Nutrition and pregnancy

Pregnant woman eating fruit.

Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertaken before, during and after pregnancy. Nutrition of the fetus begins at conception. For this reason, the nutrition of the mother is important from before conception (probably several months before) as well as throughout pregnancy and breast feeding. An ever-increasing number of studies have shown that the nutrition of the mother will have an effect on the child, up to and including the risk for cancer, cardiovascular disease, hypertension and diabetes throughout life.

An inadequate or excessive amount of some nutrients may cause malformations or medical problems in the fetus, and neurological disorders and handicaps are a risk that is run by mothers who are malnourished.[1] 23.8% of babies worldwide are estimated to be born with lower than optimal weights at birth due to lack of proper nutrition.[2] Personal habits such as smoking, alcohol, caffeine, using certain medications and street drugs can negatively and irreversibly affect the development of the baby, which happens in the early stages of pregnancy.[3]

Nutrition before pregnancy

Beneficial pre-pregnancy nutrients

As with most diets, there are chances of over-supplementing, however, as general advice, both state and medical recommendations are that mothers follow instructions listed on particular vitamin packaging as to the correct or recommended daily allowance (RDA). Daily prenatal use of iron substantially improves birth weight, potentially reducing the risk of Low birth weight.[4]

Nutrition during pregnancy

During the early stages of pregnancy, since the placenta is not yet formed, there is no mechanism to protect the embryo from the deficiencies which may be inherent in the mother's circulation. Thus, it is critical that an adequate amount of nutrients and energy is consumed. Supplementing one's diet with foods rich in folic acid, such as oranges and dark green leafy vegetables, helps to prevent neural tube birth defects in the fetus. In addition, prenatal vitamins typically contain increased amounts of folic acid, iodine, iron, vitamin A, vitamin D, zinc, and calcium over the amounts found in standard multi-vitamins.[13]

Pregnant women are advised to pay attention to the foods they eat during pregnancy, such as soft cheese and certain fish, in order to reduce the risk of exposure to substances or bacteria that may be harmful to the developing fetus. This can include food pathogens and toxic food components, alcohol, and dietary supplements such as vitamin A and potentially harmful pathogens such as listeria, toxoplasmosis, and salmonella.[14] Dietary vitamin A is obtained in two forms which contain the preformed vitamin (retinol), that can be found in some animal products such as liver and fish liver oils, and as a vitamin A precursor in the form of carotene, which can be found in many fruits and vegetables.[14] Intake of large amounts or, conversely, a deficiency, of retinol has been linked to birth defects and abnormalities.[15] It is noted that a 100 g serving of liver may contain a large amount of retinol, so it is best that it is not eaten daily during pregnancy. Excessive amounts of alcohol have been proven to cause fetal alcohol syndrome. The World Health Organization recommends that alcohol should be avoided entirely during pregnancy, given the relatively unknown effects of even small amounts of alcohol during pregnancy.[16]

Folic acid

Folic acid, which is the synthetic form of the vitamin folate, is critical both in pre-and peri-conception.[14] Deficiencies in folic acid may cause neural tube defects; women who had 0.4 mg of folic acid in their systems due to supplementing 3 months before childbirth significantly reduced the risk of NTD within the fetus.[17] The development of every human cell is dependent on an adequate supply of folic acid. Folic acid governs the synthesis of the precursors of DNA, which is the nucleic acid that gives each cell life and character. Folic acid deficiency results in defective cellular growth and the effects are most obvious on those tissues which grow most rapidly.[18]

Water

During pregnancy, one's mass increases by about 12 kg.[19] Most of this added weight (6 to 9 L) is water[19] because the plasma volume increases, 85% of the placenta is water[20] and the fetus itself is 70-90% water. This means that hydration is an important aspect of nutrition throughout pregnancy. The European Food Safety Authority recommends an increase of 300 mL per day compared to the normal intake for non-pregnant women, taking the total adequate water intake (from food and fluids) to 2,300 mL, or approximately 1,850 mL/ day from fluids alone[21]

Nutrition after pregnancy

Proper nutrition is important after delivery to help the mother recover, and to provide enough food energy and nutrients for a woman to breastfeed her child. Women having serum ferritin less than 70 µg/L may need iron supplements to prevent iron deficiency anaemia during pregnancy and postpartum.[22][23]

During lactation, water intake may need to be increased. Human milk is made of 88% water, and the IOM recommends that breastfeeding women increase their water intake by about 300 mL/day to a total volume of 3000 mL/day (from food and drink); approximately 2,400 mL/day from fluids.[24]

See also

References

  1. Barasi EM (2003). Human Nutrition - A Health Perspective. London: Arnold. ISBN 0-340-81025-4.
  2. "WHO | 10 facts on nutrition". World Health Organization. 2011-03-15. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
  3. Laura Riley. Stephanie Karpinske, ed. Pregnancy: The Ultimate Week-by-Week Pregnancy Guide. Meredith Books. pp. 21–22. ISBN 0-696-22221-3.
  4. Haider, BA, Olofin, I, Wang, M; et al. (2013). "Anaemia, prenatal iron use, and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis". British Medical Journal 21: f3443. doi:10.1136/bmj.f3443.
  5. Schaefer, Christof (2001). Drugs During Pregnancy and Lactation: Handbook of Prescription Drugs and Comparative Risk Assessment. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 9780444507631. Retrieved 2015-05-13.
  6. Shils, Maurice Edward; Shike, Moshe (2006). Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781741330. Retrieved 2015-05-13.
  7. Aghajafari, Fariba; Nagulesapillai, Tharsiya; Ronksley, Paul E.; Tough, Suzanne C.; O'Beirne, Maeve; Rabi, Doreen M. (2013). "Association between maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and pregnancy and neonatal outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies". BMJ (Clinical research ed.) 346: f1169. doi:10.1136/bmj.f1169. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 23533188. Retrieved 2015-05-12.
  8. Briggs, Gerald G.; Freeman, Roger K.; Yaffe, Sumner J. (2011). Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation: A Reference Guide to Fetal and Neonatal Risk. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9781608317080. Retrieved 2015-05-13.
  9. Imhoff-Kunsch, Beth; Briggs, Virginia; Goldenberg, Tamar; Ramakrishnan, Usha (Jul 2012). "Effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake during pregnancy on maternal, infant, and child health outcomes: a systematic review". Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology. 26 Suppl 1: 91–107. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2012.01292.x. ISSN 1365-3016. PMID 22742604. Retrieved 2015-05-12.
  10. Jensen, Craig L. (Jun 2006). "Effects of n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83 (6 Suppl): 1452S–1457S. ISSN 0002-9165. PMID 16841854. Retrieved 2015-05-12.
  11. Murkoff, Heidi (May 20, 2010). "Foods that make you fertile". Everyday Health. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
  12. Peña-Rosas, Juan Pablo; De-Regil, Luz Maria; Dowswell, Therese; Viteri, Fernando E. (2012). "Daily oral iron supplementation during pregnancy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 12: CD004736. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004736.pub4. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 4233117. PMID 23235616. Retrieved 2015-05-12.
  13. Laura Riley (2006-02-02). Stephanie Karpinske, ed. Pregnancy: The Ultimate Week-by-Week Pregnancy Guide. Meredith Books. pp. 21–22. ISBN 0-696-22221-3.
  14. 1 2 3 Williamson CS (2006). "Nutrition in pregnancy". British Nutrition Foundation 31: 28–59. doi:10.1111/j.1467-3010.2006.00541.x.
  15. "Vitamin A (retinol)". Drugs and Supplements. Mayo Clinic. November 1, 2013. Retrieved May 17, 2015.
  16. "Framework for alcohol policy in the WHO European Region" (PDF). World Health Organisation.
  17. "Recommendations | Folic Acid | NCBDDD | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-05-13.
  18. Hibbard BM (August 1964). "The role of folic acid in pregnancy". An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 71 (4): 529–42. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1964.tb04317.x.
  19. 1 2 Institute of Medicine (IOM). Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2004.
  20. Beall MH, van den Wijngaard JPHM, van Gemert MJC, Ross MG (2007). "Amniotic Fluid Water Dynamics". Placenta 28: 816–23. doi:10.1016/j.placenta.2006.11.009.
  21. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (NDA) (2010). "Scientific Opinion on Dietary reference values for water". EFSA Journal 8: 1459–1507. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1459.
  22. Milman N, Byg KE, Bergholt T, Eriksen L, Hvas AM (2006). "Body iron and individual iron prophylaxis in pregnancy--should the iron dose be adjusted according to serum ferritin?". Ann. Hematol. 85 (9): 567–73. doi:10.1007/s00277-006-0141-1. PMID 16733739.
  23. Sethi V, Kapil U (2004). "Iodine deficiency and development of brain". Indian J Pediatr 71 (4): 325–9. doi:10.1007/BF02724099. PMID 15107513.
  24. Dietary References Intakes:Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Released February 11, 2014. https://iom.nationalacademies.org/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium-Sodium-Chloride-and-Sulfate.aspx

Further reading

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Tuesday, February 09, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.