "California New Vehicle Registrations Predicted to Exceed 2 Million Units in 2015" (PDF). CNCDA. Retrieved 2015-11-22. Registrations through September 2015 since 2011. Revised figures for 2014.
- ↑ David C. Smith (2013-08-07). "Scrappage Rate Hits Historic High, Bodes Well for Future". Wards Auto. Retrieved 2013-08-14.
- ↑ Stacy C. Davis, Susan W. Diegel, and Robert G. Boundy (July 2014). "Transportation Energy Data Book Edition 33" (PDF). Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 2014-09-02. See Table 6.5: Hybrid and Plug-in Vehicle Sales, 1999-2013, pp. 6-9.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2014-09-09). "Americans Buy Their 250,000th Plug-In Car". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2014-09-09. As of August 2014, sales are led by the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid with 67,698 units, followed by the Nissan Leaf electric car with 61,063 units. The total of 250,609 units sold includes 1,800 Roadsters, 1,600 Fisker Karmas, and 500 Mini Es usually not captured by most statistics.
- 1 2 3 4 Jeff Cobb (2013-01-08). "December 2012 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2013-01-14. See the section: December 2012 Plug-in Electric Car Sales Numbers. A total of 53,172 plug-in electric vehicles were sold during 2012. Sales of the Fisker Karma, Coda and Wheego are not included, as these carmakers do not report monthly sales on a regular basis.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Jeff Cobb (2014-01-06). "December 2013 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2016-02-10. An estimated 18,650 Model S sedans were sold in the U.S. in 2013, and about 2,620 in 2012. See section "December 2013 Plug-in Electric Car Sales Numbers"
- ↑ Coplon-Newfield, Gina (2016-01-08). "December 2015: Best Month Ever for Electric Vehicle Sales in U.S., Despite Incredibly Low Gas Prices". Hoffpost Green. Retrieved 2016-01-23.
- ↑ Jay Cole (2014-06-04). "Electric Vehicle Sales In The US Hit All-Time High In May". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2014-06-04.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2014-06-04). "May 2014 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2014-06-04. A total of 43,144 plug-in electric cars were sold during the first five months of 2014, consisting of 20,256 all-electric cars and 22,618 plug-in hybrids. See sections: "May 2014 Battery Electric Car Sales Numbers" and "May 2014 Plug-In Hybrid Car Sales Numbers"
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2013-11-04). "October 2013 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2013-11-10. See the section: October 2013 Plug-in Electric Car Sales Numbers: A total of 77,965 plug-in electric cars were sold in the U.S. between January and October 2013, of which, 10,191 were delivered in October.
- 1 2 3 4 Cobb, Jeff (2016-01-13). "How Long Does The 2017 Chevy Bolt Have Before Federal Credits Begin Fading Away?". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-10. Through December 2015 Nissan has sold 89,591 Leafs and General Motors has sold 88,750 Volts in the U.S.
- ↑ Jay Cole (2015-04-01). "Nissan LEAF Sales Strengthen In March, Takes All-Time US Plug-In Sales Lead". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2015-04-02.
- ↑ Sebastian Blanco (2015-04-01). "Nissan Leaf is now the best-selling plug-in vehicle of all time in US". Autoblog.com. Retrieved 2015-06-21.
- 1 2 3 China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (2012-01-16). "5,579 electric cars sold in China in 2011". Wind Energy and Electric Vehicle Review. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
- 1 2 3 Cars21.com (2013-02-13). "EV sales increase 103.9% in China in 2012- Electric China Weekly No 17". Cars21.com. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
- ↑ Choi Dong (2016-01-10). "15年新能源乘用车销17.7万增2倍" [In 2015 with 177,000 units, new energy passenger car sales increased two-fold]. Auto.sohu.com (in Chinese). Retrieved 2016-02-08. See the monthly sales graph/table in top of the article for an accurate figure of 2015 sales: 176,627 plug-in passenger cars.
- ↑ Xinhua News Agency (2014-02-01). "Experts eye Tesla to spur China's electric vehicle market". Xinhua English News. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
- ↑ Philippe Crowne (2012-11-23). "China To Sell Over 4 Million Electrified Vehicles in 2020". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2014-01-12.
- ↑ China Daily (2013-02-28). "China needs electric cars more than hybrid". China Economic Net. Retrieved 2013-03-12.
- ↑ Staff (2014-01-10). "Plug-in EV Sales in China Rose 37.9% to 17,600 in 2013". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2014-02-09.
- ↑ China Auto Web (2014-05-20). "6,853 PEVs Were Sold in China in Q1 2014". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2015-01-18. 2,016 QQ3 EVs were sold during the first quarter of 2014.
- 1 2 3 Jeff Cobb (2015-02-10). "2014's Top-10 Global Best-Selling Plug-in Cars". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-17.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Staff (2015-01-14). "2014 EV Sales Ranking". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2015-01-15.
- 1 2 3 Staff (2016-01-14). "Best-selling Sedan in 2015". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-01-17. A total of 31,898 Qins were sold in China in 2015.
- ↑ Jose, Pontes (2016-01-12). "China December 2015 (3rd Update)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2016-02-08.
- ↑ Staff (2016-01-14). "Best-selling China-made SUVs in 2015". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-01-17. A total of 18,375 Tangs were sold in China in 2015.
- ↑ Staff (2016-01-14). "Sales Ranking of China-made Pure-electric Cars in 2015". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2016-02-10. A total of 16,736 Kandi EVs, 16,488 BAIC E-Series EVs, and 15,467 Zotye Z100 EVs were sold in China in 2015.
- 1 2 3 "Renault-Nissan Alliance Sells Its 250,000th Electric Vehicle" (Press release). Paris/Yokohama: Renault-Nissan Alliance. 2015-06-24. Retrieved 2015-06-28. The Nissan Leaf is the world's all-time best selling highway-capable plug-in electric car, with global sales of over 180,000 units by early June 2015.
- 1 2 3 4 "Renault-Nissan Alliance Sales Rise For Fifth Straight Year In 2014 To 8.5 Million Vehicles" (Press release). Paris: Nissan Motor Corporation. 2015-02-04. Retrieved 2015-02-07.
- 1 2 3 4 5 "三菱 i-MiEVなどの2014年12月度 生産・販売実績" [Mitsubishi i-MiEV production and sales results for December 2014] (in Japanese). Electric Vehicle News. 2015-01-28. Retrieved 2015-02-18..
- ↑ "Toyota Is Global Hybrid Leader With Sales Of 7 Million" (Press release). Torrance, California: PR Newswire. 2014-10-13. Retrieved 2014-10-15.
- 1 2 Mark Kane (2014-01-14). "Sales Of Mitsubishi MiEV in Japan Fell Off Sharply in 2013; Battery Production Constraints Probable Cause". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2014-08-16. A total of 9,402 i MiEVs were sold between July 2009 and December 2013.
- 1 2 Jose Pontes (2015-01-30). "Japan December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2014-01-30). "Japan December 2013". EV Sales. Retrieved 2014-02-19. Excludes sales of Nissan NMC units (45), which is a low-speed neighborhood vehicle.
- ↑ Mark Kane (2014-01-30). "Nissan LEAF Sales In Japan Up 17% in 2013". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2014-02-08.
- ↑ Mark Kane (2015-02-09). "Nissan LEAF Sales In Japan Up 9% To 14,000 In 2014". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2015-02-18. A total of 14,177 units were sold in Japan during 2014.
- 1 2 3 European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (AVERE) (2012-11-26). "AVERE Data Collection – from June to August 2012" (PDF). AVERE. Retrieved 2015-02-21. See Figure 1.1 Electric Vehicle sales in Europe since 2010. Only pure electric cars are reported. In 2010 there were no production plug-in hybrids in sale in Europe.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2011-01-17). "2010 Europe: Car Sales Statistics by Country". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-21. A total of 13,785,698 new cars were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries in 2010.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mat Gasnier (2013-02-10). "Europe Full Year 2012: Now with Top 350 models & Top 60 brands". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2013-02-13. A total of 1,728 Leafs were sold in Europe in 2011 and 5,210 in 2012. Ampera sales in Europe totaled 5,268 units in 2012 and 304 in 2011.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2012-01-17). "2011 Full Year Car Sales by European Country". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-21. A total of 13,768,401 new cars were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries in 2011.
- 1 2 3 4 5 AVERE-France (2014-03-14). "Europe - Les ventes de véhicules électriques en hausse en 2013" [Europe - Sales of electric vehicles on the rise in 2013] (in French). AVERE-France. Retrieved 2015-01-21.
- 1 2 Jose Pontes (2013-02-03). "Europe Full Year 2012". EV sales. Retrieved 2013-01-12. During 2012 a total of 3,496 Prius PHV, 609 Chevrolet Volts and 247 Fisker Karmas were sold in Europe.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2013-01-16). "2012 (Full Year) Europe: Best-Selling Car Manufacturers and Brands". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-21. A total of 12,527,912 new cars were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries in 2012.
- 1 2 3 4 5 European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (February 2015). "New Electric Vehicles Registrations In The European Union" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 2015-02-18. See table Total Electrically Charged Vehicles: Total Europe (EU+EFTA), 65,071 registered units for 2013 and 97,791 units for 2014. For Denmark, Ireland and Romania includes only pure electric vehicles. Total Electrically Charged Vehicles = Pure Electric Vehicles + Extended‐Range Electric Vehicles + Plug‐In Hybrid Electric Vehicles.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2014-01-20). "2013 (Full Year) Europe: Best-Selling Car Manufacturers, Brands and Models". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-21. A total of 12,308,215 new cars were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries in 2013.
- 1 2 AVERE France (2015-01-30). "En Europe, le marché du véhicule électrique a progressé de + 60,9 % en 2014" [In Europe, the electric vehicle market grew by 60.9% in 2014] (PDF) (in French). AVERE France. Retrieved 2015-11-21. A total of 65,199 electric cars and utility vehicles were registered in Europe in 2014, up 60.9% from 2013. Passenger cars represented 87% of total all-electric registrations.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2015-01-21). "2014 (Full Year) Europe: Car Sales by EU Country". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2015-02-21. A total of 13,006,451 new cars were registered in the European Union and EFTA countries in 2014.
- ↑ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (March 2014). "Cijfers elektrich vervoer - Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland" [Figures electric transport - Number of registered electric vehicles in Netherlands] (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2014-03-16.
- ↑ Zachary Shahan (2014-02-26). "Top European Countries For 100%-Electric Car Sales & Plug-In Hybrid Electric Car Sales (Charts)". Clean Technica. Retrieved 2014-03-16.
- ↑ Michaël Torregrossa (2014-08-04). "Europe – Plus de 40.000 véhicules rechargeables vendus au premier semestre 2014" [Europe - Over 40,000 plug-in vehicles sold in the first half of 2014] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2014-08-25.
- 1 2 AVERE-France (2015-01-30). "Immatriculations de véhicules électriques en Europe : +60% en 2014 !" [Registrations of electric vehicles in Europe: +60% in 2014] (in French). AVERE France. Retrieved 2014-02-23.
- 1 2 3 Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2015). "Special: Analyse over 2014" [Special: Analysis over 2014] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2015-02-24. See total 2014 registration by type of PEV under the heading "31-12-2014". The market share of the plug-in electric passenger car segment in 2014 was 3.86% of total new passenger car registrations.
- ↑ "Opel Ampera – a Pioneer of Green Mobility Europe's Most Successful Passenger EV". The European Financial Review. 2012-12-11. Retrieved 2013-02-11.
- 1 2 Nissan Newsroom Europe (2014-02-12). "Nissan LEAF the best-selling EV in Europe in 2013". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 2014-02-13. A total of 11,120 Leafs were sold in Europe in 2013.
- 1 2 3 Mark Kane (2014-01-20). "8,197 Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Sold In Europe In 2013; Almost All In Netherlands". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2014-02-08.
- 1 2 3 4 Nikki Gordon-Bloomfield (2015-01-19). "Nissan LEAF Electric Car Still Top in Europe After Four Years. Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Top Plug-in for 2014". Transport Evolved. Retrieved 2015-01-19.
- 1 2 3 4 Groupe Renault (January 2015). "Ventes Mensuelles" [Monthly Sales] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 2015-02-22. Includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on "+ Voir plus" to download the files "Ventes mensuelles du groupe (décembre 2011) (xls, 183 Ko)" "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2012) (xls, 289 Ko)" - Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2013) (xlsx, 227 Ko)" - "XLSX - 220 Ko Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2014)" for 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014 sales, and open the tab "Sales by Model".
- 1 2 3 Tesla Motors (2014-02-11). "Tesla Motors – Fourth Quarter & Full Year 2014 Shareholder Letter" (PDF). Tesla Motors. Retrieved 2014-02-22. Global sales during 2014 totaled 31,655 Model S sedans, of which, about 30% were sold in Europe (9,497).
- 1 2 3 4 Neil Winton (2015-02-03). "Electric Car Sales Jump In Europe, But Likely To Stall Soon". Forbes. Retrieved 2015-02-21. Automotive Industry Data (AID) sales figures include only all-electric cars.
- 1 2 Nick Gibbs (2015-04-24). "Plug-ins poised to be Europe's top electrified drivetrain". Automotive News Europe. Retrieved 2015-04-26. A total of 5,441 Volvo V60 PHEVs were sold in Europe in 2014.
- 1 2 Graeme Roberts (2014-10-24). "Vehicle Analysis: Mitsubishi's top-selling Outlander PHEV". Just auto. Retrieved 2015-04-26. A total of 8,066 Volvo V60 plug-in hybrids were sold in 2013.
- 1 2 3 "2012 (Full Year) Sweden: Best-Selling Electric Cars & Plug-In Hybrid Models". BestSellingCars.com. 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2013-07-05.
- 1 2 Neil Winton (2014-02-06). "Electric Car Sales In Western Europe Spurt, But From Miniscule Base". Automotive Industry Data (AID). Forbes. Retrieved 2014-03-16. AID sales figures (38,617 units) include all-electric cars and range-extenders vehicles in Germany.
- ↑ Mat Gasnier (2014-07-19). "World Full Year 2013: Discover the Top 1000 best-selling models!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2014-07-27. A total of 1,477 i3s were registered in 2013. Includes press fleet vehicles and dealer demonstrators.
- 1 2 Mike Colias (2014-07-21). "Opel will discontinue weak-selling Ampera, sources say". Automotive News Europe. Retrieved 2014-08-13. Ampera sales in Europe totaled 3,184 units in 2013.
- ↑ Staff (January 2015). "Sales Data - Opel Ampera". Left-Lane.com. Retrieved 2015-02-22. Ampera sales in Europe totaled 939 units in 2014.
- ↑ Toyota Europe Press Release (2013-01-09). "Toyota Motor Europe 2012 Sales Up 2% (+15,583 Units) In A Sharply Declining Market". Toyota Europe. Retrieved 2013-04-14. A total of 3,496 units sold in 2012.
- ↑ Toyota Motor Europe Press Release (2014-01-14). "Toyota Motor Europe Comments On Sales Development 2013". Bloomberg. Retrieved 2014-05-05. 4,591 Prius PHEVs were sold in 2013.
- ↑ Autocar Pro (2015-01-16). "Record hybrid sales for Toyota In Europe". Autocar Professional. Retrieved 2015-02-22. A total of 1,352 Prius PHV were sold in Europe in 2014.
- ↑ Justin Aschard (2012-11-30). "Inmatriculations VP et VUL Europe 18 à fin Oct. 2012 (2010-2012)" [Registrations of passenger cars and utility vehicles in Europe 18 through October 2012 (2010-2012)] (PDF) (in French). France Mobilité Électrique. Retrieved 2013-02-10. A total of 1,721 second generation Smart EDs were registered in Europe between 2010 and October 2012.
- ↑ Staff (January 2015). "European sales 2014 EV and PHEV segments -". Left-Lane.com. Retrieved 2015-02-22. Smart electric drive sales in Europe totaled 2,726 units in 2014 and 3,017 in 2013.
- ↑ "Estonia goes electric with new car charger network". Reuters. 2013-02-20. Retrieved 2013-02-22.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Jeff Cobb (2014-01-16). "Top 6 Plug-In Vehicle Adopting Countries". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2014-01-18.
- 1 2 3 4 Staff (2014-01-08). "Over 20.000 ladbare biler på norske veier" [Over 20,000 rechargeable electric cars on Norwegian road] (in Norwegian). Grønn bil. Retrieved 2014-01-13.
- ↑ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2014). "Statistikk-Ladbare biler i Norge" [Vehicle population in 2013] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2013-03-12. As of 31 December 2013, there were 2,487,353 passenger cars registered in Norway.
- 1 2 3 4 Staff (2014-04-02). "Elbilsalget i mars slo alle rekorder" [Electric vehicle sales in March broke all records] (in Norwegian). Grønn bil. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
- 1 2 Mark Rowney, Will Straw (2013-04-15). "Leading the Charge - Can Britain Develop a Global Advantage in Ultra-Low-Emission Vehicles" (PDF). Institute for Public Policy Research. Retrieved 2013-04-16. pp.20
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (December 2015). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer – Top 10 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische auto (31-12-2015)" [Figures electric transport – Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland - Top 10 registered fully electric vehicle models (31-12-2015)] (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- 1 2 3 Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2015). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer - Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland - Top 5 geregistreerde modellen plug-in hybride elektrische voertuigen (31-12-2014) - Top 6 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische voertuigen (31-12-2014)" [Figures electric transport - Number of registered electric vehicles in Netherlands, Top 5 registered plug-in electric hybrid vehicle models (12-31-2014) and Top 6 registered all-electric vehicle models (12-31-2014)] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2015-04-27. Click the url to download the file "2014-cijfers-elektrisch-vervoer-tm-december-2014.pdf.pdf" See under the heading "31-12-2014" for total registrations figures at the end of December 2014. A total of 2,645 Model S sedans were registered in the Netherlands as of December 2014, and it ranks as the top registered all-electric vehicles in the country.
- 1 2 Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2013). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer (30-12-2013)" [Figures electric transport (30-12-2013)] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2014-08-23.
- ↑ RAI. "Verkoopstatistieken -nieuwverkoop personenautos" [Sales Statistics - New passenger car sales] (in Dutch). RAI Vereniging. Retrieved 2013-02-02. Download pdf file for detailed sales in 2011 ("Download nieuwverkoop personenautos 201112") and 2012 ("Download nieuwverkoop personenautos 201212").
- 1 2 Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS) (2013-12-24). "Forse toename elektrische auto's" [Major increase in electric car sales]. NOS (in Dutch). Retrieved 2013-12-26.
- ↑ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2016). "Special: Analyse over 2015" [Special: Analysis over 2015] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- 1 2 Automotive Industry Data (AID) (2013-12-17). "Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV top seller". AID. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
- 1 2 Mat Gasnier (2013-12-04). "Netherlands November 2013: Mitsubishi Outlander shoots up to pole position!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2014-01-04). "Netherlands December 2013". EV Sales. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
- 1 2 Mat Gasnier (2013-12-04). "Netherlands November 2013: Mitsubishi Outlander shoots up to pole position!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2013-12-26.
- 1 2 Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2015). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer - Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland - Top 5 geregistreerde modellen plug-in hybride elektrische voertuigen (31-12-2014) - Top 6 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische voertuigen (31-12-2014)" [Figures electric transport - Number of registered electric vehicles in Netherlands, Top 5 registered plug-in electric hybrid vehicle models (12-31-2014) and Top 6 registered all-electric vehicle models (12-31-2014)] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2015-02-24. Click the url to download the file "2014-cijfers-elektrisch-vervoer-tm-december-2014.pdf.pdf" See under the heading "31-12-2014" for total registrations figures at the end of December 2014.
- 1 2 3 4 Graeme Roberts (2015-01-13). "Netherlands: Mitsubishi boosts European sales 28% in 2014". Just Auto. Retrieved 2015-01-19. A total of 19,980 Outlander P-HEVs were sold in Europe during 2014. The top markets were the Netherlands with 7,666 units, followed by the UK (5,370), Sweden (2,289), Norway (1,485) and Germany (1,060).
- ↑ "De 5 populairste semi-elektrische en elektrische auto’s van 2014" [The 5 most popular plug-in hybrid and electric cars of 2014] (in Dutch). Groen7. 2015-01-08. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
- 1 2 3 RAI (2015-01-27). "Verkoopstatistieken" [Sales Statistics] (PDF) (in Dutch). RAI Vereniging. Retrieved 2015-01-31. Download the pdf file for detailed sales by model during 2014: "nieuwverkoop personenautos 201412".
- ↑ Priest, Ruben (2016-01-11). "De 5 populairste semi-elektrische en elektrische auto’s van 2015" [The 5 most popular plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars in 2015] (in Dutch). Groen7.nl. Retrieved 2016-02-08.
- ↑ Loveday, Eric (2016-01-23). "Netherlands Shocks With Nearly 16,000 Plug-In Electric Car Sales In December!". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2016-02-08.
- ↑ Staff (2016-01-01). "Elektrische auto" [Electric car]. Auto & Fiscus (in Dutch). Retrieved 2016-02-08. This page presents the current state of fiscal arrangements for plug-in electric cars in the Netherlands.
- 1 2 3 Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (January 2016). "Aantal geregistreerde elektrische voertuigen in Nederland - Top 5 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische voertuigen (31 december 2015) - Top 10 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische voertuigen (31 december 2015)" (in Dutch). Nnederlandel Ektrisch. Retrieved 2016-02-08.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2015). "Bilsalget i 2015" [Car sales in 2015] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2016-02-09. See registrations for 2014 and 2015. Figures include used imports from neighboring countries.
- ↑ "Ladbare biler i Norge sep, 2015" [Rechargeable cars in Norway September 2015] (in Norwegian). Grønn bil. October 2015. Retrieved 2015-10-14. Click on the bar graph "Registrerte biler" and select "12 mnd" for registrations for each year. Registrations include new and used imports. Move the mouse over each bar to show the sales split between all-electric and plug-in hybrids by year.
- ↑ Petter Haugneland (2015-04-20). "50.000 elbiler på norske veier!" [50,000 electric cars on Norwegian roads!] (in Norwegian). Norsk elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association. Retrieved 2015-04-21.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2015-04-20). "Norway Celebrates 50,000th Plug-in Car Sold; Will EV Incentives Continue?". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-04-20.
- ↑ Bert Witkamp (2014-09-14). "Electric vehicle sales in Europe - European Electro-mobility Observatory" (PDF). AVERE. Retrieved 2015-02-22. See pp.12: New car registration is NOT EV’s on the road - About 1,300 used electric cars were imported into Norway before 2013. By September 2014 most imports came from France, particularly Nissan Leaf cars.
- ↑ Norsk Elbilforening (2013-10-22). "Så mange elbiler er det i Norge nå" [So many electric cars are in Norway's reach] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2012-10-27.
- ↑ Alister Doyle and Nerijus Adomaitis (2013-03-13). "Norway shows the way with electric cars, but at what cost?". Reuters. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
- ↑ Agence France-Presse (2011-05-15). "Electric cars take off in Norway". The Independent. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
- ↑ AVERE (2012-06-07). "Norwegian Parliament extends electric car initiatives until 2018". AVERE. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2015-04-17). "Norway Electric Car Incentives Will Hit Sales Cap Next Week". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-04-21.
- ↑ "Over 10.000 ladbare biler på norske veier" [Over 10,000 plug-in cars in Norwegian roads] (in Norwegian). Grønn bil. 2013-01-04. Retrieved 2013-02-10. A total of 2.298 new Leafs and 189 used-imports were registered in Norway during 2012. Total cumulative sales do not include the imports registered in 2012.
- ↑ Ståle Frydenlund (2015-04-02). "1 av 4 biler i mars var en elbil" [1 in 4 cars in March was an electric car] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2015-04-21.
- ↑ Mat Gasnier (2013-10-05). "Norway September 2013: Tesla Model S in pole position!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2013-10-08.
- ↑ Mark Kane (2014-01-04). "Tesla Model S Again #1 in Overall Sales in Norway in December!". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
- 1 2 3 4 Ståle Frydenlund (2014-04-02). "Tesla knuste 28 år gammel rekord" [Tesla broke 28-year-old record] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2014-04-05.
- ↑ Reuters (2013-11-01). "Nissan Leaf tops Norway Oct. car sales, beats Toyota Auris, VW Golf". Automotive News Europe. Retrieved 2013-11-02.
- ↑ Mat Gasnier (2013-11-02). "Norway October 2013: Nissan Leaf new leader!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2013-11-02.
- 1 2 Mark Kane (2014-02-10). "Nissan LEAF Is Best Selling Car In Norway Again In January!". InsideEvs.com. Retrieved 2014-02-11.
- ↑ Mat Gasnier (2014-01-05). "Norway Full Year 2013: VW Golf #1, Nissan Leaf on podium!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2014-01-20.
- ↑ John D. Stoll (2014-04-02). "Tesla Breaks Norway's All-Time Sales Record". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2014-04-03.
- 1 2 Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (April 2014). "Bilsalget i mars" [Car sales in March] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2014-04-06. A total of 36,492 new passenger cars were registered in Norway during the first quarter of 2014.
- ↑ OFV (February 2015). "Bilsalget i januar" [Car sales in January] (in Norwegian). Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken AS (OFV). Retrieved 2015-02-23..
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 OFV (January 2014). "Bilsalget i desember og hele 2013" [Car sales in December and during 2013] (in Norwegian). Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken AS (OFV). Retrieved 2014-08-16.
- ↑ OFV (July 2014). "Bilsalget i juni og første halvår 2014" [Car sales in June and the first half of 2014] (in Norwegian). Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken AS (OFV). Retrieved 2014-08-16. Click on "Modellfordelt" to display the top 20 selling new cars in Norway.
- 1 2 Mat Gasnier (2013-01-09). "Norway Full Year 2012: VW Tiguan and Nissan Leaf impress". Best Selling CarsBlog. Retrieved 2013-02-15. A total of 373 new units were sold in 2011 and 2,298 units in 2012.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Ladbare biler i Norge sep, 2014" [Rechargeable cars in Norway in September, 2014] (in Norwegian). Grønn bil. October 2014. Retrieved 2014-10-18. Click on the bar graph "Salgstall" and select "12 mnd" for total annual sales by model: Leaf registrations for each year (including new and used imports) are: 381 in 2011; 2,487 in 2012; 6,213 in 2013; and 5,593 during the first nine months of 2014. Click on "Markedsandel" for cumulative registrations of the all-time top selling models through September 2014. Click "Utvikling" for sales split between all-electric and plug-in hybrids by year.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Autoactu.com. "Chiffres de vente & immatriculations de voitures électriques en France" [Sales figures & electric car registrations in France] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2015-08-01. See "Ventes de voitures électriques en 2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011 and 2010" It shows all electric car registrations between 2010 and 2014.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 AVERE-France (2014-01-08). "Baromètre AVERE-France Janvier 2014" [Barometer AVERE-France January 2014] (in French). France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- 1 2 Justin Aschard (2012-11-07). "Novembre 2012 - Ventes de véhicules électriques (CCFA)" [November 2012 - Sales of electric vehicles (CCFA)] (in French). France Mobilité Électrique. Retrieved 2013-02-16. See table Bilan annuel des ventes de véhicules électriques (Annual sales of electric vehicles) for detailed sales by category during 2010 and 2011.
- 1 2 France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2013-01-07). "Bilan des Immatriculations pour l'Année 2012" [Record Registrations for 2012] (in French). AVERE. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013. Retrieved 2013-02-16. A total of 5,663 electric cars and 3,651 electric vans were registered in France in 2012.
- 1 2 3 4 5 AVERE-France (2015-01-05). "Le marché du véhicule électrique maintient sa progression en 2014" [The electric vehicle market continues to grow in 2014] (in French). AVERE France. Retrieved 2015-01-14.
- 1 2 AVERE-France (2015-10-02). "Le véhicule électrique représente plus d’1% du marché automobile en septembre 2015" [The electric vehicle represents more than 1% of the automobile market in September 2015] (in French). AVERE France. Retrieved 2015-10-23. A total of 11,779 all-electric cars and 3,104 all-electric utility vehicles were registered during the first nine months of 2015.
- ↑ Laurent Meillaud (2012-01-14). "2630 voitures électriques immatriculées en 2011" [2630 electric cars registered in 2011] (in French). MSN France. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
- 1 2 Yoann Nussbaumer (2013-01-16). "+115% pour les ventes de voitures électriques en France pour 2012" [Electric car sales in France increased 115% in 2011] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2014-01-18.
- 1 2 France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2013-01-07). "Bilan des Immatriculations pour l'Année 2012" [Record Registrations for 2012] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- 1 2 "2012, une année record pour les véhicules électriques" [2012 a record year for electric vehicles] (in French). Atlante & Cie. 2013-02-07. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ↑ Philippe Schwoerer (2015-01-09). "Quel marché espérer en 2015 pour le véhicule électrique ?" [What the market expects in 2015 for the electric vehicle] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2015-02-01. The BMW i3 with range extender is often excluded of the count of all-electric cars because in France it is classified and accounted together with conventional hybrids.
- 1 2 3 Automobile Propre. "Chiffres de vente & immatriculations d’utilitaires électriques en France" [Sales figures & electric utility van registrations in France] (in French). Automobile Propre. Retrieved 2015-02-02. See "Ventes d’utilitaires électriques en 2014" for all-electric utility van registrations in 2014. Light-duty electric vehicles reached a 1.22% market share of new van sales in the country in 2014.
- ↑ Zachary Shahan (2014-08-07). "Europe Electric Car Sales Up 77% In 2014". EV Obsesion. Retrieved 2014-08-26.
- 1 2 3 France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2015-01-30). "Immatriculations de véhicules électriques en Europe : +60% en 2014 !" [Registrations of electric vehicles in Europe: +60% in 2014!] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2015-02-02.
- 1 2 Michaël Torregrossa (2013-01-15). "Voitures hybrides – Le bilan des immatriculations 2012 en France" [Hybrid Cars - The balance of 2012 registrations in France] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2013-01-15.
- 1 2 Michaël Torregrossa (2014-01-19). "Hybride rechargeable – Le marché français stagne en 2013" [Rechargeable hybrids - The French market stagnated in 2013] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2014-01-19.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2014-01-24). "France December 2013 (Updated)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
- 1 2 AVERE-France (2015-01-08). "Hybride : un marché en recul en 2014, l'hybride essence tient le coup" [Hybrid: a declining market in 2014, the gasoline-electric hybrid holds up] (in French). France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France. Retrieved 2015-02-02. A total of 1,519 plug-in hybrids were registered in France in 2014.
- ↑ Philippe Schwoerer (2015-01-16). "Mitsubishi mise et gagne sur l’hybride rechargeable" [Mitsubishi bets and wins with its plug-in hybrid] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2015-02-02.
- ↑ Michaël Torregrossa (2013-01-09). "Voitures électriques – Le bilan des immatriculations 2012 en France" [Electric Cars - The balance of registrations in France 2012] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- 1 2 Renault (2013-04-17). "Ventes Mensuelles" [Monthly Sales] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 2013-04-18. Click on "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2012) (xls, 294 Ko)" and "Ventes mensuelles (mars 2013) (xlsx, 223 Ko)" to download the files for 2012 and 2013 sales, and open the tab TWIZY.
- ↑ Justin Aschard (2012-11-30). "Inmatriculations VP et VUL France à fin Oct. 2012 (2010-2012)" [Registrations of passenger cars and utility vehicles in France through October 2012 (2010-2012)] (PDF) (in French). France Mobilité Électrique. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 20, 2013. Retrieved 2012-12-13. 14 Kangoo ZEs were registered in 2010 and 768 in 2011.
- ↑ Joseph Beretta (2013-01-09). "Les ventes de voitures électriques et hybrides décollent enfin" [Sales of electric and hybrid cars finally take off] (in French). Économie matin. Retrieved 2015-02-04. A total of 2,869 Kangoo Z.E. electric vans were registered in France in 2012.
- ↑ Michaël Torregrossa (2013-10-19). "Paris – Autolib’ passe le seuil des 3 millions de locations" [Paris - Autolib' passes the threshold of 3 million rentals] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2013-10-21.
- 1 2 Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2016-01-07). "December 2015 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2016-01-21. A total of 28,188 plug-in electric cars were registered during 2015, consisting of 9,934 pure electrics and 18,254 plug-in hybrids. A total of 2,633,503 new cars were registered in 2015.
- 1 2 Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2012-01-06). "December 2011 – EV and AFV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2013-01-07). "December 2012 – EV and AFV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- 1 2 3 Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2014-01-07). "December 2013 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2014-01-12. A total of 3,584 registered plug-in electric cars were eligible for the Plug-in Grant in 2013.
- ↑ Lane, Ben (2016-01-07). "Electric car market statistics". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2016-02-07. About 2,900 plug-in electric commercial vans have been registered in the U.K. by the beginning of 2016.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT) (April 2011). "Motor Industry Facts 2011" (PDF). SMMT. Retrieved 2012-01-14. Download the pdf report. Data available by year in Table: AFV Registrations, pp.15. Data shows all type of EVs, including quadricycles. A total of 1,096 electric vehicles were registered in the UK between 2006 and December 2010
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2016-02-04). "January 2016 – EV registrations". SMT. Retrieved 2016-02-07. There have been 49,866 cars registered eligible to the Plug-In Car Grant up until January 2016.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT). "Motor Industry Facts 2012" (PDF). SMMT. Retrieved 2013-10-10. Download the pdf report. Data available by year in Table: Alternatively-fuelled vehicle registrations by fuel type, pp.24. Data shows highway-capable EVs.
- ↑ Nikki Gordon-Bloomfield (2013-08-30). "TLC needed: Can cars like the G-Wiz still have a purpose in life?". The Green Car Website. Retrieved 2013-10-10.
- ↑ Jon LeSage (2013-01-08). "Toyota Prius Plug-In wins 2012 sales battle in UK". AutoblogGreen. Retrieved 2013-02-10.A total of 470 Prius PHV were sold in 2012.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2013). "New Car CO2 Report 2013" (PDF). SMMT. Retrieved 2013-03-17. See Table 5: New car CO2 emissions and registrations by fuel type (pp.8) SMMT reports 1,262 electric cars, 522 range extenders and 470 plug-in hybrids for a total of 2,254 PEVs sold in 2012.
- ↑ Duncan Kay, Nikolas Hill and Dan Newman (Ricardo-AEA) (April 2013). "Powering Ahead - The future of low-carbon cars and fuels" (PDF). RAC Foundation. Retrieved 2013-04-26.
- 1 2 3 Faye Sunderland (2014-01-07). "Plug-in car sales boom on back of recovering car market". The Green Car Website. Retrieved 2014-01-12. 509 Prius PHVs were sold 2013.
- 1 2 3 4 Fleet News (2014-01-23). "Nissan set a new UK sales record in 2013". Fleet News. Retrieved 2014-01-24. 1,812 Leafs were sold during 2013.
- 1 2 3 4 5 "Record-breaking year for plug-in cars". Fleet News. 2016-01-15. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- 1 2 Mat Gasnier (2013-02-01). "UK Full Year 2012: Now with Top 350 All-models ranking!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2013-02-16. A total of 635 Leafs were sold in 2011 and 699 in 2012.
- ↑ Staff (2016-01-18). "Nissan electric vehicle sales soar, as industry celebrates fresh green car investment". Business Green. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
- ↑ Ben Lane (2014-08-06). "UK electric fleet passes 13,000 mark". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2014-08-19.
- ↑ Will Nichols (2014-10-07). "UK electric car sales surge in 2014". The Guardian. Retrieved 2014-10-09.
- ↑ Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT) (2014-12-04). "November 2014 – EV registrations". SMMT. Retrieved 2014-12-09.
- ↑ Mark Kane (2014-12-08). "Plug-In Electric Car Sales UK At 1% Of Market In November". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2014-12-09.
- 1 2 "Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV is the UK's Favourite Plug-In Vehicle". The Auto Channel. 2015-03-09. Retrieved 2015-03-14.
- ↑ Faye Sunderland (2014-08-06). "Mitsubishi Outlander plug-in hybrid tops UK electric car sales". UK: The Green Car Website. Retrieved 2014-08-17.
- ↑ "Confident Mitsubishi UK Builds On Strong 2014 Sales With New Five-Year Warranty" (Press release). London: Mitsubishi Motors UK. 2015-01-07. Retrieved 2015-01-19.
- ↑ Chris Lilly (2015-08-26). "Plug-in Car Grant scheme extended". UK: Next Green Car. Retrieved 2015-10-17.
- ↑ Andy Sharman (2015-03-25). "Mitsubishi’s outlandish electric car success". Financial Times. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
- 1 2 Nissan News Release (2015-07-06). "Nissan celebrates 10,000 LEAF sales in the UK". Automotive World. Retrieved 2015-07-08. A total of 2,964 Nissan Leafs were sold during the first half of 2015, and cumulative sales since the Leaf introduction totaled 10,161 units by the end of June 2015.
- 1 2 3 4 Autobild (2012-01-12). "2011 Full Year Best-Selling Electric Cars in Germany in 2011". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2012-10-31. Cumulative number of registered electric cars was 4,541 as of January 1, 2012. All-electric car and van registrations in 2010 totaled 541 units and 2,154 in 2011..
- 1 2 3 4 5 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (2013-01-31). "Neuzulassungen E-Mobilität 2012-Kaum Zuwachs wegen Twizy" [Registrations E-mobility - Low growth due to Twizy]. Auto Bild (in German). Retrieved 2013-02-14. A total of 2,956 all-electric cars were registered in Germany during 2012.
- ↑ Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA). "Monatliche Neuzulassungen - Neuzulassungsbarometer im Juni 2014" [Monthly registrations - New registrations Barometer in June 2014] (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2014-09-06. A total of 1,575 plug-in hybrids and 4,188 electric cars were registered during the first six months of 2014.
- ↑ Brian Parkin and Dorothee Tschampa (2014-12-02). "Merkel Backs Incentives in Push for a Million Electric Cars". Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved 2014-12-07.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Henk Bekker (2014-03-29). "2014 Germany: Total Number of Electric Cars". Best Selling Cars. Retrieved 2014-08-23. Cumulative number of registered electric cars was 12,156 as of January 1, 2014, of which, 5,042 units were registered during 2013.
- 1 2 3 4 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA). "Neuzulassungen von Personenkraftwagen im Dezember 2011 nach Segmenten und Modellreihen" [New registrations of passenger cars in December 2011 by segment and model lines] (PDF) (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2012-10-15.A total of 241 Amperas and 25 Volts were sold through December 2011.
- ↑ Mark Kane (2015-01-26). "Electric Car Sales In Germany Hit New High In December 2014". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2015-01-31.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2013). "Neuzulassungen von Personenkraftwagen im Dezember 2012 nach Marken und Modellreihen" [New registrations of passenger cars in December 2012 by make and model series] (PDF) (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2013-01-14.
- ↑ Hans Håvard Kvisle (2013-02-12). "Europeisk salg av elbiler 2012" [European sales of electric cars in 2012] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2013-06-30.
- ↑ BestSellingCars.com (2013-05-03). "2012 (Full Year) Germany: Best-Selling Electric Car Models". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2013-06-30.
- ↑ Mat Gasnier (2012-09-27). "Europe: Renault Twizy sales update". Best Selling Car Blog. Retrieved 2012-10-28.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2014). "Neuzulassungen von Personenkraftwagen im Dezember 2013 nach Segmenten und Modellreihen" [New registrations of passenger cars in December 2013 by segment and model series] (PDF) (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2014-02-08.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2014-01-20). "Germany December 2013". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamtes (KBA) (January 2015). "Neuzulassungen von Personenkraftwagen nach Segmenten und Modellreihen im Dezember 2014" [New registrations of passenger cars in December 2014 by segment and model] (PDF) (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2015-01-27. A total of 1,871 units were registered in Germany in 2014.
- 1 2 Jose Pontes (2014-07-14). "Germany June 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2014-08-24.
- 1 2 Jeff Cobb (2015-12-08). "Nissan Sells 200,000th Leaf Just Before Its Fifth Anniversary". HybriCars.com. Retrieved 2015-12-13. By early December 2015, the all-electric Nissan Leaf is all-time best-selling plug-in car in the world with over 200,000 units sold. See editorial note.
- 1 2 "Power to the people: Nissan and ENEL launch first smart grid trials" (Press release). Paris: Nissan Europe. 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-12-11. More than 200,000 Nissan Leafs have been sold worldwide.
- ↑ Kane, Mark (2016-02-05). "Worldwide Nissan LEAF Sales Down To 43,651 In 2015 (From 60,000) As Weak Numbers For Japan Are In". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2016-02-05. Leaf sales in Japan totaled 9,057 units in 2015. A total of 2,503 units were sold in January 2016. As of December 2015, cumulative sales totaled 57,699 units since the Leaf introduction in December 2010.
- ↑ Nissan (2016-01-21). "Nissan’s advanced lithium-ion battery plant in Sunderland to make future generation electric vehicle batteries". Automotive World. Retrieved 2016-01-21. Nissan sold 43,651 Leafs worldwide in 2015, of which, 15,630 were sold in Europe.
- ↑ Jake Spring (2015-10-23). "CORRECTED-(OFFICIAL)-UPDATE 2-Tesla CEO says negotiating with China on local production". Reuters. Retrieved 2015-10-24. Tesla sold sold 3,025 Model S cars in China from January to September 2015.
- 1 2 Staff (2015-03-07). "Tesla cutting 30% of staff in China". Want China Times. Retrieved 2015-03-09. Tesla imported 4,800 Model S cars in 2014, but only 2,499 of those vehicles were registered for road use in China.
- 1 2 Groupe Renault (January 2016). "Ventes Mensuelles" [Monthly Sales] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 2016-02-10. Includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2015)" to download the file "XLSX - 227 Ko" for 2015 sales, and open the tab "Sales by Model". Click on "+ Voir plus" to download the files "Ventes mensuelles du groupe (décembre 2011) (xls, 183 Ko)" "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2012) (xls, 289 Ko)" - Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2013) (xlsx, 227 Ko)" - "XLSX - 220 Ko Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2014)" for 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014 sales.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2015-11-04). "GM Sells Its 100,000th Volt in October". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-11-21..
- ↑ Tiphaine Leurent (2015-12-11). "Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV : en 2 ans, plus de 50 000 ventes en Europe" [Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV: more than 50,000 sales in Europe in 2 years] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2015-12-11.
- 1 2 John Voelcker (2015-07-02). "UPDATE: Plug-In Electric Car Sales In Jun: Leaf, Volt Wane After May Surge". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2015-07-01. Since 2010 a total of 82,138 Nissan Leafs and 78,979 Chevrolet Volts have been sold in the U.S. through June 2015.
- 1 2 Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (July 2015). "Bilsalget i juni" [Car sales in June] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2015-07-06. A total of 2,674 new Model S cars were registered in Norway during the first half of 2015.
- ↑ Staff (2014-01-08). "Over 20.000 ladbare biler på norske veier" [Over 20,000 rechargeable electric cars on Norwegian road] (in Norwegian). Grønn bil. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
- 1 2 3 France Mobilité Électrique - AVERE France (2015-07-02). "En juin 2015, le superbonus booste le marché du véhicule électrique" [The superbonus boosts the electric vehicle market in June 2015] (in French). AVERE. Retrieved 2015-07-14. See graph: A total of 4,940 Zoes and 1,202 Nissan Leafs were registered in France during the first half of 2015.
- 1 2 Jeff Cobb (2015-07-02). "Tesla Model S Is Top-Selling Plug-in Car For First Half of 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-07-02. An estimated 11,900 Model S sedans were sold in the U.S. during the first half of 2015, and as of June 2015, global cumulative Model S sales totaled 78,334 units sold through June 2015.
- ↑ Staff (January 2015). "Sales Data - Opel Ampera". Left-Lane.com. Retrieved 2015-02-09. Ampera sales in Europe totaled 939 units in 2014.
- ↑ Staff (August 2015). "Sales Data - Opel Ampera". Left-Lane.com. Retrieved 2015-08-08. Ampera sales in Europe totaled 167 units during the first half of 2015.
- ↑ "Chevrolet Volt Sales Figures". Good Car Bad Car. July 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-14.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt (KBA) (July 2015). "Neuzulassungen von Personenkraftwagen nach Segmenten und Modellreihen im Juni 2015" [New registrations of passenger cars by segments and models in June 2015] (PDF) (in German). KBA. Retrieved 2015-07-07. A total of 989 i3s were registered in Germany during the first half of 2015.
- 1 2 3 4 Natalie Middleton (2015-06-26). "Outlander PHEV tops ultra-low emission league table as plug-in sales soar". Fleet World. Retrieved 2015-06-27.
- ↑ Tesla Motors (2015-08-05). "Tesla Motors – Second Quarter 2015 Shareholder Letter" (PDF). Tesla Motors. Retrieved 2015-08-05. A total of 11,532 units were delivered globaly during the second quarter of 2015, up from 11,507 initially estimated. The Model S was the best-selling electric vehicle in the U.S for the first half of 2015.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2015-07-06). "Tesla Model S Crosses 50,000 U.S. Sales Milestone". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2015-07-06. A total of 49,720 Model S sedans had been sold in the U.S. through June 2015, of which, about 11,900 were sold during the first half of 2015. The 50,000 unit milestone was passed in early Junly 2015.
- ↑ Staff (2015-08-06). "Tesla sells well in China but Q2 report indicates losses". Greentech Leaf. Retrieved 2015-08-06.
- 1 2 RAI (2014-01-24). "Verkoopstatistieken – Meer marktinformatie" [Sales Statistics – More Market Information] (in Dutch). RAI Vereniging. Retrieved 2014-06-08. Download pdf file for detailed sales in 2013 ("Download nieuwverkoop personenautos 201312").
- 1 2 RAI (July 2015). "Registraties 2015 - 1 jan.-30 juni" [Registrations 2015 - January 1 - June 30] (in Dutch). RAI Vereniging. Retrieved 2015-07-08. A total of 276 units were sold in June 2015, for cumulative sales between January and June 2015 of 884 Model S cars.
- ↑ Klippenstein, Matthew (2015-08-05). "Plug-in Electric Car Sales in Canada, July 2015: Volt Vaults To Top?". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2015-08-05. Tesla Model S sales figures from IHS data.
- 1 2 "Hybrid Model Global Sales Results" (Press release). Toyota City, Japan: Toyota. 2015-08-21. Retrieved 2015-08-21.
- 1 2 Jeff Cobb (2015-07-02). "June 2015 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2015-07-14. See sections: "June 2015 Plug-in Hybrid Car Sales Numbers" and "June 2015 Battery Electric Car Sales Numbers"
- ↑ Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO) (July 2015). "Cijfers elektrisch vervoer - Top 5 geregistreerde modellen plug-in hybride elektrische voertuigen (30-06-2015) - Top 6 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische voertuigen (30-06-2015) - Top 6 geregistreerde modellen volledig elektrische voertuigen (30-06-2015)" [Figures electric transport - Top 5 registered plug-in electric hybrid vehicle models (06-30-2015) - Top 6 registered fully electric vehicle models (06-30-2015)] (PDF) (in Dutch). RVO (Dutch National Office for Enterprising). Retrieved 2015-08-04.
- ↑ Bil Sweden (2015-01-06). "Topplistan december 2014 (def)" [Highscore in December 2014 (definitely)] (PDF) (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2015-04-13.
- ↑ Henk Bekker (2013-07-02). "2013 (Half Year) Sweden: Best-Selling Electric Cars and Plug-in Hybrids". BestSellingCars.com. Retrieved 2013-07-07.
- 1 2 Bil Sweden (2015-07-01). "Nyregistreringar juni 2015" [New Registrations in June 2015] (in Swedish). Bil Sweden. Retrieved 2015-07-07. Download the pdf file "Nyregistreringar juni 2015." See table: Nyregistrerade miljöpersonbilar juni 2015
- ↑ Michaël Torregrossa (2013-01-15). "Voitures hybrides – Le bilan des immatriculations 2012 en France" [Hybrid Cars - The balance of 2012 registrations in France] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2013-02-10.
- ↑ Michaël Torregrossa (2014-01-19). "Hybride rechargeable – Le marché français stagne en 2013" [Rechargeable hybrids - The French market stagnated in 2013] (in French). Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM). Retrieved 2014-02-11.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2015-01-17). "France December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-08-01.
- ↑ Jose Pontes (2015-07-13). "France June 2015". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-08-01.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2015-06-09). "European Plug-in Sales Leap Ahead of US For The First Time". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
- 1 2 3 4 "MITSUBISHI OUTLANDER PHEV: 40 000 ventes en Europe" [Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV: 40,000 units sold in Europe] (PDF) (Press release) (in French). Born: Mitsubishi Motors. 2015-06-18. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
- ↑ Pontes, Jose (2015-01-15). "Australia Full Year 2014 (Updated)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-01-19. A total of 895 Outlander P-HEVs were sold in Australia during 2014.
- ↑ Pontes, Jose (2015-01-14). "New Zealand December 2014". EVSales.com. Retrieved 2015-01-19. A total of 197 Outlander P-HEVs were sold in New Zealand during 2014.
- 1 2 "三菱 i-MiEVなどの2015年６月度 販売実績" [Mitsubishi i-MiEV production and sales results for June 2015] (in Japanese). Electric Vehicle News. 2015-07-28. Retrieved 2015-08-01. Cumulative Outlander P-HEVs sales in Japan through June 2015 totaled 22,599 units..
- 1 2 Brett Frydenlund (2015-07-02). "2 av 10 biler i første halvår var elbiler" [2 in 10 cars was an electric vehicle in the first half] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2015-08-01.
- ↑ Wolfgang Michel (2015-07-31). "Mitsubishi auf dem Weg nach oben" [Mitsubishi on the way up] (in German). KFZ-betrieb. Retrieved 2015-07-31. A total of 1,170 Outlander plug-ins were sold in Germany during the first half of 2015.
- ↑ Jeff Cobb (2015-06-01). "Renault-Nissan And Leaf Lead All In Global EV Proliferation". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-06-14.
- ↑ Bill Moore (2015-03-19). "Mitsubishi Firsts". EV World. Retrieved 2015-03-19.
- 1 2 Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2015). "CO2-utslippet i desember 2014" [CO2 emissions in December 2014] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2015-08-01. See graph: Gjennomsnittlig CO2-utslipp for registrerte ney personbiler per modell 2014, til og med desember. A total of 2,040 BMW i3s were registered in Norway in 2014.
- ↑ "Mitsubishi i MiEV Sales Figures". Good Car Bad Car. July 2014. Retrieved 2015-07-14.
- 1 2 3 Vereinigung Schweizer Automobil-Importeure. "Autoverkäufe nach Modellen – Modellstatistik" [Passenger cars by model – Statistics by model] (in German). Auto Schweiz Suisse. Retrieved 2015-07-09. Under "Modellstatistik Januar – Juni 2015" download the xls file "ModellePW2015" for CYTD 2015 sales, and under "Modellstatistiken 2008–2014" click "2014 Statistik" to download the file "ModellePW2014" with sales by model for 2014 and "2013 Statistik" to download the file "ModellePW2013" with sales by model for 2013.
- 1 2 Jeff Cobb (2015-06-15). "Three More Plug-in Cars Cross 25,000 Sales Milestone". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2015-06-28.
- 1 2 Staff (2015-07-14). "Best-selling New Cars in June 2015". China Auto Web. Retrieved 2015-07-14. A total of 4,015 Qins were sold in China in June 2015.
- ↑ "Statistik Elektroautos (VI.2015)" [Statistics Electric Cars (06.2015)] (in German). Myampera.wordpress.com. July 2015. Retrieved 2015-08-01.
- ↑ Mat Gasnier (2014-07-19). "World Full Year 2013: Discover the Top 1000 best-selling models!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 2014-07-27. A total of 1,477 i3s were registered in 2013. Includes press fleet vehicles and dealer demonstrators.
- ↑ "BMW Group sells more than 2 million vehicles in 2014" (Press release). Munich: BMW Group PressClub Global. 2015-01-09. Retrieved 2015-01-10. A total of 16,052 i3s and 1,741 i8s were sold in 2014.
- ↑ Horatiu Boeriu (2015-07-10). "Worldwide sales of BMW i3 and i8 exceed 30,000 units in 2015". BMWBlog. Retrieved 2015-07-11. A total of 26,205 i3s and 4,456 i8s have been sold worldwide through June 2015. BMW i3 sales totaled 9,846 units during the first half of 2015.
- ↑ Ståle Frydenlund (2014-01-02). "7.882 nye elbiler registrert i 2013" [7882 new electric cars registered in 2013] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 2014-01-02.
- ↑ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (July 2015). "CO2-utslippet i juni" [CO2 emissions in June] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2015-07-14. A total of 684 i3s were sold in Norway during the first half of 2015.
External links
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- NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries - Law Enforcement/Emergency Medical Services/Fire Department
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- Plug-In Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of Seven Markets (Norway, Netherlands, California, United States, France, Japan, and Germany), UC Davis, October 2014.
- Plug-in Tracker: A comprehensive list of highway-capable PEVs (cars and trucks, 2- and 3-wheeled and commercial vehicles)
- Plug-in List of Registered Charging Stations in the USA
- RechargeIT plug-in driving experiment (Google.org)
- Shade's of Green - Electric Car's Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink that Footprint, February 2013.
- State of the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market, Electrification Coalition, July 2013.
- The Great Debate -- All-Electric Cars vs. Plug-In Hybrids, April 2014
- UK Plug-in Car Grant website
- Transport Action Plan: Urban Electric Mobility Initiative, United Nations, Climate Summit 2014, September 2014
- U.S. Federal & State Incentives & Laws
- U.S. State and Federal Incentives for EVs, PHEVs and Charge Stations
- US Tax Incentives for Plug-in Hybrids and Electric Cars
- Will Electric Cars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market? Belfer Center, Harvard University
Books
- David B. Sandalow, ed. (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1.
- Mitchell, William J.; Borroni-Bird, Christopher; Burns, Lawrence D. (2010). Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century (1st. ed.). The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01382-6.