Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles

Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles have been established by several national and local governments around the world as a financial incentive for consumers to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle. The amount of these incentives usually depends on battery size and the vehicle all-electric range, and some countries extend the benefits to fuel cell vehicles, and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.

Asia

China

The Chinese government adopted a plan in 2009 with the goal of turning the country into one of the leaders of all-electric and hybrid vehicles by 2012. The government's intention was to create a world-leading industry that would produce jobs and exports, and to reduce urban pollution and its oil dependence. However, a study found that even though local air pollution would be reduced by replacing a gasoline car with a similar-size electric car, it would reduce greenhouse gas emissions by only 19%, as China uses coal for 75% of its electricity production.^[1]

The Chinese government uses the term new energy vehicles (NEVs) to designate plug-in electric vehicles, and only pure electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are subject to purchase incentives.^[2] On June 1, 2010, the Chinese government announced a trial program to provide incentives up to 60,000 yuan (~US$9,281 in June 2011) for private purchase of new battery electric vehicles and 50,000 yuan (~US$7,634 in June 2011) for plug-in hybrids in five cities.^[3][4] The cities participating in the pilot program are Shanghai, Shenzhen, Hangzhou, Hefei and Changchun. The subsidies are paid directly to automakers rather than consumers, but the government expects that vehicle prices will be reduced accordingly. The amount of the subsidy will be reduced once 50,000 units are sold.^[3][4] In addition to the subsidy, the Chinese government is planning to introduce, beginning on January 1, 2012, an exemption from annual taxes for pure electric, fuel-cell, and plug-in hybrid vehicles. Hybrid vehicles will be eligible for a 50% reduction only.^[5]

In 2011, only 8,159 electric cars were sold in China despite a 120,000 yuan subsidy. Unsubsidized lead-acid EVs are produced without government approval at a rate of more than 30,000 per year in Shandong and requires no driving license because the top speed is less than 50 km/h. They cost 31,600 yuan and have been the target of criticism from major car manufacturers.^[6]

A mid-September joint announcement in 2013 by the National Development and Reform Commission and finance, science, and industry ministries confirmed that the central government will provide a maximum of US$9,800 toward the purchase of an all-electric passenger vehicle and up to US$81,600 for an electric bus. The subsidies are part of the government's efforts to address China's problematic air pollution.^[7]

As a result of the government support and new incentives issued in 2014, production of new energy vehicles between January and August reached 31,137 units, up 328% from the same period of 2013. Domestic production during the first eight months of 2014 includes 6,621 plug-in hybrid sedans and 16,276 all-electric cars.^[8]

India

In November 2010, the Government of India, through the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), announced a subsidy of ₹950 million for electric vehicles. The subsidy provided benefits up to 20% on the ex-factory price, with a maximum benefit of ₹100,000 on electric cars, 4,000 on two-wheelers, 5,000 on high speed two-wheelers, 400,000 rupees for electric minibuses, and 60,000 for three wheelers. To claim the subsidy, manufacturers that to certify that 30% of the components where made in India. The scheme ended on 31 March 2012.^[9][10][11]

In April 2014, the Indian government announced a new plan to provide subsidies for hybrid and electric vehicles. The plan will have subsidies up to ₹150,000 for cars and ₹30,000 on two wheelers. India aims to have seven million electric vehicles on the road by 2020.^[12]

Various state governments and cities provide their own subsidies:^[13]

• Delhi, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and Lakshadweep don’t levy VAT
• Chandigarh, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat & West Bengal offer partial rebate on VAT
• Delhi also provides a 15% subsidy of the base price of select electric cars, like REVA. It also exempts such cars from road tax and registration fees.

Japan

The Japanese government introduced the first electric vehicle incentive program in 1996, and it was integrated in 1998 with the Clean Energy Vehicles Introduction Project, which provided subsidies and tax discounts for the purchase of electric, natural gas, methanol and hybrid electric vehicles. The project provided a purchase subsidy of up to 50% the incremental costs of a clean energy vehicle as compared with the price of a conventional engine vehicle.^[14] This program was extended until 2003.^[15]

In May 2009 the National Diet passed the "Green Vehicle Purchasing Promotion Measure" that went into effect on June 19, 2009, but retroactive to April 10, 2009.^[16] The program established tax deductions and exemptions for environmentally friendly and fuel efficient vehicles, according to a set of stipulated environmental performance criteria, and the requirements are applied equally to both foreign and domestically produced vehicles. The program provides purchasing subsidies for two type of cases, consumers purchasing a new passenger car without trade-in (non-replacement program), and for those consumers buying a new car trading an used car registered 13 years ago or earlier (scrappage program).^[16][17]

Tonnage and acquisition tax reductions

New next generation vehicles, including electric and fuel cell vehicles, plug-in hybrids, hybrid electric vehicles, clean diesel and natural gas vehicles are exempted from both the acquisition tax and the tonnage tax.^[17][19] Acquisition taxes on used vehicles will be reduced by 1.6% to 2.7%, or between 150,000 yen (~US$1,600) and 300,000 yen (~US$3,200). Electric and fuel cell vehicles have a 2.7% reduction while plug-in hybrids have a 2.4% reduction.^[17][20]

These incentives are in effect from April 1, 2009 until March 31, 2012 for the acquisition tax which is paid once at the time of purchase. The tonnage tax reductions are in effect from April 1, 2009 until April 30, 2012 and the incentive is applicable once, at the time of the first mandatory inspection, three years after the vehicle purchase.^[17][19] As an example, the amount exempted for the purchase of a new next generation vehicle is 81,000 yen (~US$975) corresponding to the acquisition tax, and 22,500 yen (~US$271) for the tonnage tax, for a total of 103,500 yen (~US$1,246).^[17]

Automobile tax reductions

Consumers purchasing new next generation electric vehicles, including fuel cell, benefit of a 50% reduction of the annual automobile tax. These incentives were in effect from April 1, 2009 until March 31, 2010, applicable only once.^[17]

Incentives for purchasing new green vehicles

Subsidies for purchases of new environmentally friendly vehicles without scrapping a used car are 100,000 yen (~US$1,100) for the purchase of a standard or small car, and 50,000 yen (~US$550) for the purchase of a mini or kei vehicle. Subsidies for purchasing trucks and buses meeting the stipulated fuel efficiency and emission criteria vary between 200,000 yen (~US$2,100) to 900,000 yen (~US$9,600).^[16][19][20]

Subsidies for purchases of new environmentally friendly vehicles in the case of owners scrapping a 13-year or older vehicle are 250,000 yen (~US$2,700) for the purchase of a standard or small car, and 125,000 yen (~US$1,300) for the purchase of a mini or kei vehicle. Subsidies for purchasing trucks and buses meeting the stipulated fuel efficiency and emission criteria vary between 400,000 yen (~US$4,300) to 1,800,000 yen (~US$19,000).^[16][19][20]

All incentives for new purchases with or without trading were applicable in Japan's fiscal year 2009, from April 1, 2009 through March 31, 2010.^[19][20]

Europe

Electrification of transport (electromobility) figures prominently in the Green Car Initiative (GCI),^[21] included in the European Economic Recovery Plan. DG TREN is supporting a large European "electromobility" project on EVs and related infrastructure with a total budget of around €50 million as part of the Green Car Initiative.^[22]

There are measures to promote efficient vehicles in the Directive 2009/33/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of clean and energy-efficient road transport vehicles^[23] and in the Directive 2006/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2006 on energy end-use efficiency and energy services.

As of April 2011, 15 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles, which includes all Western European countries plus the Czech Republic and Romania. Also 17 countries levy carbon dioxide related taxes on passenger cars as a disincentive. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of PEVs, hybrid vehicles, and some alternative fuel vehicles.^[24][25]

Austria

Electric vehicles are exempt from the fuel consumption tax, levied upon the first registration, and from the monthly vehicle tax. In addition to tax breaks, hybrid vehicles and other alternative fuel vehicles benefit from a fuel consumption tax that pays bonuses to passenger cars with low carbon dioxide output. Alternative fuel vehicles, including hybrids, qualify for as much as €800 (around US$1,120) in annual bonuses. This bonus is valid from 1 July 2008 until 31 August 2012.^[24][25]

Belgium

The Belgian government established a personal income tax deduction of 30% of the purchase price including VAT of a new electric vehicle, up to €9,190. Plug-in hybrids are not eligible.^[26][27][28] This tax incentive will end on December 31, 2012.^[29] There is also available a tax deduction up to 40% for investments in external recharging stations publicly accessible, to a maximum of €250.^[27] The Wallonia regional government has an additional €4,500 eco-bonus for cars registered before December 31, 2011.^[30]

Czech Republic

Electric, hybrid and other alternative fuel vehicles used for business purposes are exempt from the road tax.^[25]

Denmark

Denmark was planning to introduce a greater number of battery driven electric cars on the streets — charged on renewable energy from the country's many wind turbines — ahead of the UN Climate Summit that descended on Copenhagen in December 2009. Around a third of the electricity is generated by wind turbines.^[31][32]

Electric vehicles weighing under 2,000 kg are exempt from the new car registration tax since 1985, but available models were so limited that by 2009 only 497 EVs are registered in the entire country.^[28][33] The registration tax in Denmark is based on the vehicle's purchase price of the vehicle, and is set at 105% if the vehicle price is up to DKK79,000 (around US$13,250) and 180% if the price is above DKK79,000.^[28] The government also grants free parking in downtown Copenhagen for EVs.^[33] This exemption does not apply to hybrid electric vehicles.^[28] As of 2015 there are around 4,000 electric cars in Denmark.^[34]

Estonia

Estonia has allocated a total of €9 million in grants towards the purchase of battery electric vehicles (ended 7 August 2014).^[35] From 2011 to 2014, KredEx has allocated grants totaling €10.5 million; the average grant per car was €16,500. The grant for the purchase of electric cars has helped put more than 650 electric cars on Estonia’s roads. With the same transaction, a country-wide quick charging network (CHAdeMO 500V/120A and Type2 400V/32A) was established.

Finland

The Prime Minister of Finland (2003–2010) Mr. Matti Vanhanen has mentioned that he wants to see more electric cars on Finnish roads as soon as possible^[36] and with any cost to the governmental car related tax incomes.^[37] Charging at home from motor and cabin heating outlets (common in all Nordic countries) has been determined to be a possible load on the grid, although this load is expected to mainly take place at night when overall demand is lower. If all cars in Finland run totally on electricity, it will add 7-9 TWh annually to the load, which corresponds to 10% of Finland's annual consumption.^[38] On-line route planners like http://www.uppladdning.nu/ list a daily growing number of free charging outlets set up by merchants and private individuals, making it possible to drive an EV for free from Helsinki through Sweden all the way to Copenhagen.^[39]

France

Until July 31, 2012, a premium, under a Bonus-malus system, was granted in France up to €5,000 for the purchase of new cars with CO₂ emissions of 60 g/km or less which benefited all-electric cars and any plug-in hybrid with such low emissions. Vehicles emitting up to 125 g/km or less, such as hybrids and natural gas vehicles, were granted up to €2,000.^[28][40] The incentive could not exceed 20% of the sales price including VAT, increased with the cost of the battery if it is rented.^[28]

Effective on August 1, 2012, the government increased the bonus for electric cars up to €7,000 but capped at 30% of the vehicle price including VAT. The price includes any battery leasing charges, and therefore, electric cars which need a battery leasing contract also are eligible for the bonus. An electric car sold for €23 333 including VAT is eligible for the maximum bonus of €7,000. This bonus was reduced to €6,300 in November 2013. The emission level for the maximum bonus was raised to 20 g/km or less. Cars with emission levels between 20 to 50 g/km are eligible to a bonus of up to €5,000, and between 50 to 60 g/km are eligible to a bonus of up to €4,500. At this limit, the bonus drops to €550.^[41] A further bonus of up to €3,700 was added in April 2015.^[42]

Germany

"Nationale Plattform Elektromobilität" (NPE)^[43] is a German government initiative to develop Germany into a leading market for electric mobility, with about 1 million electric vehicles on its streets by 2020.^[44]

As the latest development (October 2010) DBM Energy's electric Audi A2 completes record setting 372-mile (599 km) drive on a single charge.^[45] In May 2010, under its National Program for Electric Mobility, Chancellor Angela Merkel set the goal to bring 1 million electric vehicles on German roads by 2020.^[46][47] However, the government also announced that it will not provide subsidies to the sales of plug-in electric cars but instead it will only fund research in the area of electric mobility.^[46] Electric vehicles and plug-ins are exempt from the annual circulation tax for a period of five years from the date of their first registration.^[28][48]

The private use of a company car is treated as taxable income in Germany and measured at a flat monthly rate of 1% of the vehicle's gross list price. So plug-in electric cars have been at a disadvantage since their price tag can be as much as double that of a car using a conventional internal combustion engine due to the high cost of the battery. In June 2013 German legislators approved a law that ends the tax disadvantage for corporate plug-in electric cars. The law, backdated to 1 January 2013, allows private users to offset the list price with €500 per unit of battery size, expressed in kilowatt hours (kWh). The maximum offset was set at €10,000 corresponding to a 20 kWh battery. the amount one can offset will sink annually by €50 per kilowatt hour.^[49] The range criteria will rise to 40 km (25 mi) starting in 2018.^[50]

In August 2014, the federal government announced its plan to introduce non-monetary incentives through new legislation to be effective by 1 February 2015. The proposed user benefits include measures to privilege battery-powered cars, fuel cell vehicles and some plug-in hybrids, just like Norway does, by granting local governments the authority to allow these vehicles into bus lanes, and to offer free parking and reserved parking spaces in locations with charging points.^[51][52] Not all plug-in hybrids will qualify for the benefits, only those with CO₂ emissions of no more than 50 g/km or an all-electric range of over 30 km (19 mi) are eligible.^[53]

According to the fourth progress report of the German National Electric Mobility Platform, only about 24,000 plug-in electric cars are on German roads by the end of November 2014, well behind the target of 100,000 unit goal set for 2014. As a result, Chancellor Angela Merkel recognized in December 2014 that the government has to provide more incentives to meet the goal of having 1 million electric cars on the country’s roads by 2020. Among others, and based on the recommendations of the report, the federal government is considering to offer a tax break for zero-emission company cars, more subsidies to expand charging infrastructure, particularly to deploy more public fast chargers, and more public funding for research and development of the next generation of rechargeable batteries.^[54][55]

Greece

All electric and hybrid vehicles are exempt from the registration tax.^[25]

Iceland

All electric vehicles are exempt from VAT up to kr 6,000,000, and the tax is applied at the normal rate for the remainder of the price.^[56] Electric vehicles also get free parking in the city center for up to 90 minutes, which also applies to cars with CO₂ emissions of less than 120 g/km and weigh less than 1,200 kg, which excludes several electric cars such as the Tesla Model S.^[57]

Ireland

Series production EVs were exempted from VRT until December 2012.^[58] The VRT exemption was replaced by a €5000 credit against the tax.^[59] Annual motor tax for EVs is €120.^[60] The Government has set a target of 10% for all vehicles on Irish roads to be electric by 2020.

The ESB eCar electric vehicle charging network serves as the main charging network for the island of Ireland and has rapidly expanded in recent years. Currently the network is free to use with an RFID card provided by ESB to EV owners who wish to use the network. The network aims to provide rapid charging every 30 km on major routes and as of 2015 has almost 2000 standard charging points (all provide connection via IEC 62196 Type 2 Mennekes, around half are 22 kW with the remainder a mix of 3.6 kW and 7.4 kW). There are around 100 CHAdeMO rapid chargers with over 70 located outside the Dublin Metro area.^[61] All rapid chargers installed since mid-2014 have been triple standard CHAdeMO/Combined Charging System/AC 43 kW. Four rapid chargers in Dublin and two rapid chargers in Belfast were co-funded by the EU as part of the UK/Ireland RCN program.^[62] The UK charging network operated by Ecotricity has a single CHAdeMO only rapid charger at IKEA Belfast.^[63] This is the sole rapid charger on the island that is not part of the ESB eCars network.

Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland offers a government grant of up to €5,000 for the purchase of a new electric cars.^[64] Electric and hybrid vehicles had a reduction of up to €2,500 off the registration tax between July 2008 and December 2010.^[28] However this grant is only available on vehicles on an approved list of models ^[65] which must be sold by a dealer registered for the scheme.^[66] No grant applies where a vehicle is imported privately. The grant is reduced to €3,800 for business purchasers or those who require finance to purchase the vehicle, however some importers will report financed private sales as cash sales to acquire the full grant.

As of September 2014, plug-in electric car purchasers are eligible for a government credit worth up to €5,000 (about US$6,500). Vehicle Registration Tax (VRT), up to €5,000 is also waived for electric cars. Also, all-electric car owners pay the lowest rate of annual road tax, which is based on emissions. In addition, the first 2,000 electric cars registered in Ireland are eligible for installation of a free home-charging points worth about €1,000 (about US$1,300).^[67]

Italy

Electric vehicles are exempt from the annual circulation tax or ownership tax for five years from the date of their first registration. Thereafter, EVs benefit from a 75% reduction of the tax rate applied to equivalent gasoline-powered vehicles.^[25] In the region of Lombardy, electric vehicles are exempt from the annual ownership tax.^[68]

Luxembourg

Buyers of electric vehicles and other vehicles emitting 60 g/km or less of carbon dioxide are eligible to receive a premium of €3,000 (around US$4,200) until 31 December 2011. In order to qualify for the rebate, the owner must have concluded an agreement to buy electricity from renewable energy.^[24][25]

Monaco

Buyers of electric vehicles and plug in hybrids are eligible to receive €9,000 (around US$12,600) from the Monegasque Government. In addition vehicles owners are allowed to park free at any public parking facility.^[69][70]

Netherlands

Considering the potential of plug-in electric vehicles in the country due to its relative small size and geography, the Dutch government set a target of 15,000 to 20,000 electric vehicles with three or more wheels on the roads in 2015; 200,000 vehicles in 2020; and 1 million vehicles in 2025.^[72][73] The first government target was achieved in 2013, two years earlier, thanks to the sales peak that occurred at the end of 2013.^[74] According to official figures, 30,086 plug-in electric vehicles with three or more wheels have been registered in the country through 31 December 2013.^[72]

Initially, the Dutch government set incentives such as the total exemption of the registration fee and road taxes, which resulted in savings of approximately €5,324 for private car owners over four years,^[25][75] and €19,000 for corporate owners over five years.^[76] Other vehicles including hybrid electric vehicles were also exempt from these taxes if they emit less than 95 g/km for diesel-powered vehicles, or less than 110 g/km for gasoline-powered vehicles.^[25] The exemption from the registration tax ended on January 1, 2014, and thereafter, all-electric vehicles pay a 4% registration fee and plug-in hybrids a 7% fee.^[77]

In addition, the national government offers through the Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment a €3,000 subsidy on the purchase of all-electric taxis or delivery vans. This subsidy increases to €5,000 per vehicle in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht, and Arnhem-Nijmegen metropolitan area. An additional subsidy is offered by several local government for the purchase of full electric taxis and vans, €5,000 in Amsterdam and €3,000 in Limburg and Tilburg.^[78][79]

In Amsterdam EV owners also have access to parking spaces reserved for battery electric vehicles, so they avoid the current wait for a parking place in Amsterdam, which can reach up to 10 years in some parts of the city.^[80] Free charging is also offered in public parking spaces.^[81] EV owners in the city of Rotterdam are entitled to one year of free parking in downtown and enjoy subsidies of up to €1,450 if they install a home charger using green electricity.^[79] The city also introduced in 2014 a scrappage program to remove old polluting vehicles to improve air quality in the city. Rotterdam offers a €2,500 incentive for business buyers to replace the old vehicles with all-electric vehicles. The subsidy is only available to the first 5,000 applicants that buy an eligible vehicle before the end of December 2013.^[79]

Other factors contributing to the rapid adoption of plug-in electric vehicles are the relative small size of the country, which reduces range anxiety (the Netherlands stretches about 100 mi (160 km) east to west); a long tradition of environmental activism; high gasoline prices (US$8.50 per gallon as of January 2013), which make the cost of running a car on electricity five times cheaper; and also some EV leasing programs provide free or discounted gasoline-powered vehicles for those who want to take a vacation driving long distances. With all of these incentives and tax breaks, plug-in electric cars have similar driving costs than conventional cars.^[81]

Initially, sales of plug-in electric car were lower than expected, and during 2012 the segment captured a market share of less than 1% of new car sales in the country.^[81] As a result of the end of the total exemption of the registration fee, the segment sales peaked at the end of 2013,^[82] and plug-in electric car sales reached a market share of 5.34% of new car sales in 2013.^[83] The total cost of the tax exemptions for the Dutch treasury of the more than 22,000 plug-in electric vehicles sold in 2013 was estimated at €500 million (US$691 million).^[84]

Norway

The Parliament of Norway set the goal to reach 50,000 zero emission vehicles by 2018. Among the existing incentives, all-electric cars are exempt in Norway from all non-recurring vehicle fees, including purchase taxes, which are extremely high for ordinary cars, and 25% VAT on purchase, together making electric car purchase price competitive with conventional cars.^[85] As an example, by early 2013 the price of the top selling Nissan Leaf is 240,690 krone (around US$42,500) while the purchase price of the 1.3-lt Volkswagen Golf is 238,000 Krone (about US$42,000).^[86] Electric vehicles are also exempt from the annual road tax, all public parking fees, and toll payments, as well as being able to use bus lanes.^[85][87]

These incentives are in effect until 2018 or until the 50,000 EV target is achieved.^[88] As of September 2014, and at the rate of growth reached during 2014, the target of 50,000 EV registered could be met by early 2015.^[89][90] As the end of the incentives approaches, no decision has been made by the authorities about the introduction of the 25% VAT on purchase of electric vehicles. Among the options being considered by the government is to introduce the tax in a step-wise fashion, 8% VAT beginning in 2016, to be increased to 12% in 2017 and 16% in 2018. Prime Minister Erna Solberg has assure the government will not make any changes about the EV benefits in the 2015 budget.^[91]

Until June 2013, plug-in hybrids have not been eligible for these benefits.^[85][87] Because the Norwegian tax system levies higher taxes to heavier vehicles, plug-in hybrids are more expensive than similar conventional cars due to the extra weight of the battery pack and its additional electric components. Beginning on 1 July 2013, the existing weight allowance for conventional hybrids and plug-in hybrids of 10% will be increased to 15% for PHEVs.^[92]

In September 2013 the Norwegian Parliament approved, as part of the revised 2014 budget, an exemption from the 25% VAT for leasing electric vehicles effective on 1 January 2014.^[93] However, as of September 2014, the exemption has not gone into effect because the Minister of Finance decided to deferred the measure, pending a formal consultation with the EFTA Surveillance Authority (ESA) to ensure that the VAT exemption for leasing was not in violation of the European Economic Area (ESA) Agreement. The government's loss of revenue due to the still not implemented leasing exemption is estimated at about 47 million krone (around US$7.3 million) per year.^[94][95] One Member of Parliament has criticized the government for the delay. He had argued that the initial VAT exemption for all electric vehicles was never approved in ESA. In addition, an ESA spokesman confirmed that the Government has not sent any request as of September 2014, nor has ESA received any complaints about Norway's original EV tax exemption. The MP said he will demand that the decision be implemented when Parliament meets in October 2014.^[95] As of August 2014, the government estimates that existing tax exemptions alone account for up to 4 billion krone (€500 million, US$650 million).^[89]

Portugal

The Portuguese Government launched in early 2008 a national Programme for Electric Mobility called Mobi.E.^[96]

Mobi.E is deploying a national electric mobility system. The system was designed to be scalable and used in multiple geographies, overcoming the current situation of lack of communication among the different electric mobility experiences that are being deployed in Europe. By the first semester of 2011, a wide public network of 1 300 normal and 50 fast charging points will be fully implemented in the main 25 cities of the country.

EVs are fully exempt from both the Vehicle Tax due upon purchase (Imposto Sobre Veículos) and the annual Circulation Tax (Imposto Único de Circulação). Personal income tax provides an allowance of EUR 803 upon the purchase of EVs. EVs are exempt from the 5%-10% company car tax rates which are part of the Corporation Income Tax. The Budget Law provides for an increase of the depreciation costs related to the purchase of EVs for the purpose of Corporation Income Tax.

Portugal established a government subsidy of €5,000 for the first 5,000 new electric cars sold in the country. In addition, there is in place a €1,500 incentive if the consumer turns in a used car as part of the down payment for the new electric car.^[97] Electric cars are also exempt from the registration tax.^[28]

Romania

Romania offers a government grant of up to 25% of the price (or max. €5,000) for the purchase of a new electric car.^[98] Furthermore, through the cash-for-clunkers program (scrappage program), those who wish to purchase an electric car will receive six vouchers of over €5,000 (as of 2011) in return for their used car.^[98]

Spain

Spain's government aims to have 1 million electric cars on the roads by 2014 as part of a plan to cut energy consumption and dependence on expensive imports, Industry Minister Miguel Sebastián said.^{[32][99][100][101]}

In May 2011 the Spanish government approved a €72 million (US$103 million) fund for year 2011 to promote electric vehicles. The incentives include direct subsidies for the acquisition of new electric cars for up to 25% of the purchase price, before tax, to a maximum of €6,000 per vehicle (US$8,600), and 25% of the gross purchase price of other electric vehicles such as buses and vans, with a maximum of €15,000 or €30,000, depending on the range and type of vehicle.^[102] Several regional government grant incentives for the purchase of alternative fuel vehicles including electric and hybrid vehicles. In Aragón, Asturias, Baleares, Madrid, Navarra, Valencia, Castilla-La Mancha, Murcia, Castilla y León electric vehicles are eligible to a €6,000 tax incentive and hybrids to €2,000.^[28]

Sweden

In September 2011 the Swedish government approved a 200 million kr program, effective starting in January 2012, to provide a subsidy of 40,000 kr per car for the purchase of electric cars and other "super green cars" with ultra-low carbon emissions (below 50 grams of carbon dioxide per km).^[103] There is also an exemption from the annual circulation tax for the first five years from the date of their first registration that benefits owners of electric vehicles with an energy consumption of 37 kWh per 100 km or less, and hybrid vehicles with CO₂ emissions of 120 g/km or less. In addition, for both electric and hybrid vehicles, the taxable value of the car for the purposes of calculating the benefit in kind of a company car under personal income tax is reduced by 40% compared with the corresponding or comparable gasoline- or diesel-powered car. The reduction of the taxable value has a cap of 16,000 kr per year.^[25]

As of July 2014, a total of 5,028 new "super clean cars" had been registered in the country since January 2012, and because the government allocated funds for a total of 5,000 super clean cars between 2012 and 2014, the fund has been exhausted.^{[104][105][106]} As of August 2014, the government pledged to allocate an additional 75 million kr to the program during 2014, but approval by the Riksdagen, the Swedish parliament, is pending.^[107]

Switzerland

Switzerland has a car import tax which is 4% of the purchase price (before adding the VAT) which is waived for electric cars.^[108][109] Since Switzerland consists of 26 cantons which have their own legislature, additional incentives for plug-in electric vehicles differ between the respective regions. The current list can be downloaded from the website of the Swiss Department of Energy.^[110]

There are no additional incentives on the actual purchase price, but some cantons offer road tax cuts. The Swiss road tax is a yearly recurring fixed amount calculated based on the specifications of the tax payers car. Currently, only the cantons Glarus (GL), Solothurn (SO), Ticino (TI) and Zurich (ZH) are completely waiving the tax for plug-in electric vehicles.

Calculation example for Zurich

Based on a usual car with the following specification:^[111]

• Engine: 2 L
• Total weight: 1800 kg
• Energy efficiency: C
• Year: 2013

The resulting tax to be paid per year will be SFr 278. Hence when calculating with a life expectancy of 10 years, the car owner in this example might save around SFr 2,780 when buying a plug-in electric car.

However, since the tax on fossil fuels are relatively high in all European countries, including Switzerland, there is still an indirect, but quite strong incentive for car buyers to decide for energy efficient vehicles.

Based on the following examples:

• Fuel economy: 7.8 L/100 km (30 mpg_-US) unleaded
• Driving habits: 15,000 km (9,300 mi) per year
• Fuel tax: SFr 0.7312 per liter (SFr 2.7679 per gallon)
• Carbon tax (since January 1, 2014): SFr 0.1414 per liter (SFr 0.5353 per gallon)

The resulting taxes on the burned fuels will be around SFr 1,021 per year, which results in SFr 10,210 over the car's 10-year lifetime.

United Kingdom

Plug-in Car Grant

The Plug-in Car Grant started on 1 January 2011 and is available across the UK. The program reduces the up-front cost of eligible cars by providing a 25% grant towards the cost of new plug-in cars capped at £5,000 (US$7,450).^[112][113] From 1 April 2015, the purchase price cap was raised to cover up to 35% discount of the vehicle’s recommended retail price, up to the already existing £5,000 limit. This change means electric cars priced under £20,000 will be able to take advantage of most or all of the £5,000 discount.^[114] Both private and business fleet buyers are eligible for this grant, which is received at the point of purchase and the subsidy is claimed back by the manufacturer afterwards.^[112] The subsidy programme is managed in a similar way to the grant made as part of the 2009 Car Scrappage Scheme, allowing consumers to buy an eligible car discounted at the point of purchase with the subsidy claimed back by the manufacturer afterwards.^{[112][113][115]}

The government announced in April 2014 that funding for the full grant of up to £5,000 will remain in place until either 50,000 grants have been issued or 2017, whichever is first.^[114][116] As forecasts estimated that the scheme will reached its 50,000 limit around November 2015, the government announced in August 2015 that the Plug-in Car Grant will continue until at least February 2016 for all plug-in cars with CO₂ emissions of 75 g/km of under.^[117] The Government also announced that a minimum of £200 million (US$311 million) has been made available to continue the Plug-in Car Grant.^[118]

Vehicles eligible for the subsidy must meet the following criteria:^[112][120]

• Vehicle type: Only ultra-low emission cars are eligible (vehicle category M1). Motorbikes, quadricycles and vans are not covered.
• Carbon dioxide exhaust emissions: Vehicles must emit equal or less than 75 grams of carbon dioxide (CO₂) per kilometre driven.
• Range: Electric vehicles (EVs) must be able to travel a minimum of 70 miles (110 km) between charges. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) must have a minimum all-electric range of 10 miles (16 km).
• Minimum top speed: Vehicles must be able to reach a speed of 60 miles per hour (97 km/h) or more.
• Warranty: Vehicles must have a 3-year or 60,000 miles (97,000 km) vehicle warranty (guarantee) and a 3-year battery and electric drive train warranty, with the option of extending the battery warranty for an extra 2 years(‘drive train’ means the parts that send power from the engine to the wheels. These include the clutch, transmission (gear box), drive shafts, U-joints and differential).
• Battery performance: Vehicles must have either a minimum 5-year warranty on the battery and electric drive train as standard, or extra evidence of battery performance to show reasonable performance after 3 years of use
• Electrical safety: Vehicles must comply with certain regulations (UN-ECE Reg 100.01) that show that they are electrically safe.
• Crash safety: To make sure cars will be safe in a crash, they must either have: EC whole vehicle type approval (EC WVTA, not small series) or evidence that the car has appropriate levels of safety as judged by international standards.

In February 2015 the government announced that to take account of rapidly developing technology, and the growing range of ULEVs on the British market, the criteria for the plug-in car grant was updated and from April 2015, eligible ultra-low emission vehicles (ULEVs) must meet criteria in one of the following categories depending on emission levels and zero-emission-capable mileage, with a technology neutral approach, which means that hydrogen fuel cell cars are also be eligible for the grant:^[113][114]

• Category 1: CO₂ emissions of less than 50g/km and a zero emission range of at least 70 mi (110 km).
• Category 2: CO₂ emissions of less than 50g/km and a zero emission range between 10 to 69 mi (16 to 111 km).
• Category 3: CO₂ emissions of 50-75g/km and a zero emission range of at least 20 mi (32 km).

In December 2015, the Department for Transport (DfT) announced that Plug-in car grant was extended until March 2018 to encourage more than 100,000 UK motorists to buy cleaner vehicles. A total funding of £400 million (~US$600 million) will be available for the extension. To reflect the changes in the British market, the criteria for the Plug-in Car Grant was updated and the maximum grant drops from £5,000 (~US$7,450) to £4,500 (~US$6,700). For the extension, the amount of the grant is linked in directly with the Office for Low Emission Vehicles three vehicle categories issued in April 2015. The eligible ultra-low emission vehicles (ULEVs) must meet criteria in one of three categories depending on emission levels (CO₂ emissions bands between 50 to 75g/km) and zero-emission-capable mileage (minimum of 10 mi (16 km)), with a technology neutral approach, which means that hydrogen fuel cell cars are eligible for the grant.^{[114][122][123]} The updated scheme will go into force on 1 March 2016.^[123]

A price cap will be in place, with all Category 1 plug-in vehicles eligible for the full grant no matter what their purchase price, while Category 2 and 3 models with a list price of more than £60,000 (~US$90,000) will not be eligible for the grant. Vehicles with a zero-emission range of at least 70 miles (110 km) (category 1), including hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, will get a full £4,500 (~US$6,700), but plug-in hybrids (categories 2 and 3) costing under £60,000 (~US$90,000) will receive £2,500 (~US$3,725).^[122][123] Under the extended scheme, some plug-in hybrid sports car will no longer be eligible for the grant, such as the BMW i8 because of its £100,000 (~US$150,000) purchase price tag.^[121] The grant scheme will come under review when a cumulative total of 40,000 Category 1 claims, and 45,000 Category 2 and 3 combined sales have been made. Both these totals will include cars sold before March 2016.^[123]

As of December 2015, the following 30 cars available in the British market are eligible for the grant: Audi A3 e-tron, BMW i3, BMW i8, BMW 225xe, BMW 330e, BYD e6, Citroen C-Zero, Ford Focus Electric, Kia Soul EV, Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive, Mercedes-Benz C350 e, Mercedes-Benz S500 Plug-in Hybrid, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, Nissan e-NV200 5-seater Combi, Nissan Leaf, Peugeot iOn, Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid, Renault Fluence Z.E., Renault Zoe, Smart Fortwo electric drive, Tesla Model S, Toyota Mirai, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Vauxhall Ampera, Volkswagen e-Golf, Volkswagen e-Up!, Volkswagen Golf GTE, Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid, and Volvo XC90 T8.^[124] The Tesla Roadster was not included in the government's list of eligible vehicles for the plug-in electric car grant. Tesla Motors stated that the company applied for the scheme, but did not complete its application.^[119]

In addition to the extension of the Plug-in Grant, the government also announced it will continue the "Electric Vehicle Homecharge Scheme." Starting on March 2016 owners of ultra-low emission vehicles who install a dedicated charge point at their home, covering roughly half the average cost, will get £500 (~US$750) towards the cost of installing the charging point, rather than the previous £700 (~US$1,050) maximum.^[122][123]

Plug-in Van Grant

The Plug-In Car Grant began in February 2012. Van buyers can receive 20% - up to £8000 - off the cost of a plug-in van. To be eligible for the scheme, vans have to meet performance criteria to ensure safety, range, and ultra-low tailpipe emissions. Consumers, both business and private will receive the discount at the point of purchase. The eligibility criteria are:^[125]

• Vehicle type: only new vans are eligible (vehicle category ‘N1’ with a gross weight of 3.5 tonnes or less). This includes pre-registration conversions (normal, internal combustion engine vans that were converted to battery or hybrid versions by specialist converters before the car’s first registration).
• Carbon dioxide exhaust emissions: vehicles must emit less than 75 grams of carbon dioxide (CO₂) per kilometre driven.
• Range: eligible fully electric vans must be able to travel a minimum of 60 miles between charges. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) must have a minimum electric range of 10 miles.
• Minimum top speed: vehicles must be able to reach a speed of 50 miles per hour or more.
• Warranty: Vehicles must have a 3-year or 60,000-miles vehicle warranty (guarantee) and a 3-year battery and electric drive train warranty, with the option of extending the battery warranty for an extra 2 years
• Battery performance: vehicles must have either a minimum 5-year warranty on the battery and electric drive train as standard

or extra evidence of battery performance to show reasonable performance after 3 years of use

• Electrical safety: vehicles must comply with certain regulations (UN-ECE Reg 100.00) that show that they are electrically safe.
• Crash safety To make sure cars will be safe in a crash, they must either have EC whole vehicle type approval (EC WVTA, not small series) or evidence that the car has appropriate levels of safety as judged by international standards.

As of September 2015 the following nine vans are eligible for the grant: BD Otomotive eTraffic, BD Otomotiv eDucato, Citroën Berlingo, Mercedes-Benz Vito E-Cell, Mitsubishi Outlander GX3h 4Work, Nissan e-NV200, Peugeot ePartner, Renault Kangoo Z.E., and Smith Electric Edison.^[124]

Number of beneficiaries

The number of eligible registered plug-in electric vehicles passed the 25,000 unit milestone in January 2015.^[116] As of September 2015, there have been 40,496 eligible plug-in electric cars registered since the launch of the programme in 2011.^[126] More than 43,000 claims have been made through the Plug-in Car and Van Grant schemes when claims made since February 2012 for the purchase of eligible commercial vans are accounted for (about 2,800).^[127] As of December 2014, there had been 1,467 electric cars and vans registered that were not eligible for the Plug-in Grant scheme.^[128]

Plugged-in Places

On 19 November 2009, Andrew Adonis, the Secretary of State for Transport, announced a scheme called "Plugged-in-Places", making available £30 million to be shared between three and six cities to investigate further the viability of providing power supply for electric vehicles, and encouraging local government and business to participate and bid for funds.^[129]

The UK government is supporting the ‘Plugged-In Places’ programme to install vehicle recharging points across the UK. The scheme offers match-funding to consortia of businesses and public sector partners to support the installation of EV recharging infrastructure in lead places across the UK.^[130] There are eight Plugged-In Places:East of England;^[131] Greater Manchester; London;^[132] Midlands;^[133] Milton Keynes;^[134] North East;^[135] Northern Ireland;^[136] and Scotland. The Government also published an Infrastructure Strategy in June 2011.^[137]

London congestion charge

All-electric vehicles (BEVs) and eligible plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) qualify for a 100% discount from the London congestion charge. A plug-in electric drive vehicle qualifies if the vehicle is registered with the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA) and has a fuel type of 'electric', or alternatively, if the vehicle is a 'plug-in hybrid' and is on the Government's list of PHEVs eligible for the OLEV grant.^[138] As of February 2015, approved PHEVs include all extended-range cars such as the BMW i3 with range extender and Vauxhall Ampera, and plug-in hybrids that emit 75g/km or less of CO₂ and that meet the Euro 5 standard for air quality, such as the Audi A3 Sportback e-tron, BMW i8, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, and Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid.^[139]

The original Greener Vehicle Discount was substituted by the Ultra Low Emission Discount (ULED) scheme that went into effect on 1 July 2013. The ULED introduced more stringent emission standards that limited the free access to the congestion charge zone to any car or van that emits 75g/km or less of CO₂ and meets the Euro 5 emission standards for air quality. As of July 2013 there are no internal combustion-only vehicles that meet this criteria. The measure is designed to limit the growing number of diesel vehicles on London's roads. Mayor Boris Johnson approved the new scheme in April 2013, after taking into account a number of comments received during the 12-week public consultation that took place. About 20,000 owners of vehicles registered for the Greener Vehicle Discount by June 2013 were granted a three-year sunset period (until 24 June 2016) before they have to pay the full congestion charge.^{[140][141][142][143]}

North America

Canada

Ontario

Ontario established a rebate between CA$5,000 (4 kWh battery) to CA$8,500 (17 kWh or more) (~US$4,991 to US$8,485), depending on battery size, for purchasing or leasing a new plug-in electric vehicle after July 1, 2010. The rebates are available to the first 10,000 applicants who qualify.^[144][145] The province also introduced green-coloured licence plates for exclusive use of plug-in hybrids and battery electric vehicles.^{[144][146][147]} These unique green vehicle plates allow PEV owners to travel in the province's carpool lanes until 2015 regardless of the number of passengers in the vehicle. Also, owners are eligible to use recharging stations at GO Transit and other provincially owned parking lots.^[144][147]

As of July 2013, according to the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario, eligible plug-in electric vehicles in the province are the Nissan Leaf, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Tesla Model S, Smart electric drive, Fisker Karma, Ford Focus Electric, Chevrolet Volt, Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Ford C-Max Energi, Ford Fusion Energi, and Azure Transit Connect Electric.^[148]

Quebec

Quebec began offering rebates of up to CA$8,500 (US$8,485) beginning on January 1, 2012, for the purchase of new plug-in electric vehicles equipped with a minimum of 4 kWh battery, and new hybrid electric vehicles are eligible for a CA$1,000 rebate. All-electric vehicles with high-capacity battery packs are eligible for the full CA$8,000 rebate, and incentives are reduced for low-range electric cars and plug-in hybrids. Quebec's government earmarked CA$50 million (US$49.9 million) for the program, and the maximum rebate amount is slowly reduced every year until a maximum of CA$3,000 in 2015, but the rebates will continue until the fund runs out. There is also a ceiling for the maximum number of eligible vehicles: 10,000 for all-electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids, and 5,000 for conventional hybrids.^[149][150]

British Columbia

As of April 1, 2015, British Columbia's Clean Energy Vehicle (CEV) Program incentives for CEV purchase were renewed with funding for approximately 1250 to 1500 vehicles. This program will expire on March 31, 2018, or when the CA$6,355,000 in new funding is depleted. The current levels of incentives are: CA$5,000 for an EV (min.15 kWh capacity), CA$2,500 for a plug-in hybrid or an extended range vehicle with a smaller battery capacity (min. 4 kWh capacity) and up to CA$6,000 for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, these amounts may be reduced annually. All vehicles must be new and purchased in BC, each claim is processed by the dealer at the Point of Sale and deducted from the vehicle price. The previous program that provided funding to cover part of the cost of installing home EV charging equipment has been discontinued. There is also a separate provincially funded "SCRAP-IT" program with incentives for scrapping model year 2000 or earlier, conventional gas powered vehicles. Basic incentives range from bus passes to coop car-share membership credits, or CA$200 in cash. However, there is also the option of applying for a CA$3,000 rebate cheque (plus CA$250 off the Point of Sale purchase price) when buying a new or used EV (min.15 kWh capacity). The "SCRAP-IT" rebate program currently brings the combined provincial incentives available to buyers of a qualifying new EV in BC to CA$8,250.

The Government of British Columbia had announced the LiveSmart BC program, which started offering rebates of up to CA$5,000 per eligible clean energy vehicle commencing on December 1, 2011. The incentives were available until March 31, 2013 or until available funding were depleted, whichever came first. Available funds were enough to provide incentives for approximately 1,370 vehicles. Battery electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles and plug-in hybrids with battery capacity of 15.0 kWh and above are eligible for a CA$5,000 incentive. Also effective December 1, 2011, rebates of up to CA$500 per qualifying electric vehicle charging equipment were available to B.C. residents who had purchased a clean energy vehicle.^[151][152] As of February 14, 2014, the Point of Sale Incentive Program and Residential Electric Charging Station Program had depleted their budgets and were no longer accepting applications for rebates prior to the Point of Sale incentive program being re-funded in April 2015.^[153]

United States

Federal government

In his 2011 State of the Union address, President Barack Obama set the goal for the U.S. to become the first country to have 1 million electric vehicles on the road by 2015.^[154][155] For this purpose, his administration pledged US$2.4 billion in federal grants to support the development of next-generation electric vehicles and batteries.^[154][155] The funds were allocated as follows: $1.5 billion in grants to U.S. based manufacturers to produce highly efficient batteries and their components; up to $500 million in grants to U.S. based manufacturers to produce other components needed for electric vehicles, such as electric motors and other components; and up to $400 million to demonstrate and evaluate plug-in hybrids and other electric infrastructure concepts—like truck stop charging station, electric rail, and training for technicians to build and repair electric vehicles (greencollar jobs).^[156]

New plug-in electric vehicles

First the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) granted tax credits for new qualified plug-in electric drive motor vehicles.^[157] The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug-ins, though the credit is lower than for new PEVs.^[158] The 2009 ACES also has extensive provisions for electric cars. The bill calls for all electric utilities to, "develop a plan to support the use of plug-in electric drive vehicles, including heavy-duty hybrid electric vehicles". The bill also provides for "smart grid integration," allowing for more efficient, effective delivery of electricity to accommodate the additional demands of plug-in EVs. Finally, the bill allows for the Department of Energy to fund projects that support the development of EV and smart grid technology and infrastructure.^[159]

As defined by the 2009 ACES Act, a PEV is a vehicle which draws propulsion energy from a traction battery with at least 4 kwh of capacity and uses an offboard source of energy to recharge such battery.^[157] The tax credit for new plug-in electric vehicles is worth $2,500 plus $417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 4 kwh, and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed $5,000. Therefore, the maximum amount of the credit allowed for a new PEV is $7,500.^[157]

The new qualified plug-in electric vehicle credit phases out for a PEV manufacturer over the one-year period beginning with the second calendar quarter after the calendar quarter in which at least 200,000 qualifying vehicles from that manufacturer have been sold for use in the United States. For this purpose cumulative sales are accounted after December 31, 2009. Qualifying PEVs are eligible for 50% of the credit if acquired in the first two quarters of the phase-out period, and 25% of the credit if bought in the third or fourth quarter of the phase-out period.^[157] Both the Nissan Leaf electric vehicle and the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, launched in December 2010, are eligible for the maximum $7,500 tax credit.^[160] The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, released in January 2012, is eligible for a $2,500 tax credit due to its smaller battery capacity of 5.2 kWh.^[161]

A 2013 study published in the journal Energy Policy determined that current federal subsidies are "not aligned with the goal of decreased gasoline consumption in a consistent and efficient manner." In particular, hybrid-vehicle credit is given according to battery capacity rather than electric-only vehicle range. Across the battery-capacity and charging-infrastructure scenarios examined, the lowest-cost solution is for more drivers to switch to traditional hybrid electrics or low-capacity plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Installing charging infrastructure would provide lower gasoline savings per dollar spent than paying for increased PHEV battery capacity.^[162][163] This has in part encouraged the creation and marketing of vehicles such as the hybrid Cadillac Escalade, which gets a maximum of 23mpg on the highway.^[164]

Plug-in conversion kits

The 2009 ARRA provided a tax credit for plug-in electric drive conversion kits. The credit is equal to 10% of the cost of converting a vehicle to a qualified plug-in electric vehicle and in service after February 17, 2009. The maximum amount of the credit is $4,000. The credit does not apply to conversions made after December 31, 2011.^[158][165]

Charging equipment

There was (through 2010) a federal tax credit equal to 50% of the cost to buy and install a home-based charging station with a maximum credit of US$2,000 for each station. Businesses qualified for tax credits up to $50,000 for larger installations.^[160][166] These credits expired on December 31, 2010, but were extended through 2013 with a reduced tax credit equal to 30% with a maximum credit of up to US$1,000 for each station for individuals and up to US$30,000 for commercial buyers.^[167][168]

New proposals

Two separate initiatives were pursued in 2011 to transform the tax credit into an instant cash rebate. The objective of both initiatives was to make new qualifying plug-in electric cars more accessible to buyers by making the incentive more effective. The rebate would have been available at the point of sale allowing consumers to avoid a wait of up to a year to apply the tax credit against income tax returns.^[169][170] The first initiative was from Senator Debbie Stabenow who reintroduced the "Charging America Forward Act." This bill was originally introduced in August 2010 but was not voted by the full Senate.^[169] The bill would have turned the tax credit into a rebate worth up to US$7,500 for plug-in electric vehicles and also would have provided businesses with a tax credit for purchasing medium or heavy duty plug-in hybrid trucks.^[171] The other initiative was from the Obama Administration and was submitted in the FY 2012 Budget as a provision to transform the existing credit into a rebate that would have been claimable by dealers and passed along to the consumers.^[170][172]

Another change to the law governing the plug-in tax credit was introduced by Senator Carl Levin and Representative Sander Levin who proposed to raise the existing cap on the number of plug-in vehicles eligible for the tax credit. The proposal would have raised that limit from the existing 200,000 PEVs per manufacturer to 500,000 units.^[169]

In March 2014 the Obama Administration included a provision in the FY 2015 Budget to increase the maximum tax credit for plug-in electric vehicles and other advanced vehicles to US$10,000, over the current US$7,500. However, the new maximum tax credit would not apply to luxury vehicles with a sales price of over US$45,000, such as the Tesla Model S and the Cadillac ELR, which would be capped at US$7,500. According to the Treasury Department, the proposal intends to transform the existing tax credit into a rebate available at the point of sale that will be claimable by dealers and passed along to the consumers. The proposal also seeks to remove the 200,000 vehicle cap per manufacturer after which the credit phases out over a year. Instead, the incentives would begin to phase out—falling to 75% of the current credit—starting in 2019 for all manufacturers, and would be completely phased out by 2022.^[173]

In California

The Clean Vehicle Rebate Project (CVRP), initially funded with a total of US$4.1 million by the California Environmental Protection Agency’s Air Resources Board (ARB), was established in order to promote the production and use of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs), including plug-in electric and fuel cell vehicles. The program was created from Assembly Bill 118 that was signed by Governor Schwarzenegger in October 2007. The funding is provided on a first-come, first-served basis, and the project is expected to go through 2015.^[174]

Eligible vehicles include only new ARB-certified or approved zero-emission or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. A list of eligible vehicles can be found on the California Center for Sustainable Energy web site.^[175] Among the eligible vehicles are neighborhood electric vehicles, battery electric, plug-in hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles including cars, trucks, medium- and heavy-duty commercial vehicles, and zero-emission motorcycles. Vehicles must be purchased or leased on or after March 15, 2010. Rebates of up to $5,000 per light-duty vehicle are available for individuals and business owners who purchase or lease new eligible vehicles. Certain zero-emission commercial vehicles are also eligible for rebates up to $20,000.^[174][175]

According to the Clean Vehicle Rebate Program, a total of $1.4 million were distributed in 2010 for 213 plug-in vehicles that received the rebate, leaving $2.3 million available for 2011. In January 2011 the California Energy Commission (CEC) allocated a $2 million contribution for the program, and considering the $5 million coming in second year funding, funds available for the rebates will amount to $9.3 million in 2011. The additional $2 million provided by CEC are reserved for rebates of vehicles capable of carrying four passengers and highway driving, providing enough money for 400 more buyers of such plug-in vehicles to benefit from the program.^[176] Once these funds were exhausted, the 2011-2012 program offered a lower rebate of up to $2,500. An additional $15 million was allocated for the 2011–2012 year program.^[177] In February 2012, the California Energy Commission approved an additional US$4.5 million to support purchases of light-duty zero-emission electric vehicles and light-duty plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. All vehicles must be capable of freeway operation and certified for at least four passengers.^[178] Current availability of CVRP funds can be checked on the California Center for Sustainable Energy web site.^[179]

The 2011 Chevrolet Volt was not submitted for application to the Clean Vehicle Rebate Project rebate and therefore was not eligible for the state rebate. The reason is that the Volt did not meet the 10-year 150.000-mile (241.402 km) battery warranty requirement for partial zero-emissions vehicles (Enhanced AT-PZEV). The Volt team explained that for the launch GM decided to go with a common national package which includes an 8-year 100,000-mile (160,000 km) battery warranty.^[180][181] In November 2011 General Motors announced that beginning in February 2012, all models manufactured for the California market will feature a new low emissions package that will allow the 2012 Chevrolet Volt to qualify as an enhanced, advanced technology –partial zero emissions vehicle (enhAT-PZEV) and have access to California’s high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV). The new standard California version of the Volt features a modified engine and exhaust components. The catalytic converter was modified to add a secondary air-injection pump. Owners of a 2012 Volt with the low emissions package became eligible to apply for the HOV lane stickers issued to vehicles that qualify as a California AT-PZEV. Additionally, the new low emissions package will make the 2012 Volt eligible for owners to receive up to US$1,500 in state rebates through the state’s Clean Vehicle Rebate Project (CVRP).^[182] Only the 2012 Volts manufactured after February 6, 2012, are fitted with the low emission package.^[183]

As of early September 2012, private individuals accounted for 88% of rebate funds reimbursed.^[184] As of early March 2013, CARB has issued about 18,000 rebates totaling US$41 million.^[178] However, CARB notices that approximately 2,300 Chevrolet Volts were sold in California before the Volt became eligible for the rebate in February 2012.^[185] As a result of the rebate and other existing incentives, such as allowing solo drivers in HOV lanes, California is the leading PEV market in the United States with about 40% of all new plug-in electric vehicles sold nationwide during 2011 and 2012, while the state represents about 10% of all new car sales in the country.^[178]

As of 10 March 2014, a total of 52,264 clean vehicle rebates have been issued by the CVRP, for a total of US$110,222,866 disbursed, with only US$3.8 million remaining for fiscal year 2013-2014. The distribution of the rebates issued correspond to 27,210 zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs), including both battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs); 24,657 plug-in hybrids (PHEVs); 49 commercial zero-emission vehicles (CZEVs); 210 zero-emission motorcycles (ZEMs); and 138 neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs). CVRJ notes that not all plug-in electric vehicles sold in California are captured in the CVRP database because not every PEV owner applies for the rebate. In terms of market share, and without accounting for the 2,300 Volts sold before February 2012, as of early March 2014, plug-in hybrids represented 47.2% of all clean vehicle rebates, while ZEVs, predominantly all-electric cars, represented 52.11% of all rebates issued.^[186]

As of April 2014, the CVRP was facing an estimated US$30 million funding shortfall for the 2013-14 fiscal year, and uncertainty about additional funding for the 2014-15 fiscal year. CARB staff presented a proposal to the board to overcome the funding shortage and also to facilitate the rebates to benefit buyers in disadvantaged communities who live in areas with bad air quality or who can’t afford high-end electric cars. The options being considered are to reduce the rebate by US$500 and to set a US$60,000 cap to the manufacturer’s suggested retail price of the vehicles, which would exclude the Cadillac ELR and the Tesla Model S from benefiting from the rebate.^[187]

A bill signed into law in September 2014, mandated the California Air Resources Board to draft a financial plan to meet California's goal of putting 1 million vehicles on the road while making sure that disadvantaged communities can participate. For this purpose CARB has to change the Clean Vehicle Rebate program to provide an extra credit for low-income drivers who wish to purchase or lease an electric car. CARB also should provide assistance to carsharing programs in low-income neighborhoods and install charging stations in apartment buildings in those communities. Under bill SB 1275, low-income residents who agree to scrap older, polluting cars will also get a clean vehicle rebate on top of existing payments for junking smog-producing vehicles.^[188][189]

Another bill signed into law in September 2014, AB1721, grants clean air vehicles free or reduced rates in high-occupancy toll lanes (HOT) lanes. Drivers of clean vehicles already enjoyed discounted rates in some facilities, such the toll to cross the San Francisco Bay Area bridges and to use the State Route 91 Express Lanes in Orange and Riverside Counties.^[188][190] AB 2565 facilitates access to charging stations by requiring commercial and residential property owners to approve installation if the charging station meets requirements and complies with the owner’s process for approving a modification to the property. The law makes a term in a lease of a commercial property, executed, renewed, or extended on or after 1 January 2015, void and unenforceable if it prohibits or unreasonably restricts the installation of an electric vehicle charging station in a parking space.^[188][190]

As of July 2015, California is analyzing add income-based caps to its PEV rebate system. Under the proposal, buyers with incomes less than 300% of the Federal poverty level will get up to US$3,000 for a plug-in hybrid, US$4,000 for an all-electric car, and US$6,500 for a hydrogen fuel-cell car and the rebate scales down until Californian buyers with incomes over US$250,000 no longer are eligible for incentives on plug-in hybrids or electric cars, however can get US$5,000 for a hydrogen fuel-cell car.^[191]

Access to HOV lanes

In California a vehicle that meets specified emissions standards may be issued Clean Air Vehicle (CAV) decals that allow the vehicle to be operated by a single occupant in California's high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV), or carpool or diamond lanes. All-electric vehicles are classified as Federal Inherently Low Emission Vehicles (ILEVs), and as zero emissions vehicles are entitled to an unlimited number of white CAV stickers. Green CAV stickers are available to the first 70,000 applicants that purchased or leased cars meeting California’s Enhanced Advanced Technology Partial Zero Emission Vehicle (Enhanced AT PZEV) or Transitional Zero-Emission Vehicle (TZEV) requirements, for which plug-in hybrids classify.^[192][193]

The number of green stickers available was increased from 40,000 to 55,000 in July 2014.^[192][193] As of 9 May 2014, the initial 40,000 green stickers were issued.^{[189][193][194]} The green sticker limit was increased by 15,000 beginning July 1, 2014, through the budget trailer bill SB 853.^[193][194] In September 2014 Governor Jerry Brown signed the bill AB 2013 that raised the cap for the green stickers from 55,000 to 70,000 new plug-in hybrids.^[189] Initially, the green and white clean air sticker were set to expire on January 1, 2015, but in 2013 the expiration date for the green stickers was extended to January 1, 2019.^[193][195] In June 2015, bill AB 95 was approved by the State Legislature raising the upper limit from 70,000 to 85,000 green stickers, and it is awaiting Governor Brown’s signature by July 1, 2015.^[196] As of mid-November 2015, a total of 80,876 green stickers have been issued by the DMV.^[193]

Research performed in 2015 by the UCLA Luskin Center for Innovation found that access to HOV lanes has a significant impact on plug-in car sales. Researchers linked automobile sales to a sample of more than 7,000 of the 8,057 census tracts in California for the study, including Los Angeles, Sacramento, San Diego and San Francisco. They looked at the number of plug-in car sales and the miles of carpool lanes within a 30 mi (48 km) radius of each census tract. The study concluded that the ability to use potentially time-saving HOV lanes prompted the purchase of more than 24,000 plug-in electric cars and hybrids in the four urban areas from 2010 to 2013, or about 40% of the total of such vehicles. The UCLA researcher concluded that without the policy giving plug-in vehicles access to HOV lanes, total plug-in sales in the same study areas would have been only 36,692 for the three-year period.^[197]

Other states

As of November 2014, 37 states and Washington, D.C. have established incentives and tax exemptions for BEVs and PHEVs, or utility-rate breaks, and other non-monetary incentives such as free parking and high-occupancy vehicle lane access.^[198] The following table summarizes some of those incentives:^[199][200]

State incentives for plug-in electric vehicles[201]
State	Amount of incentive	Type of PEV/vehicle	Type of incentive	Carpool lane access	Comments
Arizona		BEVs	Lower licensing fees	Yes	Eligibility for PHEVs depends on the extent to which the vehicle is powered by electricity. Maximum of $75 available to individuals for installation of EV charging outlets.
California	up to $4,000	BEVs	Purchase rebate	Yes	Free access to HOVs through January 1, 2019, which also benefits natural gas vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.[202] The amount of subsidies buyers receive, or don't receive for incomes over $250k—is determined by income.
	up to $2,500	PHEVs	Purchase rebate	Yes	PHEV free access to HOV lanes for first 70,000 applicants until January 1, 2019.[189]
	up to $1,500	Electric motorcycles and NEVs	Purchase rebate	No
Colorado	up to $6,000	BEVs and PHEVs	Income tax credit	No	Tax credit totaling 75 to 85% of the cost premium for a vehicle that uses or is converted to use an alternative fuel, is a hybrid electric vehicle or has its power source replaced with one that uses an alternative fuel. A 20% rebate also available for EV charger installation.[203]
Connecticut	up to $3,000	BEVs, PHEV	Rebate	No	CHEAPR provides up to $3,000 for fuel cell EV, EV or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. Rebates are offered on a first-come, first-served basis.
Delaware		EV		No	Electricity customers with at a grid-integrated EV may qualify to receive kilowatt-hour credits for energy discharged to the grid from the EV's battery at the same rate that the customer pays to charge the battery.
District of Columbia		BEVs and PHEVs	Excise tax exemption and reduced registration fees	No	A tax credit up to 50% of the equipment costs for the purchase and installation of electric vehicle charging station, up to $1,000 per residential install.
Florida		BEVs and PHEVs		Yes	Access to HOVs through January 1, 2018 if displaying a Florida Division of Motor Vehicles decal. Florida Statute 627.06535 protects consumers from additional charges from insurance providers from insuring plug-in electric vehicles.
Georgia	up to $5,000	ZEVs	Income tax credit	Yes	Only for ZEVs purchased before July 1, 2015 Tax credit of 20% of the cost of a zero emission vehicle up to $5,000. Plug-in hybrids are not eligible for this incentive because these vehicles sometimes are powered by electricity from the on-board combustion engine.[204]
	up to $2,500	Alternative fuel conversion	Income tax credit	Yes	Tax credit of 10% of the conversion cost for a vehicle converted to run solely on an alternative fuel and meets the standards for a low-emission vehicle up to $2,500.[204]
	up to $20,000	Commercial AFVs	Income tax credit	Yes	Tax credit for new commercial medium-duty or heavy-duty AFVs or Medium-duty hybrid EVs that operate using at least 90% alternative fuel, expires June 30, 2017.[205]
Hawaii		BEVs and PHEVs	Parking	Yes	EVs with EV license plates are exempt from certain parking fees charged by any non-federal government authorities.
Idaho		BEVs, PHEV	Inspection Exemption	No	EVs are exempt from state motor vehicle inspection and maintenance programs.
Illinois		BEVs, PHEVs and conversions	Inspection Exemption	No	Vehicles powered exclusively by electricity are exempt from state motor vehicle emissions inspections. Suspended in March 2015. Covers 80% of cost premium or conversion price, up to $4,000.
Indiana	up to $1,650	BEVs, PHEV		No	Credit to install residential charging station and free plug-in electric vehicle charging during off-peak hours until Jan. 31, 2017.
Louisiana	up to $3,000	BEVs, PHEVs and conversions	Inspection Exemption	No	Tax credit of 50% of cost premium for BEV/PHEV purchase, 50% of conversion cost, or a tax credit worth 10% of the cost of a new BEV/PHEV vehicle up to $3,000. This same credit also applies to charge station costs.
Maryland	up to $3,000	BEVs and PHEVs		Yes[206]	Plug-in EVs are eligible for an excise tax credit until July 1, 2017.
Massachusetts	up to $2,500	BEVs and PHEVs	Purchase rebate		MOR-EV offers rebates to customers purchasing PEVs.[207]
Michigan		BEVs, PHEV	Inspection exemption	No	Alternative fuel vehicles are exempt from emissions inspection requirements. Indiana Michigan Power, Consumers Energy and DTE Energy offer other incentives.
Minnesota		BEVs, PHEV		No	All public utilities must file a tariff that allows a customer to purchase electricity solely for the purpose of recharging an electric vehicle. The tariff must include either a time-of-day or off-peak rate.
Mississippi		BEVs, PHEV	Income tax credit	No	0% interest loans for public school districts and municipalities to purchase alternative fuel school buses and other motor vehicles, convert school buses and other motor vehicles to use alternative fuels, purchase alternative fuel equipment, and install fueling stations.
Missouri	up to $15,000	BEVs, PHEV		No	Tax credit for the cost of installing a qualified alternative fueling station, until Jan. 1, 2018, and are exempt from state emissions inspection requirements.
Montana	up to $500	Alternative fuel conversion	Income tax credit	No	Credit only available for conversion costs up to $500 or 50% of conversion cost. Includes electric car conversion.[208]
Nebraska		BEVs, PHEV	Loans	No	Provides low-cost loans for purchase of EVs, the conversion of conventional vehicles to operate on alternative fuels, and the construction or purchase of a fueling station or equipment.
Nevada		BEVs, PHEV		Yes	Exempt from emissions testing requirements and local public metered parking areas must have areas for EVs to park without paying a fee.
New Jersey		BEVs	Sales and use tax exemption	No	Exemption for qualifying BEVs only, not PHEVs. The New Jersey Turnpike Authority offers a 10% discount from off-peak toll rates on the New Jersey Turnpike for vehicles that have a fuel economy of 45 miles per gallon or higher. Rebates on BEV purchases may be available from local governments.
New York		BEVs, PHEVs and HEVs		Yes	Plug-in electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles with a combined fuel economy rating of at least 45 mpg-US (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg-imp) and that also meet the California Air Resources Board SULEV emissions standard, are eligible for the Clean Pass Program. Eligible vehicles which display the Clean Pass vehicle sticker are allowed to use the Long Island Expressway HOV lanes, regardless of the number of occupants.[209] Drivers of qualified vehicles may also receive a 10% discount on established E-ZPass accounts with proof of registration.[210] A tax credit for 50 percent of the cost, up to $5,000, for the purchase and installation of a charging station until Dec. 31, 2017.
North Carolina		PHEV		Yes	Qualified PEVs are exempt from state emissions inspection requirements.
Ohio		EV		Yes	Vehicles powered exclusively by electricity, propane, or natural gas are exempt from state vehicle emissions inspections after receiving a one-time verification inspection.
Oklahoma	75% cost		Income tax credit	No	A tax credit is available for up to 75 percent of the cost of installing charging stations.
Oregon		BEVs	Income tax credit	No	A tax credit for 25% of charging station costs, up to $750.
Pennsylvania	up to $2,000	BEVs and PHEVs	Purchase rebate	No	250 rebates to assist with the of the purchase of new EVs. As of June 24, 2015, 193 rebates remain at $2,000.[211]
Rhode Island		PHEV	Inspection exemption	No	Vehicles powered exclusively by electricity are exempt from state emissions control inspections.
South Carolina	up to $1,500	BEVs and PHEVs	Income tax credit	No	Tax credit equaling 20% of federal credit for PHEVs and BEVs.
Tennessee		BEVs and PHEVs		Yes	HOV lane access.
Texas	up to US$2,500	BEVs and PHEVs	Purchase rebate	No	Only purchases or leases made on or after May 13, 2014 until June 26, 2015 are eligible. Total funding for the program was US$7.7 million, and the maximum number of vehicles allowed is 2,000 for each plug-in electric drive and natural gas/propane vehicles for the length of the program.[212][213] AirCheckTexas, Drive a Clean Machine program, provides vouchers of $3,500 to qualified individuals for the purchase of hybrid, electric or natural gas vehicles.
Utah	up to $2,500	Conversions only	Income tax credit	Yes	Convert a vehicle to run on propane, natural gas, or electricity.
	up to $1,500	BEVs and PHEVs	Income tax credit	Yes	Until Dec. 31, 2016
Virginia		BEVs and PHEVs		No	Alternative fuel and hybrid electric vehicles are exempt from emissions testing.
Washington		BEVs	Sales tax	No	New passenger cars, light-duty trucks, and medium-duty passenger vehicles that operate exclusively on electricity, hydrogen, natural gas, or propane are exempt from state motor vehicle sales and use taxes. Qualified vehicles must also meet the California motor vehicle emissions standards, and comply with the rules of the Washington Department of Ecology. The sales tax exemption expires July 1, 2015.[214] Alternative fuel and hybrid electric vehicles are exempt from emissions testing.

Some city governments offer additional rebates.

Australia

In Australia, the Federal Government offers no direct incentives for electric vehicle ownership and imposes a substantial financial disincentive by way of a Federal Luxury Car Tax that is applied on new vehicles valued over a certain threshold (in 2014–15, this was A$61,884). The application threshold for this tax is increased to A$75,375 for fuel efficient vehicles - defined as those with a fuel consumption rating under 7 litres per 100 kilometres.^[215] By definition, electric vehicles which do not use conventional fuel sources are covered by this classification.^[216]

Motor vehicle registrations in Australia are the responsibility of the state and territory governments. Two of these jurisdictions offer incentives or rebates for electric vehicles:

• In Victoria, hybrid and electric vehicles received a $100 annual discount on vehicle registration.^[217][218]
• In the Australian Capital Territory, stamp duty on motor vehicle purchases is reduced for lower emission vehicles - for electric vehicles with zero tailpipe emissions, the stamp duty is $0.^[219]

There are no electric vehicle incentives in New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania or the Northern Territory.^[220][221]

See also

• Electric car use by country
• Government incentives for fuel efficient vehicles in the United States
• Hybrid tax credit
• List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
• Plug In America

References

External links

• Clean Vehicle Rebate Project website
• Driving Electrification - A Global Comparison of Fiscal Incentive Policy for Electric Vehicles, International Council on Clean Transportation, May 2014
• Effects of Federal Tax Credits for the Purchase of Electric Vehicles Congressional Budget Office, September 2012
• Evaluating the Impact of High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lane Access on Plug-In Vehicles (PEVs) Purchasing and Usage in California, University of California, Davis, Working Paper UCD-ITS-WP-14-01, April 2014
• Federal and State Laws and Incentives for alternative fuels and vehicles, Alternative Fuels Data Center, U.S. Department of Energy
• List of U.S. Electric Vehicle and EVSE Incentives by State, September 2014
• New Energy Tax Credits for Electric Vehicles purchased in 2009
• Overview of Tax Incentives for Electrically Chargeable Vehicles in the E.U.
• Plug-in Tracker: A comprehensive list of highway-capable PEVs (cars and trucks, 2- and 3-wheeled and commercial vehicles)
• UK Plug-in Car Grant website
• U.S. Federal & State Incentives & Laws
• State and Federal Incentives for EVs, PHEVs and Charge Stations - State and Federal Incentives- United States Incentives Map, Plug In America
• US Tax Incentives for Plug-in Hybrids and Electric Cars