Photosynthesis

Schematic of photosynthesis in plants. The carbohydrates produced are stored in or used by the plant.
Overall equation for the type of photosynthesis that occurs in plants
Composite image showing the global distribution of photosynthesis, including both oceanic phytoplankton and terrestrial vegetation. Dark red and blue-green indicate regions of high photosynthetic activity in ocean and land respectively.

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy, normally from the Sun, into chemical energy that can be later released to fuel the organisms' activities (energy transformation). This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek φῶς, phōs, "light", and σύνθεσις, synthesis, "putting together".[1][2][3] In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis maintains atmospheric oxygen levels and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.[4]

Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by water splitting is used in the creation of two further compounds: reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy currency" of cells.

In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, sugars are produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the Calvin cycle, but some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).[5] Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose.

The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as sources of electrons.[6] Cyanobacteria appeared later; the excess oxygen they produced contributed to the oxygen catastrophe,[7] which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts,[8][9][10] which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization.[11] Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.[12][13]

Overview

Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O2, and fixes CO2 into sugar.

Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis, since photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon.[4] In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. However, there are some types of bacteria that carry out anoxygenic photosynthesis. These consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen.

Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction, so photosynthesis needs to supply both a source of energy to drive this process, and the electrons needed to convert carbon dioxide into a carbohydrate via a reduction reaction. The addition of an electrons to a chemical species is called a reduction reaction. In general outline and in effect, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration, in which glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy (an exothermic reaction) to drive the organism's metabolism. The two processes, of reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate and then the later oxidation of the carbohydrate, take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments.

The general equation for photosynthesis as first proposed by Cornelius van Niel is therefore:[14]

CO2 + 2H2A + photons → [CH2O] + 2A + H2O
carbon dioxide + electron donor + light energy → carbohydrate + oxidized electron donor + water

Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for this process is:

n CO2 + 2n H2O + photons → (CH2O)n + n O2 + n H2O
carbon dioxide + water + light energy → carbohydrate + oxygen + water

This equation emphasizes that water is a reactant in the light-dependent reaction) and a product of the light-independent reaction, but canceling n water molecules from each side gives the net equation:

CO2 + 2 H2O + photons → CH2O + O2
carbon dioxide + water + light energy → carbohydrate + oxygen

Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron-supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate:[15] The equation for this reaction is:

CO2 + (AsO33−) + photons → (AsO43−) + CO[16]
carbon dioxide + arsenite + light energy → arsenate + carbon monoxide (used to build other compounds in subsequent reactions)

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide.

Most organisms that utilize photosynthesis to produce oxygen use visible light to do so, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far-red radiation.[17]

Archaeobacteria use a simpler method using a pigment similar to the pigments used for vision. The archaearhodopsin changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump. This produces a proton gradient more directly which is then converted to chemical energy. The process does not involve carbon dioxide fixation and does not release oxygen. It seems to have evolved separately.[18][19]

Photosynthetic membranes and organelles

Chloroplast ultrastructure:
1. outer membrane
2. intermembrane space
3. inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope)
4. stroma (aqueous fluid)
5. thylakoid lumen (inside of thylakoid)
6. thylakoid membrane
7. granum (stack of thylakoids)
8. thylakoid (lamella)
9. starch
10. ribosome
11. plastidial DNA
12. plastoglobule (drop of lipids)
Main articles: Chloroplast and Thylakoid

In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded in cell membranes. In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself.[20] However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids,[21] or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes.[22] These structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area and therefore increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb.[21]

In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space between them. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes of the photosynthetic system, including the pigments that absorb light energy.

Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll. The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls.[23] Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae, phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a wide variety of colors.

These pigments are embedded in plants and algae in complexes called antenna proteins. In such proteins, the pigments are arranged to work together. Such a combination of proteins is also called a light-harvesting complex.

Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, the majority of those are found in specially adapted structures called leaves. Certain species adapted to conditions of strong sunlight and aridity, such as many Euphorbia and cactus species, have their main photosynthetic organs in their stems. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the leaf is coated with a water-resistant waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation of water and decreases the absorption of ultraviolet or blue light to reduce heating. The transparent epidermis layer allows light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place.

Light-dependent reactions

Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis at the thylakoid membrane

In the light-dependent reactions, one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron. This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, starting the flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH. In addition, this creates a proton gradient (energy gradient) across the chloroplast membrane, which is used by ATP synthase in the synthesis of ATP. The chlorophyll molecule ultimately regains the electron it lost when a water molecule is spit in a process called photolysis, which releases a dioxygen (O2) molecule as a waste product.

The overall equation for the light-dependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is:[24]

2 H2O + 2 NADP+ + 3 ADP + 3 Pi + light → 2 NADPH + 2 H+ + 3 ATP + O2

Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present. For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with peaks for violet-blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum is blue-green light, which allows these algae to use the blue end of the spectrum to grow in the deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths (red light) used by above ground green plants. The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms.

Z scheme

The "Z scheme"

In plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts where they drive the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. The light-dependent reactions are of two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic.

In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex frees an electron by a process called photoinduced charge separation. The antenna system is at the core of the chlorophyll molecule of the photosystem II reaction center. That freed electron is transferred to the primary electron-acceptor molecule, pheophytin. As the electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain (the so-called Z-scheme shown in the diagram), it initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential by pumping proton cations (H+) across the membrane and into the thylakoid space. An ATP synthase enzyme uses that chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z-scheme. The electron enters a chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I. There it is further excited by the light absorbed by that photosystem. The electron is then passed along a chain of electron acceptors to which it transfers some of its energy. The energy delivered to the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is eventually used to reduce the co-enzyme NADP with a H+ to NADPH (which has functions in the light-independent reaction); at that point, the path of that electron ends.

The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction.

Water photolysis

The NADPH is the main reducing agent produced by chloroplasts, which then goes on to provide a source of energetic electrons in other cellular reactions. Its production leaves chlorophyll in photosystem I with a deficit of electrons (chlorophyll has been oxidized), which must be balanced by some other reducing agent that will supply the missing electron. The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll from photosystem I are supplied from the electron transport chain by plastocyanin. However, since photosystem II is the first step of the Z-scheme, an external source of electrons is required to reduce its oxidized chlorophyll a molecules. The source of electrons in green-plant and cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by four successive charge-separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a molecule of diatomic oxygen and four hydrogen ions; the electrons yielded are transferred to a redox-active tyrosine residue that then reduces the oxidized chlorophyll a (called P680) that serves as the primary light-driven electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center. That photo receptor is in effect reset and is then able to repeat the absorption of another photon and the release of another photo-dissociated electron. The oxidation of water is catalyzed in photosystem II by a redox-active structure that contains four manganese ions and a calcium ion; this oxygen-evolving complex binds two water molecules and contains the four oxidizing equivalents that are used to drive the water-oxidizing reaction. Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen ions released contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light-dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration, including photosynthetic organisms.[25][26]

Light-independent reactions

Calvin cycle

In the light-independent (or "dark") reactions, the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO2 from the atmosphere and, in a process called the Calvin-Benson cycle, it uses the newly formed NADPH and releases three-carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch. The overall equation for the light-independent reactions in green plants is[24]:128

3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ → C3H6O3-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 NADP+ + 3 H2O
Overview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixation

Carbon fixation produces the intermediate three-carbon sugar product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The simple carbon sugars produced by photosynthesis are then used in the forming of other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose, the precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration. The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals when the energy from plants is passed through a food chain.

The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, to yield two molecules of a three-carbon compound, glycerate 3-phosphate, also known as 3-phosphoglycerate. Glycerate 3-phosphate, in the presence of ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. This product is also referred to as 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) or, more generically, as triose phosphate. Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. The triose phosphates not thus "recycled" often condense to form hexose phosphates, which ultimately yield sucrose, starch and cellulose. The sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions like the production of amino acids and lipids.

Carbon concentrating mechanisms

On land

Overview of C4 carbon fixation

In hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent water loss. Under these conditions, CO2 will decrease and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will increase, causing an increase of photorespiration by the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the CO2 concentration in the leaves under these conditions.[27]

Main article: C4 carbon fixation

Plants that use the C4 carbon fixation process chemically fix carbon dioxide in the cells of the mesophyll by adding it to the three-carbon molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme called PEP carboxylase, creating the four-carbon organic acid oxaloacetic acid. Oxaloacetic acid or malate synthesized by this process is then translocated to specialized bundle sheath cells where the enzyme RuBisCO and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located, and where CO2 released by decarboxylation of the four-carbon acids is then fixed by RuBisCO activity to the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids. The physical separation of RuBisCO from the oxygen-generating light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases CO2 fixation and, thus, the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf.[28] C4 plants can produce more sugar than C3 plants in conditions of high light and temperature. Many important crop plants are C4 plants, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet. Plants that do not use PEP-carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C3 plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin-Benson cycle. Over 90% of plants use C3 carbon fixation, compared to 3% that use C4 carbon fixation;[29] however, the evolution of C4 in over 60 plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution.[27]

Main article: CAM photosynthesis

Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). In contrast to C4 metabolism, which physically separates the CO2 fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM temporally separates these two processes. CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C3 plants, and fix the CO2 at night, when their stomata are open. CAM plants store the CO2 mostly in the form of malic acid via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate. Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO2 inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3-phosphoglycerate by RuBisCO. Sixteen thousand species of plants use CAM.[30]

In water

Cyanobacteria possess carboxysomes, which increase the concentration of CO2 around RuBisCO to increase the rate of photosynthesis. An enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, located within the carboxysome releases CO2 from the dissolved hydrocarbonate ions (HCO3−). Before the CO2 diffuses out it is quickly sponged up by RuBisCO, which is concentrated within the carboxysomes. HCO3− ions are made from CO2 outside the cell by another carbonic anhydrase and are actively pumped into the cell by a membrane protein. They cannot cross the membrane as they are charged, and within the cytosol they turn back into CO2 very slowly without the help of carbonic anhydrase. This causes the HCO3− ions to accumulate within the cell from where they diffuse into the carboxysomes.[31] Pyrenoids in algae and hornworts also act to concentrate CO2 around rubisco.[32]

Order and kinetics

The overall process of photosynthesis takes place in four stages:[13]

Stage Description Time scale
1 Energy transfer in antenna chlorophyll (thylakoid membranes) femtosecond to picosecond
2 Transfer of electrons in photochemical reactions (thylakoid membranes) picosecond to nanosecond
3 Electron transport chain and ATP synthesis (thylakoid membranes) microsecond to millisecond
4 Carbon fixation and export of stable products millisecond to second

Efficiency

Probability distribution resulting from one-dimensional discrete time random walks. The quantum walk created using the Hadamard coin is plotted (blue) vs a classical walk (red) after 50 time steps.

Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3–6%.[33] Absorbed light that is unconverted is dissipated primarily as heat, with a small fraction (1-2%) [34] re-emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence at longer (redder) wavelengths.

Actual plants' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary from 0.1% to 8%.[35] By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 6–20% for mass-produced panels, and above 40% in laboratory devices.

Photosynthesis measurement systems are not designed to directly measure the amount of light absorbed by the leaf. But analysis of chlorophyll-fluorescence, P700- and P515-absorbance and gas exchange measurements reveal detailed information about e.g. the photosystems, quantum efficiency and the CO2 assimilation rates. With some instruments even wavelength-dependency of the photosynthetic efficiency can be analyzed.[36]

A phenomenon known as quantum walk increases the efficiency of the energy transport of light significantly. In the photosynthetic cell of an algae, bacterium, or plant, there are light-sensitive molecules called chromophores arranged in an antenna-shaped structure named a photocomplex. When a photon is absorbed by a chromophore, it is converted into a quasiparticle referred to as an exciton, which jumps from chromophore to chromophore towards the reaction center of the photocomplex, a collection of molecules that traps its energy in a chemical form that makes it accessible for the cell's metabolism. The exciton's wave properties enable it to cover a wider area and try out several possible paths simultaneously, allowing it to instantaneously "choose" the most efficient route, where it will have the highest probability of arriving at its destination in the minimum possible time. Because that quantum walking takes place at temperatures far higher than quantum phenomena usually occur, it is only possible over very short distances, due to obstacles in the form of destructive interference that come into play. These obstacles cause the particle to lose its wave properties for an instant before it regains them once again after it is freed from its locked position through a classic "hop". The movement of the electron towards the photo center is therefore covered in a series of conventional hops and quantum walks.[37][38][39]

Evolution

Plant cells with visible chloroplasts (from a moss, Plagiomnium affine)

Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, and used various other molecules as electron donors rather than water. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as electron donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids as an electron donor. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly reducing at that time.

Fossils of what are thought to be filamentous photosynthetic organisms have been dated at 3.4 billion years old.[40][41]

The main source of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere derives from oxygenic photosynthesis, and its first appearance is sometimes referred to as the oxygen catastrophe. Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis, such as that in cyanobacteria, became important during the Paleoproterozoic era around 2 billion years ago. Modern photosynthesis in plants and most photosynthetic prokaryotes is oxygenic. Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as an electron donor, which is oxidized to molecular oxygen (O
2) in the photosynthetic reaction center.

Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts

Several groups of animals have formed symbiotic relationships with photosynthetic algae. These are most common in corals, sponges and sea anemones. It is presumed that this is due to the particularly simple body plans and large surface areas of these animals compared to their volumes.[42] In addition, a few marine mollusks Elysia viridis and Elysia chlorotica also maintain a symbiotic relationship with chloroplasts they capture from the algae in their diet and then store in their bodies. This allows the mollusks to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a time.[43][44] Some of the genes from the plant cell nucleus have even been transferred to the slugs, so that the chloroplasts can be supplied with proteins that they need to survive.[45]

An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with photosynthetic bacteria, including a circular chromosome, prokaryotic-type ribosome, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center.[46][47] The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by endocytosis) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts possess their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those found in cyanobacteria.[48] DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as those found in the photosynthetic reaction centers. The CoRR Hypothesis proposes that this Co-location is required for Redox Regulation.

Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis

The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria. The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in Earth's history, at least 2450–2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is speculated, much earlier.[49][50] Because the Earth's atmosphere contained almost no oxygen during the estimated development of photosynthesis, it is believed that the first photosynthetic cyanobacteria did not generate oxygen.[51] Available evidence from geobiological studies of Archean (>2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered. A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial evolution opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already-diverse biota of blue-green algae. Cyanobacteria remained the principal primary producers of oxygen throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500–543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation. Green algae joined blue-green algae as the major primary producers of oxygen on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic, but it was only with the Mesozoic (251–65 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did the primary production of oxygen in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers of oxygen in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of marine algae.[52]

The Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis) converts sunlight into electric power using a pigment called xanthopterin. This is the first evidence of a member of the animal kingdom engaging in photosynthesis.[53]

Discovery

Although some of the steps in photosynthesis are still not completely understood, the overall photosynthetic equation has been known since the 19th century.

Jan van Helmont began the research of the process in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the potted plant. His hypothesis was partially accurate — much of the gained mass also comes from carbon dioxide as well as water. However, this was a signaling point to the idea that the bulk of a plant's biomass comes from the inputs of photosynthesis, not the soil itself.

Joseph Priestley, a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it, the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly "injure" air. He then showed that the air that had been "injured" by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant.

In 1778, Jan Ingenhousz, repeated Priestley's experiments. He discovered that it was the influence of sunlight on the plant that could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of hours.

In 1796, Jean Senebier, a Swiss pastor, botanist, and naturalist, demonstrated that green plants consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen under the influence of light. Soon afterward, Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO2 but also to the incorporation of water. Thus, the basic reaction by which photosynthesis is used to produce food (such as glucose) was outlined.

Cornelis Van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria he was the first to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light-dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide.

Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700 nm. The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI. PSI contains only chlorophyll "a", PSII contains primarily chlorophyll "a" with most of the available chlorophyll "b", among other pigment. These include phycobilins, which are the red and blue pigments of red and blue algae respectively, and fucoxanthol for brown algae and diatoms. The process is most productive when the absorption of quanta are equal in both the PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII system, which in turn powers the photochemistry.[13]

Melvin Calvin works in his photosynthesis laboratory.

Robert Hill thought that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b6 (now a plastoquinone), another is from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate-generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant. Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated chloroplasts give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate, ferricyanide or benzoquinone after exposure to light. The Hill reaction[54] is as follows:

2 H2O + 2 A + (light, chloroplasts) → 2 AH2 + O2

where A is the electron acceptor. Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved.

Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to determine that the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water.

Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson, along with James Bassham, elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the Calvin cycle, which ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin-Benson Cycle, Benson-Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (or CBB) Cycle.

Nobel Prize-winning scientist Rudolph A. Marcus was able to discover the function and significance of the electron transport chain.

Otto Heinrich Warburg and Dean Burk discovered the I-quantum photosynthesis reaction that splits the CO2, activated by the respiration.[55]

Louis N.M. Duysens and Jan Amesz discovered that chlorophyll a will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, chlorophyll a (and other pigments) will absorb another light, but will reduce this same oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions are in series.

Development of the concept

In 1893, Charles Reid Barnes proposed two terms, photosyntax and photosynthesis, for the biological process of synthesis of complex carbon compounds out of carbonic acid, in the presence of chlorophyll, under the influence of light. Over time, the term photosynthesis came into common usage as the term of choice. Later discovery of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and photophosphorylation necessitated redefinition of the term.[56]

Factors

The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants.

There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis and several corollary factors. The three main are:

Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature

Absorbance spectra of free chlorophyll a (green) and b (red) in a solvent. The action spectra of chlorophyll molecules are slightly modified in vivo depending on specific pigment-protein interactions.

The process of photosynthesis provides the main input of free energy into the biosphere, and is one of four main ways in which radiation is important for plant life .[57]

The radiation climate within plant communities is extremely variable, with both time and space.

In the early 20th century, Frederick Blackman and Gabrielle Matthaei investigated the effects of light intensity (irradiance) and temperature on the rate of carbon assimilation.

These two experiments illustrate several important points: First, it is known that, in general, photochemical reactions are not affected by temperature. However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation. These are, of course, the light-dependent 'photochemical' temperature-independent stage, and the light-independent, temperature-dependent stage. Second, Blackman's experiments illustrate the concept of limiting factors. Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, cannot receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments surround the reaction center. This unit is called a phycobilisome.

Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration

Photorespiration

As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which sugars are made by the light-independent reactions increases until limited by other factors. RuBisCO, the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light-independent reactions, has a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen. When the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, RuBisCO will fix carbon dioxide. However, if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, RuBisCO will bind oxygen instead of carbon dioxide. This process, called photorespiration, uses energy, but does not produce sugars.

RuBisCO oxygenase activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons:

  1. One product of oxygenase activity is phosphoglycolate (2 carbon) instead of 3-phosphoglycerate (3 carbon). Phosphoglycolate cannot be metabolized by the Calvin-Benson cycle and represents carbon lost from the cycle. A high oxygenase activity, therefore, drains the sugars that are required to recycle ribulose 5-bisphosphate and for the continuation of the Calvin-Benson cycle.
  2. Phosphoglycolate is quickly metabolized to glycolate that is toxic to a plant at a high concentration; it inhibits photosynthesis.
  3. Salvaging glycolate is an energetically expensive process that uses the glycolate pathway, and only 75% of the carbon is returned to the Calvin-Benson cycle as 3-phosphoglycerate. The reactions also produce ammonia (NH3), which is able to diffuse out of the plant, leading to a loss of nitrogen.
A highly simplified summary is:
2 glycolate + ATP → 3-phosphoglycerate + carbon dioxide + ADP + NH3

The salvaging pathway for the products of RuBisCO oxygenase activity is more commonly known as photorespiration, since it is characterized by light-dependent oxygen consumption and the release of carbon dioxide.

See also

References

  1. ↑ "photosynthesis". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  2. ↑ φῶς. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
  3. ↑ σύνθεσις. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
  4. 1 2 Bryant DA, Frigaard NU (Nov 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated". Trends in Microbiology 14 (11): 488–96. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001. PMID 16997562.
  5. ↑ Reece J, Urry L, Cain M, Wasserman S, Minorsky P, Jackson R. Biology (International ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. pp. 235, 244. ISBN 0-321-73975-2. This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation.
  6. ↑ Olson JM (May 2006). "Photosynthesis in the Archean era". Photosynthesis Research 88 (2): 109–17. doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID 16453059.
  7. ↑ Buick R (Aug 2008). "When did oxygenic photosynthesis evolve?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 363 (1504): 2731–43. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0041. PMC 2606769. PMID 18468984.
  8. ↑ Nealson KH, Conrad PG (Dec 1999). "Life: past, present and future". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 354 (1392): 1923–39. doi:10.1098/rstb.1999.0532. PMC 1692713. PMID 10670014.
  9. ↑ Whitmarsh J, Govindjee (1999). "The photosynthetic process". In Singhal GS, Renger G, Sopory SK, Irrgang KD, Govindjee. Concepts in photobiology: photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 11–51. ISBN 0-7923-5519-9. 100 x 1015 grams of carbon/year fixed by photosynthetic organisms, which is equivalent to 4 x 1018 kJ/yr = 4 x 1021J/yr of free energy stored as reduced carbon; (4 x 1018 kJ/yr) / (31,556,900 sec/yr) = 1.27 x 1014 J/yr; (1.27 x 1014 J/yr) / (1012 J/sec / TW) = 127 TW.
  10. ↑ Steger U, Achterberg W, Blok K, Bode H, Frenz W, Gather C, Hanekamp G, Imboden D, Jahnke M, Kost M, Kurz R, Nutzinger HG, Ziesemer T (2005). Sustainable development and innovation in the energy sector. Berlin: Springer. p. 32. ISBN 3-540-23103-X. The average global rate of photosynthesis is 130 TW (1 TW = 1 terawatt = 1012 watt).
  11. ↑ "World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980–2004" (XLS). Energy Information Administration. July 31, 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-20.
  12. ↑ Field CB, Behrenfeld MJ, Randerson JT, Falkowski P (Jul 1998). "Primary production of the biosphere: integrating terrestrial and oceanic components". Science 281 (5374): 237–40. Bibcode:1998Sci...281..237F. doi:10.1126/science.281.5374.237. PMID 9657713.
  13. 1 2 3 "Photosynthesis". McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology 13. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2007. ISBN 0-07-144143-3.
  14. ↑ Whitmarsh J, Govindjee (1999). "Chapter 2: The Basic Photosynthetic Process". In Singhal GS, Renger G, Sopory SK, Irrgang KD, Govindjee. Concepts in Photobiology: Photosynthesis and Photomorphogenesis. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 13. ISBN 978-0792355199.
  15. ↑ Anaerobic Photosynthesis, Chemical & Engineering News, 86, 33, August 18, 2008, p. 36
  16. ↑ Kulp TR, Hoeft SE, Asao M, Madigan MT, Hollibaugh JT, Fisher JC, Stolz JF, Culbertson CW, Miller LG, Oremland RS (Aug 2008). "Arsenic(III) fuels anoxygenic photosynthesis in hot spring biofilms from Mono Lake, California". Science 321 (5891): 967–70. Bibcode:2008Sci...321..967K. doi:10.1126/science.1160799. PMID 18703741.
  17. ↑ "Scientists discover unique microbe in California's largest lake". Retrieved 2009-07-20.
  18. ↑ Plants: Diversity and Evolution, page 14, Martin Ingrouille, Bill Eddie
  19. ↑ Evolution of Photosynthesis
  20. ↑ Tavano CL, Donohue TJ (Dec 2006). "Development of the bacterial photosynthetic apparatus". Current Opinion in Microbiology 9 (6): 625–31. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2006.10.005. PMC 2765710. PMID 17055774.
  21. 1 2 Mullineaux CW (1999). "The thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria: structure, dynamics and function". Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 26 (7): 671–677. doi:10.1071/PP99027.
  22. ↑ Sener MK, Olsen JD, Hunter CN, Schulten K (Oct 2007). "Atomic-level structural and functional model of a bacterial photosynthetic membrane vesicle". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 (40): 15723–8. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10415723S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0706861104. PMC 2000399. PMID 17895378.
  23. ↑ Campbell NA, Williamson B, Heyden RJ (2006). Biology Exploring Life. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6.
  24. 1 2 Raven PH, Evert RF, Eichhorn SE (2005). Biology of Plants, (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers. pp. 124–127. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.
  25. ↑ "Yachandra Group Home page".
  26. ↑ Pushkar Y, Yano J, Sauer K, Boussac A, Yachandra VK (Feb 2008). "Structural changes in the Mn4Ca cluster and the mechanism of photosynthetic water splitting". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105 (6): 1879–84. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.1879P. doi:10.1073/pnas.0707092105. PMC 2542863. PMID 18250316.
  27. 1 2 Williams BP, Johnston IG, Covshoff S, Hibberd JM (September 2013). "Phenotypic landscape inference reveals multiple evolutionary paths to C4 photosynthesis". eLife 2: e00961. doi:10.7554/eLife.00961. PMID 24082995.
  28. ↑ L. Taiz, E. Zeiger (2006). Plant Physiology (4 ed.). Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0-87893-856-8.
  29. ↑ Monson RK, Sage RF (1999). "16". C₄ plant biology. Boston: Academic Press. pp. 551–580. ISBN 0-12-614440-0.
  30. ↑ Dodd AN, Borland AM, Haslam RP, Griffiths H, Maxwell K (Apr 2002). "Crassulacean acid metabolism: plastic, fantastic". Journal of Experimental Botany 53 (369): 569–80. doi:10.1093/jexbot/53.369.569. PMID 11886877.
  31. ↑ Badger MR, Price GD (Feb 2003). "CO2 concentrating mechanisms in cyanobacteria: molecular components, their diversity and evolution". Journal of Experimental Botany 54 (383): 609–22. doi:10.1093/jxb/erg076. PMID 12554704.
  32. ↑ Badger MR, Andrews JT, Whitney SM, Ludwig M, Yellowlees DC, Leggat W, Price GD (1998). "The diversity and coevolution of Rubisco, plastids, pyrenoids, and chloroplast-based CO2-concentrating mechanisms in algae". Canadian Journal of Botany 76 (6): 1052–1071. doi:10.1139/b98-074. ISSN 0008-4026.
  33. ↑ Miyamoto K. "Chapter 1 – Biological energy production". Renewable biological systems for alternative sustainable energy production (FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin – 128). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2009-01-04.
  34. ↑ Maxwell K, Johnson GN (Apr 2000). "Chlorophyll fluorescence--a practical guide". Journal of Experimental Botany 51 (345): 659–68. doi:10.1093/jexbot/51.345.659. PMID 10938857.
  35. ↑ Govindjee R. "What is Photosynthesis". Biology at Illinois.
  36. ↑ Schreiber U, Klughammer C, Kolbowski J (2012). "Assessment of wavelength-dependent parameters of photosynthetic electron transport with a new type of multi-color PAM chlorophyll fluorometer". Photosynthesis research 113 (1-3): 127–144. doi:10.1007/s11120-012-9758-1.
  37. ↑ Palmer J (21 June 2013). "Plants 'seen doing quantum physics'". BBC News.
  38. ↑ Lloyd S (10 March 2014). "Quantum Biology: Better Living Through Quantum Mechanics - The Nature of Reality". Nova: PBS Online, WGBH Boston.
  39. ↑ Hildner R, Brinks D, Nieder JB, Cogdell RJ, van Hulst NF (Jun 2013). "Quantum coherent energy transfer over varying pathways in single light-harvesting complexes". Science 340 (6139): 1448–51. doi:10.1126/science.1235820. PMID 23788794.
  40. ↑ Photosynthesis got a really early start, New Scientist, 2 October 2004
  41. ↑ Revealing the dawn of photosynthesis, New Scientist, 19 August 2006
  42. ↑ Venn AA, Loram JE, Douglas AE (2008). "Photosynthetic symbioses in animals". Journal of Experimental Botany 59 (5): 1069–80. doi:10.1093/jxb/erm328. PMID 18267943.
  43. ↑ Rumpho ME, Summer EJ, Manhart JR (May 2000). "Solar-powered sea slugs. Mollusc/algal chloroplast symbiosis". Plant Physiology 123 (1): 29–38. doi:10.1104/pp.123.1.29. PMC 1539252. PMID 10806222.
  44. ↑ Muscatine L, Greene RW (1973). "Chloroplasts and algae as symbionts in molluscs". International Review of Cytology. International Review of Cytology 36: 137–69. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(08)60217-X. ISBN 9780123643360. PMID 4587388.
  45. ↑ Rumpho ME, Worful JM, Lee J, Kannan K, Tyler MS, Bhattacharya D, Moustafa A, Manhart JR (Nov 2008). "Horizontal gene transfer of the algal nuclear gene psbO to the photosynthetic sea slug Elysia chlorotica". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105 (46): 17867–71. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10517867R. doi:10.1073/pnas.0804968105. PMC 2584685. PMID 19004808.
  46. ↑ Douglas SE (Dec 1998). "Plastid evolution: origins, diversity, trends". Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 8 (6): 655–61. doi:10.1016/S0959-437X(98)80033-6. PMID 9914199.
  47. ↑ Reyes-Prieto A, Weber AP, Bhattacharya D (2007). "The origin and establishment of the plastid in algae and plants". Annual Review of Genetics 41: 147–68. doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.41.110306.130134. PMID 17600460.
  48. ↑ Raven JA, Allen JF (2003). "Genomics and chloroplast evolution: what did cyanobacteria do for plants?". Genome Biology 4 (3): 209. doi:10.1186/gb-2003-4-3-209. PMC 153454. PMID 12620099.
  49. ↑ Tomitani A, Knoll AH, Cavanaugh CM, Ohno T (Apr 2006). "The evolutionary diversification of cyanobacteria: molecular-phylogenetic and paleontological perspectives". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 (14): 5442–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600999103. PMC 1459374. PMID 16569695.
  50. ↑ "Cyanobacteria: Fossil Record". Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
  51. ↑ Smith, Alison (2010). Plant biology. New York, NY: Garland Science. p. 5. ISBN 0815340257.
  52. ↑ Herrero A, Flores E (2008). The Cyanobacteria: Molecular Biology, Genomics and Evolution (1st ed.). Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-15-8.
  53. ↑ Plotkin M, Hod I, Zaban A, Boden SA, Bagnall DM, Galushko D, Bergman DJ (Dec 2010). "Solar energy harvesting in the epicuticle of the oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis)". Die Naturwissenschaften 97 (12): 1067–76. doi:10.1007/s00114-010-0728-1. PMID 21052618.
  54. ↑ Walker DA (2002). ";And whose bright presence' - an appreciation of Robert Hill and his reaction" (PDF). Photosynthesis Research 73 (1-3): 51–4. doi:10.1023/A:1020479620680. PMID 16245102.
  55. ↑ Otto Warburg – Biography. Nobelprize.org (1970-08-01). Retrieved on 2011-11-03.
  56. ↑ Gest, Howard (2002). "History of the word photosynthesis and evolution of its definition.". Photosynthesis Research 73 (1-3): 7–10. doi:10.1023/A:1020419417954.
  57. ↑ Jones, H.G. 1992. Plants and Microclimate: A Quantitative Approach to Environmental Plant Physiology. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K. 428 p.

Further reading

Books

  • Bidlack JE, Stern KR, Jansky S (2003). Introductory plant biology. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-290941-2. 
  • Blankenship RE (2014). Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-8975-0. 
  • Govindjee, Beatty JT, Gest H, Allen JF (2006). Discoveries in Photosynthesis. Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration 20. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 1-4020-3323-0. 
  • Reece JB, et al. (2013). Campbell Biology. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 978-0321775658. 

Papers

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Photosynthesis.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Friday, February 12, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.