Multi-dimensional model of Maori identity and cultural engagement

The multi-dimensional model of Māori identity and cultural engagement (MMM-ICE) is a self-report (Likert-type) instrument designed to assess seven distinct dimensions of identity and cultural engagement in Māori populations:

The MMM-ICE is a quantitative index of identity that can be readily compared across independent studies of Māori peoples. The index was developed by Drs Carla Houkamau and Chris Sibley in 2010; both of whom are senior lecturers at The University of Auckland. The scale was updated in 2014 as the MMM-ICE2 to incorporate a seventh measure of perceived appearance.[1] The MMM-ICE2 aims to provide a culturally sensitive, valid and reliable self-report measure of Māori identity and cultural engagement embedded within an Indigenous Māori context; 'who' a person is as Māori, how they 'fit in' with others in the social world and what that means in terms of behavior. The MMM-ICE is associated with the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study.

The Seven Dimensions

Group Membership Evaluation

Group Membership Evaluation reflects the basic premise of social identity theory that individuals strive for favorable evaluations of their group or a 'positive social identity.'[2] The more positively one’s group is perceived, the greater the positive evaluations individuals can draw from when interpreting themselves. Having a positive sense of self as Māori has the psychological advantage of promoting well-being. Conversely, if people belong to a low status group, they may be prone to a 'negative social identity' because they may attach those negative evaluations to themselves.[3] Thus, having a negative sense of self as Māori has a psychological disadvantage, as group members internalize the evaluations held about the group category into their own self-concept. Since social identities are not only descriptive but they are evaluative, the position of one's group within the social hierarchy is viewed as central to the self-experience of individual members.[4]

Sample Group Membership Evaluation items

Socio-Political Consciousness

Socio-political consciousness reflects a perception of the continued importance of historical factors for understanding contemporary intergroup relations; and how actively engaged the individual is in promoting and defending Māori rights given the context of the Treaty of Waitangi.

Issues include support for (or lack thereof) a Māori political party, resource-specific issues relating to the resource allocation and reparation for Māori based on historical injustice, issues relating to the symbolic representation of Māori culture and one's positive (or negative) affective evaluations of Māori.

A high score on this scale reflects the belief that Māori need to remain loyal to their group and politically unified. Individuals, who score high on this scale are more supportive of The Māori Party (a political party in New Zealand that represents Māori), and least supportive of The New Zealand National Party (the mainstream centre-right political party currently in power), for example. Such individuals typically identify themselves as both sole-ethnical Māori and ancestrally Māori.

A low score on this scale reflects the belief that Māori should operate independently and that Māori and Pākehā historical relations are irrelevant for understanding contemporary ways of 'being' Māori. Those who score low on this scale will generally endorse the dominant ideological positions, political attitudes, and intergroup attitudes of sole-ethnic Europeans. Individuals who score low on this scale tend to identify themselves solely as European but have Māori ancestry.

Sample Socio-Political Consciousness items

Cultural Efficacy and Active Identity Engagement

Measures the extent to which the individual perceives they have the personal resources required to engage appropriately with other Māori in Māori social and cultural contexts. These personal resources include the ability to speak and understand Te Reo Māori, knowledge of Tikanga Māori and Marae etiquette, and the ability to articulate heritage confidently (e.g., recite whakapapa).

A high score on this scale would reflect how comfortable and accepted the individual feels when they are among other Māori or in situations which require the active expression of Māori customary knowledge (traditional knowledge) and ways of doing things (such as participating in powhiri and tangihanga). This would also reflect the extent to which the individual is able to articulate and express their Māori identity by engaging in traditional Māori cultural protocols, values and practices.

Sample Cultural Efficacy and Active Identity Engagement items

Spirituality

Measures engagement with, and belief in, certain Māori concepts of spirituality. This relates primarily to feeling a strong connection with ancestors, Māori traditions, the sensation and experience of waahi tapu (sacred places), and a strong spiritual attachment and feeling of connectedness with the land. This dimension is Māori-specific and is based in unique Māori concepts of spirituality.

Sample Spirituality items

Interdependent Self-concept

Measures the extent to which the concept of the self-as-Māori is defined by virtue of relationships with other Māori people, rather than being defined solely as a unique and independent individual. This portion of the scale assesses a constitutive representation or belief-based component about what it means to 'be' Māori.

Māori are more likely to experience self-conceptualization in terms of important relationships.[5] This is manifest by a tendency for individuals to see their identity as inherently linked to relationships with others. The MMM-ICE interdependent self-concept scale also relates to the concept of the independent versus interdependent self that has emerged in cross-cultural psychology.[6] This link suggests that the concept of self for many Māori may be inherently linked or embedded in a collectivist identity network (see Collective identity).[7]

Sample Interdependent Self-concept items

Authenticity Beliefs

Measures the extent to which the individual believes that to be a “real” or “authentic” member of the social category Māori, one must display specific (stereotypical) features, knowledge, and behavior, as opposed to the belief that Māori identity is fluid rather than fixed and is produced through lived experience.

A high score on this scale therefore represents a rigid and inflexible construction of the essentialised characteristics that determine an 'authentic' Māori identity. This relates to various (often Pākehā constructed) definitions of Māori 'race', such as blood quantum or appearance.[8][9] A low score on this scale, in contrast, reflects the belief that Māori identity is fluid rather than fixed, and produced through lived experience.

Sample Authenticity Beliefs items

Perceived Appearance

Measures the level of phenotypic prototypicality[10] or in other words, the extent to which people subjectively evaluate their physical appearance as exhibiting clear and visible features that signals their ethnicity and ancestry as Māori. Those who consider themselves has possessing low level of Māori prototypicality indicates the extent to which they evaluate their appearance as not possessing prototypical features and feel that their appearance is less indicative of their Māori ancestry.

Sample Perceived Appearance items

Research Using the MMM-ICE

The Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement

Houkamau and Sibley, (2010) propose The Multidimensional Model for Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement (MMM-ICE), be used as an instrument for answering the question, "What does 'Being Māori' mean?".[11]

Eight hypothesized dimensions were used to summarize the different subjective elements of Māori identity, cultural engagement: (1) Identity centrality, (2) Collective self-esteem, (3) Cultural efficacy, (4) Active identity engagement, (5) Spirituality, (6) Socio-political consciousness, (7) Interdependent aspects of Māori identity, and (8) Essentialist or authenticity-based beliefs about what it meant to be Māori. Of the eight hypothesized dimensions, (1) Identity centrality and (2) Collective self-esteem, emerged as one dimension (termed Group Membership Evaluation in the MMM-ICE), and (3) Cultural efficacy and (4) Active identity engagement, each emerged as one factor(termed Cultural Efficacy and Active Identity Engagement in the MMM-ICE).

The Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement: Item Response Theory Analysis of Scale Properties

This article by Sibley and Houkamau (2012) examined the scale properties of The Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement (MMM-ICE) using item response theory (IRT) analysis. Sibley and Houkamau examined how a Māori individual's identity changed over time.[12]

Māori Cultural Efficacy and Subjective Wellbeing: A Psychological Model and Research Agenda

Houkamau and Sibley, (2011) propose a model of Māori Cultural Efficacy and subjective well-being for Māori. Sibley and Houkamau (2010) examined effects of The Multi-dimensional Model for Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement on the Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI) and National Wellbeing Index (NWI).[13] The MMM-ICE was used as an instrument for assessing Māori identity and cultural engagement, and a model of Māori Cultural Efficacy and subjective well-being, predicting specific opposing effects on personal and national well-being was proposed.

Social Identity and Differences in Psychological and Economic outcomes for Mixed and Sole-Identified Māori

Houkamau and Sibley (2014) examined how mixed versus sole-identifying Māori differed in terms of a range of psychological and economic outcomes.[14] They found that Māori who identified as having mixed Māori and European ancestry reported significantly higher satisfaction with their standard of living, personal health, future security, and the economic situation in New Zealand relative to those who were sole-identified Māori.

Further, identifying with a mixed ancestry was also associated with identifying with political views closer to that of New Zealand European such as increased support for The National Party which is in contrast to those who were sole-identified Māori who exhibited increased support for The Māori Party. In addition, those who were sole-identified Māori were more supportive of both symbolic and resource-based aspects of bicultural policies relative to those who identified as having mixed Māori and European ancestry.

Māori Identity Signatures: A Latent Profile Analysis of the Types of Māori Identity

Greaves, Houkamau, and Sibley (2015) examined Māori identity through latent profile analysis using the MMM-ICE2.[15] The authors found six distinct “types” or “Māori Identity Signatures” pertaining to how Māori might mean across varying ethnic compositions and cultural identity and their relative proportions in the population. The six constructs identified were: Traditional Essentialists (22.6%), Traditional Inclusives (16%), High Moderates (31.7%), Low Moderates (18.7%), Spiritually Orientated (4.1%), and Disassociated (6.9%). These results may enable possible methods through which Māori health and identity development may be examined.

Looking Māori Predicts Decreased Rates of Home Ownership: Institutional Racism in Housing Based on Perceived Appearance

Houkamau and Sibley (2015) found that self-reported measures of one’s appearance as Māori, or the extent to which people thought they personally displayed features which visibly identified them as Māori to others, significantly predicted decreased rates of home ownership. This effect held even when adjusting for numerous demographic covariates.[16]

These results suggest that there is, at least to some extent in the recent past, institutional racism against Māori in New Zealand's home lending industry based on the degree to which someone has a prototypical Māori appearance.

Validation of the MMM-ICE

The Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement

In the validation of the MMM-ICE model, Houkamau and Sibley (2010) assessed the six dimensions against two criterion outcomes, Self-rated fluency in Te Reo Māori, and Frequency of Marae visits in the last month.[17] They found that Cultural Efficacy and Active Identity Engagement were related to perceived fluency in Te Reo Māori and Frequency of Marae visits in the last month. These results correspond with the theoretical nature of the factor. The Cultural Efficacy and Active identity Engagement subscale should assess the extent to which individuals perceive they have the ability to engage appropriately with other Māori, in Māori social and cultural contexts. Language is an important part of this. The results support this observation; and validate the MMM-ICE sub-scale, Cultural Efficacy and Active identity Engagement (see criterion validity for more).

Māori Cultural Efficacy and Subjective Wellbeing: A Psychological Model and Research Agenda

Houkamau and Sibley (2011) assessed the factors of the MMM-ICE against two criterion outcomes, the Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI) and the National Wellbeing Index (NWI).[18] The PWI included the following seven items:

The NWI contained the following six items:

Results showed that the effect of Cultural Efficacy and Active identity Engagement, while solely adjusting for NWI, was positively related to levels of PWI. This effect held when adjusting for the other five MMM-ICE factors, as well as age, gender and NWI. Cultural Efficacy and Active identity Engagement also showed a negative relationship with NWI, while controlling for the effects of PWI. This effect held while adjusting for the other five dimensions of the MMM-ICE, as well as gender, age and PWI.

Validation of the MMM-ICE was demonstrated against four criterion outcomes. Cultural Efficacy and Active identity Engagement has been specifically shown to be related with Self-rated fluency in spoken Te Reo Māori and Frequency of Marae visits in last month, and NWI and PWI. These findings correspond with the scale as a function of Māori identity and cultural engagement

Scale reliability has been demonstrated by a consistently strong Cronbach's alpha across both studies (see Scale (social sciences) for more). The alpha is a measure of how consistent the items measure the underlying factor. Results for 2010 showed all six of the MMM-ICE subscales displayed acceptable internal reliability, with Cronbach's alphas greater than the accepted standard of α = .70. In 2011, the majority of factors had strong internal reliability (> 0.07) bar Authenticity Beliefs.

References

  1. ↑ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2014). The Revised Multidimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement (MMM-ICE2). Social Indicators Research, 122(1), 279–296.
  2. ↑ Tajfel, H. & Turner J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel (Ed.), Psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson Hall.
  3. ↑ Tajfel, H. & Turner J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel (Ed.), Psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson Hall.
  4. ↑ Tajfel, H. & Turner J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior . In S. Worchel (Ed.), Psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson Hall.
  5. ↑ Love, C. (2004). Understanding social wellbeing. Māori contributions. Social Policy Research and Evaluation conference, Wellington, November 2004.
  6. ↑ Kashima, E.S., & Hardie, E.A. (2000). The development and validation of the relational, individual, and collective self-aspects (RIC) scale. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 19–48.
  7. ↑ Harrington, L., & Liu, J.H. (2002). Self enhancement and attitudes toward high achievers: A bicultural view of the independent and interdependent self. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 37–55.
  8. ↑ Webster, S. (1998), Patrons of Māori culture: power, theory and ideology in the Māori renaissance, Dunedin: University of Otago Press.
  9. ↑ Wall, M. (1997). Stereotypical Constructions of the Māori Race in the Media. New Zealand Geographer, 53, 40–45.
  10. ↑ Wilkins, C. L., Kaiser, C. R., & Rieck, H. M. (2010). Detecting racial identity: The role of phenotypic prototypicality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 1029–1034
  11. ↑ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). The Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 39, 8–28.
  12. ↑ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2011). Māori cultural efficacy and subjective well-being: A psychological model and research agenda. Social Indicators Research, 103, 379–398. doi:10.1007/s11205-010-9705-5
  13. ↑ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). The Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 39, 8–28.
  14. ↑ Houkamau, C. A. & Sibley, C. G. (2014). Social identity and differences in psychological and economic outcomes for mixed and sole-identified Māori, International Journal of Intercultural Relations 40, 113–125
  15. ↑ Greaves, L., Houkamau, C., & Sibley, G. (in press). Māori Identity Signatures: A Latent Profile Analysis of the Types of Māori Identity. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology
  16. ↑ Houkamau, C., & Sibley, C. G. (2015). Looking Māori predicts decreased rates of home ownership: institutional racism in housing based on perceived appearance. PLoS ONE, 10, e0118540.
  17. ↑ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). The Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 39, 8–28.
  18. ↑ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2011). Māori cultural efficacy and subjective well-being: a psychological model and research agenda. Social Indicators Research, 103, 379–398

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