Old Testament

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The Old Testament is the first section of the Christian Bible, based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible, a collection of religious writings by ancient Israelites.^[1] It is the counterpart to the New Testament, the second portion of the Christian Bible. The Old Testament canon varies between Christian Churches; Protestants and Latter-Day Saints accept only the books found in the canon of the Hebrew Bible, dividing them into 39 books, while the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox Churches accept somewhat larger collections of writings.^[2]

The Old Testament consists of many distinct books written, compiled, and edited by various authors^[3] over a period of centuries. It is not entirely clear at what point the parameters of the Hebrew Bible, the basis for the Christian Old Testament, were fixed. Some scholars have opined that the canon of the Hebrew Bible was established already by about the 3rd century BC,^[4][5] or even later.^[6]

The books of the Old Testament can be broadly divided into several sections: 1) the first five books or Pentateuch (Torah); 2) the history books telling the history of the Israelites, from their conquest of Canaan to their defeat and exile in Babylon; 3) the poetic and "Wisdom" books dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world; 4) and the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God.

Content

The Old Testament contains 39 (Protestant) or 46 (Catholic) or more (Orthodox and other) books, divided, very broadly, into the Pentateuch (Torah), the historical books, the "wisdom" books and the prophets.^[7]

Table

The table uses the spellings and names present in modern editions of the Bible, such as the New American Bible Revised Edition, Revised Standard Version and English Standard Version. The spelling and names in both the 1609–10 Douay Old Testament (and in the 1582 Rheims New Testament) and the 1749 revision by Bishop Challoner (the edition currently in print used by many Catholics, and the source of traditional Catholic spellings in English) and in the Septuagint differ from those spellings and names used in modern editions which are derived from the Hebrew Masoretic text.^{[lower-alpha 1]}

For the Orthodox canon, Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. For the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. Likewise, the King James Version references some of these books by the traditional spelling when referring to them in the New Testament, such as "Esaias" (for Isaiah).

In the spirit of ecumenism more recent Catholic translations (e.g. the New American Bible, Jerusalem Bible, and ecumenical translations used by Catholics, such as the Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition) use the same "standardized" (King James Version) spellings and names as Protestant Bibles (e.g. 1 Chronicles as opposed to the Douaic 1 Paralipomenon, 1–2 Samuel and 1–2 Kings instead of 1–4 Kings) in those books which are universally considered canonical, the protocanonicals.

The Talmud (the Jewish commentary on the scriptures) in Bava Batra 14b gives a different order for the books in Nevi'im and Ketuvim. This order is also cited in Mishneh Torah Hilchot Sefer Torah 7:15. The order of the books of the Torah are universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity.

The disputed books, included in one canon but not in others, are often called the Biblical apocrypha, a term that is sometimes used specifically to describe the books in the Catholic and Orthodox canons that are absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text and most modern Protestant Bibles. Catholics, following the Canon of Trent (1546), describe these books as deuterocanonical, while Greek Orthodox Christians, following the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), use the traditional name of anagignoskomena, meaning "that which is to be read." They are present in a few historic Protestant versions; the German Luther Bible included such books, as did the English 1611 King James Version.^{[lower-alpha 2]}

Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon.

Several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to the Latin Vulgate, formerly the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church.

Composition

The first five books – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, book of Numbers and Deuteronomy – comprise the Torah, the story of Israel from the Genesis creation narrative to the death of Moses. Few scholars today doubt that it reached its present form in the Persian period (538–332 BC), and that its authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled the Temple at that time.^[10] However, the 2004 discovery of fragments of the Hebrew Bible at Ketef Hinnom dating to the 7th century BC, and thus to before the Babylonian captivity, suggests that at least some elements of the Torah were current before the Babylonian exile.^{[11][12][13][14]}

The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings follow, forming a history of Israel from the Conquest of Canaan to the Siege of Jerusalem c. 587 BC. There is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work (the so-called "Deuteronomistic history") during the Babylonian exile of the 6th century BC.^[15] The two Books of Chronicles cover much the same material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century BC.^[16]

Chronicles links with the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, which were probably finished during the 3rd century BC.^[17] Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two (Catholic Old Testament) to four (Orthodox) Books of Maccabees, written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.

The history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel and the twelve "minor prophets" – were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions of Jonah and Daniel, which were written much later.^[18] The "wisdom" and other books – Job, Proverbs and so on – date from between the 5th century BC and the 2nd or 1st BC, with the exception of some of the Psalms.^[19]

Themes

God is consistently depicted as the one who created or put into order^[20] the world and guides its history. Although the God of the Old Testament is not consistently presented as the only God who exists, he is always depicted as the only God whom Israel is to worship, and both Jews and Christians have always interpreted the bible as an affirmation of the oneness of Almighty God.^[21]

The Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel, but includes instructions for proselytes as well. This relationship is expressed in the biblical covenant (contract) between the two, received by Moses. The law codes in books such as Exodus and especially Deuteronomy are the terms of the contract: Israel swears faithfulness to God, and God swears to be Israel's special protector and supporter.^[21]

Further themes in the Old Testament include salvation, redemption, divine judgment, obedience and disobedience, faith and faithfulness, among others. Throughout there is a strong emphasis on ethics and ritual purity, both of which God demands, although some of the prophets and wisdom writers seem to question this, arguing that God demands social justice above purity, and perhaps does not even care about purity at all. The Old Testament's moral code enjoins fairness, intervention on behalf of the vulnerable, and the duty of those in power to administer justice righteously. It forbids murder, bribery and corruption, deceitful trading, and many sexual misdemeanors. All morality is traced back to God, who is the source of all goodness.^[22]

The problem of evil plays a large part in the Old Testament. The problem the Old Testament authors faced was that a good God must have had just reason for bringing disaster (meaning notably, but not only, the Babylonian exile) upon his people. The theme is played out, with many variations, in books as different as the histories of Kings and Chronicles, the prophets like Ezekiel and Jeremiah, and in the wisdom books like Job and Ecclesiastes.^[22]

The formation of the Old Testament

The interrelationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Old Testament, according to the Encyclopaedia Biblica (1903). Some manuscripts are identified by their siglum. LXX here denotes the original Septuagint.

Greek, Latin and Protestant Old Testaments

The process by which scriptures became canons and Bibles was a long one, and its complexities account for the many different Old Testaments which exist today. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the University of Edinburgh, identifies the Old Testament as "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing."^[3] He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. By about the 5th century BC Jews saw the five books of the Torah (the Old Testament Pentateuch) as having authoritative status; by the 2nd century BC the Prophets had a similar status, although without quite the same level of respect as the Torah; beyond that, the Jewish scriptures were fluid, with different groups seeing authority in different books.^[23]

Greek Bible

The scriptures were first translated into Greek in Alexandria between about 280–130 BC.^[24] These early Greek translations – supposedly commissioned by Ptolemy Philadelphus – were called the Septuagint (Latin: "Seventy") from the supposed number of translators involved (hence its abbreviation "LXX"). This Septuagint remains the basis of the Old Testament in the Eastern Orthodox Church.^[25]

It varies in many places from the Masoretic Text and includes numerous books no longer considered canonical in certain traditions: 1st and 2nd Esdras, Judith, Tobit, 3rd and 4th Maccabees, the Book of Wisdom, Sirach, and Baruch.^[26] Early modern Biblical criticism typically explained these variations as intentional or ignorant corruptions by the Alexandrian scholars, but most recent scholarship holds it is simply based on early source texts differing from those later used by the Masoretes in their work.

The Septuagint was originally used by Jews so thoroughly Hellenized that their knowledge of Greek was better than their Hebrew. The ever-increasing number of gentile converts to Christianity created a growing need for translations of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek and Latin. The three most acclaimed early interpreters were Aquila of Sinope, Symmachus the Ebionite, and Theodotion; in his Hexapla, Origen placed his edition of the Hebrew text beside its transcription in Greek letters and four parallel translations: Aquila's, Symmachus's, the Septuagint's, and Theodotion's. The so-called "fifth" and "sixth editions" were two other Greek translations supposedly miraculously discovered by students outside the towns of Jericho and Nicopolis: these were added to Origen's Octapla.^[27]

In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius^[28] recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.^[29] There is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon, however, Jerome (347–420), in his Prologue to Judith, makes the claim that the Book of Judith was "found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures".^[30]

Latin Bible

In Western Christianity or Christianity in the Western half of the Roman Empire, Latin had displaced Greek as the common language of the early Christians, and about 400 AD Pope Damasus I commissioned Jerome, the leading scholar of the day, to produce an updated Latin bible to replace the Vetus Latina. Jerome's work is called the Vulgate (i.e. common language), and he translated most of the Old Testament of his Vulgate from Hebrew, since he argued for the superiority of the Hebrew texts in correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds.^[31] His Vulgate Old Testament became the standard bible used in the Western Church, specifically as the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate, while the Churches in the East continued, and still continue, to use the Septuagint.^[32]

Jerome, however, in the Vulgate's prologues describes some portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-canonical (he called them apocrypha);^[33] for Baruch, he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon".^[34] The Synod of Hippo (in 393), followed by the Councils of Carthage (in 397 and 419), may be the first council that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes the books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible;^[35] the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed.^[36] In the 16th, century the Protestant reformers sided with Jerome; yet although most Protestant Bibles now have only those books that appear in the Jewish Bible, they have them in the order of the Greek Bible.^[37]

Rome then officially adopted a canon, the Canon of Trent, which is seen as following Augustine's Carthaginian Councils^[38] or the Council of Rome,^[39][40] and includes most, but not all, of the Septuagint (3 Ezra and 3 and 4 Maccabees are excluded);^[41] the Anglicans after the English Civil War adopted a compromise position, restoring the 39 Articles and keeping the extra books that were excluded by the Westminster Confession of Faith, but only for private study and for reading in churches, while Lutherans kept them for private study, gathered in an appendix as Biblical Apocrypha.^[37]

Other versions

While the Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions of the Hebrew Bible are the best known Old Testaments, there were others. At much the same time as the Septuagint was being produced, translations were being made into Aramaic, the language of Jews living in Palestine and the Near East and likely the language of Jesus: these are called the Aramaic Targums, from a word meaning "translation", and were used to help Jewish congregations understand their scriptures.^[42]

For Aramaic Christians there was a Syriac translation of the Hebrew Bible called the Peshitta, as well as versions in Coptic (the everyday language of Egypt in the first Christian centuries, descended from ancient Egyptian), Ethiopic (for use in the Ethiopian church, one of the oldest Christian churches), Armenian (Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion), and Arabic.^[42]

Literary evaluations

The Old Testament is considered one of the most important and influential works of literature in world literature, and has provided inspiration for writers (both religious and secular) throughout subsequent history. In 1886, Friedrich Nietzsche wrote: "In the Jewish Old Testament, there are men, things and speeches in so grand a style that Greek and Indian literature have nothing to compare to it. One stands with awe and reverence before these tremendous remnants of what man once was... The taste for the Old Testament is a touchstone of "greatness" and "smallness". To have glued this New Testament, a kind of rococo of taste in every respect, to the Old Testament to form one book... that is perhaps the greatest audacity and sin against the spirit that Europe has on its conscience.^[43]

Christian theology and the Old Testament

Christianity is based on the claim that the historical Jesus is also the Christ, as in the Confession of Peter. This claim is in turn based on Jewish understandings of the meaning of the Hebrew term messiah, which, like the Greek "Christ", means "anointed". In the Hebrew Scriptures it describes a king anointed with oil on his accession to the throne: he becomes "The LORD's anointed" or Yahweh's Anointed. By the time of Jesus, some Jews expected that a flesh and blood descendant of David (the "Son of David") would come to establish a real Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem, instead of the Roman province.^[44]

Others stressed the Son of Man, a distinctly other-worldly figure who would appear as a judge at the end of time; and some harmonised the two by expecting a this-worldly messianic kingdom which would last for a set period and be followed by the other-worldly age or World to Come. Some thought the Messiah was already present, but unrecognised due to Israel's sins; some thought that the Messiah would be announced by a fore-runner, probably Elijah (as promised by the prophet Malachi, whose book now ends the Old Testament and precedes Mark's account of John the Baptist). None predicted a Messiah who suffers and dies for the sins of all the people.^[44] The story of Jesus' death therefore involved a profound shift in meaning from the tradition of the Old Testament.^[45]

The name "Old Testament" reflects Christianity's understanding of itself as the fulfillment of Jeremiah's prophecy of a New Covenant (which is similar to "testament" and often conflated) to replace the existing covenant between God and Israel (Jeremiah 31:31).^[1] The emphasis, however, has shifted from Judaism's understanding of the covenant as an eternal contract between God and Israel to one between God and those who are "in Christ".^[46]

See also

• Abrogation of Old Covenant laws
• Biblical narratives and the Quran
• Book of Job in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts
• Books of the Bible
• Covenant (biblical)
• Expounding of the Law
• Hebrew Bible: Timeline
• Law and Gospel
• List of ancient legal codes
• List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts
• Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible
• Quotations from the Hebrew Bible in the New Testament
• Supersessionism

Notes

References

Bibliography

• Bandstra, Barry L (2004), Reading the Old Testament: an introduction to the Hebrew Bible, Wadsworth, ISBN 978-0-495-39105-0 
• Barton, John (1997), How the Bible came to be, Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 978-0-664-25785-9 
• ——— (2001), "Introduction to the Old Testament", in Muddiman, John; Barton, John, Bible Commentary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-875500-5 
• Blenkinsopp, Joseph (1998), "The Pentateuch", in Barton, John, The Cambridge companion to biblical interpretation, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-48593-7 
• Boadt, Lawrence (1984), Reading the Old Testament: an introduction, Paulist Press, ISBN 978-0-8091-2631-6 
• Brettler, Marc Zvi (2005), How to read the Bible, Jewish Publication Society, ISBN 978-0-8276-1001-9 
• Bultman, Christoph (2001), "Deuteronomy", in Barton, John; Muddiman, John, Oxford Bible Commentary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-875500-5 
• Coggins, Richard J (2003), "1 and 2 Chronicles", in Dunn, James DG; Rogerson, John William, Commentary on the Bible, Eerdmans, ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0 
• Crenshaw, James L (2010), Old Testament wisdom: an introduction, Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 978-0-664-23459-1 
• Davies, GI (1998), "Introduction to the Pentateuch", in Barton, John, Oxford Bible Commentary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-875500-5 
• Dines, Jennifer M (2004), The Septuagint, Continuum, ISBN 978-0-567-08464-4 
• Farmer, Ron (1991), "Messiah/Christ", in Mills, Watson E; Bullard, Roger Aubrey, Mercer dictionary of the Bible, Mercer University Press, ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7 
• Gentry, Peter R (2008), "Old Greek and Later Revisors", in Sollamo, Raija; Voitila, Anssi; Jokiranta, Jutta, Scripture in transition, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-16582-3 
• Grabbe, Lester L (2003), "Ezra", in Dunn, James DG; Rogerson, John William, Commentary on the Bible, Eerdmans, ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0 
• Hasel, Gerhard F (1991), Old Testament theology: basic issues in the current debate, Eerdmans, ISBN 978-0-8028-0537-9 
• Herion, Gary A (2000), "Covenant", in Freedman, David Noel, Dictionary of the Bible, Eerdmans, ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2 
• Jobes, Karen H; Silva, Moises (2005), Invitation to the Septuagint, Baker Academic 
• Jones, Barry A (2000), "Canon of the Old Testament", in Freedman, David Noel, Dictionary of the Bible, William B Eerdmans, ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2 
• Juel, Donald (2000), "Christ", in Freedman, David Noel, Dictionary of the Bible, William B Eerdmans, ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2 
• Lim, Timothy H. (2005). The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
• McLay, Tim (2003), The use of the Septuagint in New Testament research, Eerdmans, ISBN 978-0-8028-6091-0 
• Miller, John W (2004), How the Bible came to be, Paulist Press, ISBN 978-0-8091-4183-8 
• Miller, John W (1987), Meet the prophets: a beginner's guide to the books of the biblical prophets, Paulist Press, ISBN 978-0-8091-2899-0 
• Rogerson, John W (2003), "Deuteronomy", in Dunn, James DG; Rogerson, John William, Commentary on the Bible, Eerdmans, ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0 
• Schniedewind, William M (2004), How the Bible Became a Book, Cambridge, ISBN 978-0-521-53622-6 
• Soggin, J. Alberto (1987), Introduction to the Old Testament, Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 978-0-664-22156-0 
• Würthwein, Ernst (1995), The text of the Old Testament: an introduction to the Biblia Hebraica, William B Eerdmans, ISBN 978-0-8028-0788-5 

Further reading

• Anderson, Bernhard. Understanding the Old Testament. ISBN 0-13-948399-3
• Bahnsen, Greg, et al., Five Views on Law and Gospel (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993).
• Berkowitz, Ariel; Berkowitz, D'vorah (2004), Torah Rediscovered (4th ed.), Shoreshim, ISBN 0-9752914-0-8 .
• Dever, William G. (2003), Who Were the Early Israelites?, Grand Rapids, MI: William B Eerdmans, ISBN 0-8028-0975-8 .
• von Rad, Gerhard (1982–1984), Theologie des Alten Testaments [Theology of the Old Testament] (in German), Band 1–2, Munich: Auflage .
• Hill, Andrew; Walton, John (2000), A Survey of the Old Testament (2nd ed.), Grand Rapids: Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-22903-0 .
• Kuntz, John Kenneth (1974), The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought, Harper & Row, ISBN 0-06-043822-3 .
• Lancaster, D Thomas (2005), Restoration: Returning the Torah of God to the Disciples of Jesus, Littleton \ publisher = First Fruits of Zion .
• Papadaki-Oekland, Stella, Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts of the Book of Job, ISBN 978-2-503-53232-5 .
• Rouvière, Jean-Marc (2006), Brèves méditations sur la Création du monde [Brief meditations on the creation of the World] (in French), Paris: L'Harmattan .
• Salibi, Kamal (1985), The Bible Came from Arabia, London: Jonathan Cape, ISBN 0-224-02830-8 .
• Schmid, Konrad (2012), The Old Testament: A Literary History, Minneapolis: Fortress, ISBN 978-0-8006-9775-4 .
• Silberman, Neil A; et al. (2003), The Bible Unearthed (hardback)|format= requires |url= (help), New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-86912-8 , ISBN 0-684-86913-6 (paperback).
• Sprinkle, Joseph ‘Joe’ M (2006), Biblical Law and Its Relevance: A Christian Understanding and Ethical Application for Today of the Mosaic Regulations (clothbound)|format= requires |url= (help), Lanham, MD: University Press of America, ISBN 0-7618-3371-4  and ISBN 0-7618-3372-2 (paperback).

External links

• "The Old Testament Canon", Scripture & tradition, Church Fathers .
• Bible gateway . Full texts of the Old (and New) Testaments including the full Roman and Orthodox Catholic canons.
• "Old Testament", Écritures, La feuille d’Olivier . Protestant Old Testament on a single page.
• "Old Testament", Reading Room, CA: Tyndale Seminary . Extensive online OT resources (incl. commentaries).
• "Old Testament", Religious studies (video) (lectures), Yale University, 2011-11-30 .
• Bible, X10 host : Old Testament stories and commentary.
• Old Testament Timeline (PDF), LDS .
• Tanakh ML (parallel Bible)  – Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and the King James Version.

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