Chinese units of measurement

A traditional Chinese scale

Chinese units of measurement (Chinese: 市制; pinyin: shìzhì; literally: "market system") are the customary and traditional units of measure used in China. In the People's Republic of China, the units were re-standardised during the late 20th century to make them approximate SI (metric) units. Many of the units were formerly based on the number 16 instead of 10. In Hong Kong, the British Imperial system was used together with Hong Kong units of measurement, which were traditional Chinese weights and measures, and now traditional Chinese units and Imperial units are used alongside the metric system, which was introduced by legislation in 1976 as the official standard system of weights and measures. Taiwanese units of measurement, which appeared under the colonial influences of the Dutch and the Japanese, for the most part may have similar names but are different from the Chinese units of measurement. Taiwan is now fully metricated.

The Chinese name for most SI units is based on that of the closest traditional unit. When it is necessary to emphasize which system is used, the words "market" (市 shì) for traditional units or "common/standard" (公 gōng) for SI units may be added in front of the name. SI is the official system of units, but traditional units are still ubiquitously used in everyday life.

Note: The names lí (厘) and fēn (分) for small units are the same for length, area, and mass; however, they refer to different kinds of measurements.

History

Bronze ruler from the Han Dynasty (206 BCE to CE 220); excavated in Zichang County; Shaanxi History Museum, Xi'an

History of science and technology in China

Inventions Discoveries
By era
Han dynasty Tang dynasty Song dynasty People's Republic of China (PRC)

According to the Liji, the legendary Yellow Emperor created the first measurement units. The Xiao Erya and the Kongzi Jiayu state that length units were derived from the human body. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, these human body units caused inconsistency, and Yu the Great, another legendary figure, unified the length measurements. Rulers with decimal units have been unearthed from Shang Dynasty tombs.

In the Zhou Dynasty, the king conferred nobles with powers of the state and the measurement units began to be inconsistent from state to state. After the Warring States period, Qin Shi Huang unified China, and later standardized measurement units. In the Han Dynasty, these measurements were still being used, and were documented systematically in the Book of Han.

Astronomical instruments show little change of the length of chi in the following centuries, since the calendar needed to be consistent. It was not until the introduction of decimal units in the Ming Dynasty that the traditional system was revised.

Republican Era

On 7 January 1915, the Beiyang Government promulgated a measurement law to use not only metric system as the standard but also a set of Chinese-style measurement.^[1] On 16 February 1929, the Nationalist Government adopted and promulgated The Weights and Measures Act^[2] to adopt the metric system as the official standard and to limit the newer Chinese units of measurement (Chinese: 市用制; pinyin: shìyòngzhì; literally: "market-use system") to private sales and trade in Article 11, effective on 1 January 1930.^[3]

People's Republic of China

The Government of the People's Republic of China continued using the market system along with metric system, as decreed by the State Council of the People's Republic of China on 25 June 1959, but 1 catty being 500 grams, would become divided into 10 (new) taels, instead of 16 (old) taels, to be converted from province to province, while exempting Chinese prescription drugs from the conversion to prevent errors.^[4]

On 27 February 1984, the State Council of the People's Republic of China decreed the market system to remain acceptable till the end of 1990 and ordered the transition to the national legal measures by that time, but farmland measures would be exempt from this mandatory metrication until further investigation and study.^[5]

Hong Kong

In 1976 the Hong Kong Metrication Ordinance allowed a gradual replacement of the system in favor of the International System of Units (SI) metric system.^[6] The Weights and Measures Ordinance defines the metric, Imperial, and Chinese units.^[7] As of 2012, all three systems are legal for trade and are in widespread use.

Macau

On 24 August 1992, Macau published Law No. 14/92/M to order that Chinese units of measurement similar to those used in Hong Kong, Imperial units, and United States customary units would be permissible for five years since the effective date of the Law, 1 January 1993, on the condition of indicating the corresponding SI values, then for three more years thereafter, Chinese, Imperial, and US units would be permissible as secondary to the SI.^[8]

Ancient Chinese units

Length

Gilded Bronze Ruler - 1 chi = 231 mm. Western Han (206 BCE–8 CE). Hanzhong City

Traditional units of length include the chi (尺), bu (步), and li (里). The precise length of these units, and the ratios between these units, has varied over time. 1 bu has consisted of either 5 or 6 chi, while 1 li has consisted of 300 or 360 bu.

Length in metre^[9]
dynasty	chi	bu		li
dynasty	chi	= 5 chi	= 6 chi	= 300 bu	= 360 bu
Shang	0.1675		1.0050	301.50
Shang	0.1690		1.0140	304.20
Zhou	0.1990		1.1940	358.20
Eastern Zhou	0.2200		1.3200	396.00
	0.2270		1.3620	408.60
	0.2310		1.3860	415.80
Qin	0.2310		1.3860	415.80^[10]^[11]
Han	0.2310		1.3860	415.80^[12] 415.80^[10]^[11]
600 CE	0.2550		1.5300	459.00
Tang	0.2465	1.2325		369.75	443.70
Tang	0.2955	1.4775		443.25	531.90
Song	0.2700	1.3500		405.00	486.00
Northern Song	0.3080	1.5400		462.00	554.40
Ming	0.3008–0.3190	1.5040–1.5950		451.20–478.50	541.44–574.20
Qing	0.3080–0.3352	1.5400–1.6760		462.00–503.89	554.40–603.46

Modern Chinese units

All "metric values" given in the tables are exact unless otherwise specified by the approximation sign '~'.

Certain units are also listed at List of Chinese classifiers → Measurement units.

Length

Chinese length units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese length units promulgated in 1915^[1]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo / miǎo	毫/秒	¹⁄_{10 000}	32 µm	0.00126 in
lí	釐 (T) or 厘 (S)	¹⁄₁₀₀₀	0.32 mm	0.0126 in
fēn	分	¹⁄₁₀₀	3.2 mm	0.126 in
cùn	寸	¹⁄₁₀	32 mm	1.26 in	Chinese inch
chǐ	尺	1	0.32 m	12.6 in	Chinese foot
bù	步	5	1.6 m	5.2 ft	Chinese pace
zhàng	丈	10	3.2 m	3.50 yd
yǐn	仞	100	32 m	35.0 yd
lǐ	里	1800	576 m	630 yd	this li is not the small li above, which has a different character and tone

Chinese length units effective in 1930

Table of Chinese length units effective in 1930^[3]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo / miǎo	毫/秒	¹⁄_{10 000}	33 ¹⁄₃ µm	0.00131 in
lí	釐 (T) or 厘 (S)	¹⁄₁₀₀₀	¹⁄₃ mm	0.0131 in
fēn	市分	¹⁄₁₀₀	3 ¹⁄₃ mm	0.1312 in
cùn	市寸	¹⁄₁₀	3 ¹⁄₃ cm	1.312 in	Chinese inch
chǐ	市尺	1	33 ¹⁄₃ cm	13.12 in	Chinese foot
zhàng	市丈	10	3 ¹⁄₃ m	3.645 yd
yǐn	仞	100	33 ¹⁄₃ m	36.45 yd
lǐ	市里	1500	500 m	546.8 yd	this li is not the small li above, which has a different character and tone

Metric length units

The Chinese word for metre is 米 mǐ; this can take the Chinese standard SI prefixes (for "kilo-", "centi-", etc.). A kilometre, however, may also be called 公里 gōnglǐ, i.e. a metric lǐ.

In the engineering field, traditional units are rounded up to metric units.For example, the Chinese word 丝 sī is used to express 0.01 mm.

Table of Chinese length units in engineering
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Notes
hū	忽	¹⁄_{1 000 000}	1 µm	Authorized name: 微米
sī	丝	¹⁄_{100 000}	10 µm	Authorized name: 忽米
háo	毫	¹⁄_{10 000}	100 µm	Authorized name: 丝米
lí	釐 (T) or 厘 (S)	¹⁄₁₀₀₀	1 mm	Authorized name: 毫米
fēn	公分	¹⁄₁₀₀	10 mm	Authorized name: 厘米
cùn	公寸	¹⁄₁₀	100 mm	Authorized name: 分米
chǐ	公尺	1	1 m	Authorized name: 米
lǐ	公里	1000	1000 m	this li is not the small li above, which has a different character and tone

Hong Kong and Macau length units

Table of Chinese length units in Hong Kong^[7] and Macau^[8]
English	Jyutping	Character	Portuguese	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
fan	fan1	分	condorim	¹⁄₁₀₀	3.71475 mm	0.1463 in
tsun	cyun3	寸	ponto	¹⁄₁₀	3.71475 cm	1.463 in
chek	cek3	尺	côvado	1	37.1475 cm	1.219 ft	Hong Kong and Macau foot

Area

Chinese area units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese area units promulgated in 1915^[1]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	毫	¹⁄₁₀₀₀	0.6144 m²	0.7348 sq yd
lí	釐 (T) or 厘 (S)	¹⁄₁₀₀	6.144 m²	7.348 sq yd
fēn	分	¹⁄₁₀	61.44 m²	73.48 sq yd	10 li
mǔ	畝 (T) or 亩 (S)	1	614.4 m²	734.82 sq yd	10 fen, or 60 square zhang
qǐng	頃 (T) or 顷 (S)	100	6.144 ha	15.18 acre	100 mǔ

Table of Chinese square units effective in 1915^[1]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
fāng cùn	方寸	¹⁄₁₀₀	10.24 cm²	1.587 sq in	square cun
fāng chǐ	方尺	1	0.1024 m²	1.102 sq ft	square chi
fāng zhàng	方丈	100	10.24 m²	110.2 sq ft	square zhang

Chinese area units effective in 1930

Table of Chinese area units effective in 1930^[3]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	毫	¹⁄₁₀₀₀	²⁄₃ m²	7.18 sq ft
lí	釐 (T) or 厘 (S)	¹⁄₁₀₀	6 ²⁄₃ m²	7.973 sq yd
fēn	市分	¹⁄₁₀	66 ²⁄₃ m²	79.73 sq yd	10 li
mǔ	畝 (T) or 亩 (S)	1	666 ²⁄₃ m²	797.3 sq yd 0.1647 acre	10 fen 60 square zhang
qǐng	頃 (T) or 顷 (S)	100	6 ²⁄₃ ha	16.47 acre	10 shí or 100 mǔ

Table of Chinese square units effective in 1930^[3]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
fāng cùn	方寸	¹⁄₁₀₀	11 ¹⁄₉ cm²	1.722 sq in	square cun
fāng chǐ	方尺	1	¹⁄₉ m²	172.2 sq in 1.196 sq ft	square chi
fāng zhàng	方丈	100	11 ¹⁄₉ m²	119.6 sq ft 13.29 sq yd	square zhang

Metric and other area units

Metric and other standard length units can be squared by the addition of the prefix 平方 píngfāng. For example, a square kilometre is 平方公里 píngfāng gōnglǐ.

Macau area units

Table of Chinese area units in Macau^[8]
Jyutping	Character	Portuguese	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value
cek3	尺	côvado	¹⁄₆₀₀₀	0.1269 m²	1.366 sq ft
pou3	鋪		¹⁄₂₄₀	3.1725 m²	34.15 sq ft 3.794 sq yd
zoeng6	丈	braça	¹⁄₆₀	12.69 m²	136.6 sq ft 15.18 sq yd
fan1	分	condorim	¹⁄₁₀	76.14 m²	91.06 sq yd
mau5	畝 (T) or 亩 (S)	maz	1	761.4 m²	910.6 sq yd

Volume

These units are used to measure cereal grains, among other things. In imperial times, the physical standard for these was the jialiang.

Chinese volume units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese volume units effective in 1915^[1]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	US value	Imperial value
sháo	勺	¹⁄₁₀₀	10.354688 ml	0.3501 fl oz	0.3644 fl oz
gě	丈	¹⁄₁₀	103.54688 ml	3.501 fl oz	3.644 fl oz
shēng	升	1	1.0354688 l	2.188 pt	1.822 pt
dǒu	斗	10	10.354688 l	2.735 gal	2.278 gal
hú	斛	50	51.77344 l	13.68 gal	11.39 gal
dàn	石	100	103.54688 l	27.35 gal	22.78 gal

Chinese volume units effective in 1930

Table of Chinese volume units effective in 1930^[3]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	US value	Imperial value
cuō	撮	¹⁄₁₀₀₀	1 ml	0.0338 fl oz	0.0352 fl oz
sháo	勺	¹⁄₁₀₀	10 ml	0.3381 fl oz	0.3520 fl oz
gě	丈	¹⁄₁₀	100 ml	3.381 fl oz	3.520 fl oz
shēng	市升	1	1 l	2.113 pt	1.760 pt
dǒu	市斗	10	10 l	21.13 pt 2.64 gal	17.60 pt 2.20 gal
dàn	市石	100	100 l	26.41 gal	22.0 gal

Metric volume units

In the case of volume, the market and metric shēng coincide, being equal to one litre as shown in the table. The Chinese standard SI prefixes (for "milli-", "centi-", etc.) may be added to this word shēng.

Units of volume can also be obtained from any standard unit of length using the prefix 立方 lìfāng ("cubic"), as in 立方米 lìfāng mǐ for a cubic metre.

Macau volume units

Table of Chinese volume units in Macau^[8]
Jyutping	Character	Relative value	Metric value
cyut3	撮	1	1.031 l
gam1 dak6	甘特	10	10.31 l
sek6	石	100	103.1 l

Mass

These units are used to measure the mass of objects. They are also famous for measuring monetary objects such as gold and silver.

Chinese mass units promulgated in 1915

Table of Chinese mass units promulgated in 1915^[1]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
háo	毫	¹⁄_{10 000}	3.7301 mg	0.0001316 oz
lí	釐	¹⁄₁₀₀₀	37.301 mg	0.001316 oz	cash
fēn	分	¹⁄₁₀₀	373.01 mg	0.01316 oz	candareen
qián	錢	¹⁄₁₀	3.7301 g	0.1316 oz	mace
liǎng	兩	1	37.301 g	1.316 oz	tael or Chinese ounce
jīn	斤	16	596.816 g	1.316 lb	catty or Chinese pound

Mass units in the Republic of China since 1930

Table of mass units in the Republic of China since 1930^[3]
Pinyin	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
sī	絲	¹⁄_{1 600 000}	312.5 µg	0.00001102 oz
háo	毫	¹⁄_{160 000}	3.125 mg	0.0001102 oz
lí	市釐	¹⁄_{16 000}	31.25 mg	0.001102 oz	cash
fēn	市分	¹⁄₁₆₀₀	312.5 mg	0.01102 oz	candareen
qián	市錢	¹⁄₁₆₀	3.125 g	0.1102 oz	mace
liǎng	市兩	¹⁄₁₆	31.25 g	1.102 oz	tael or Chinese ounce
jīn	市斤	1	500 g	1.102 lb	catty or Chinese pound
dàn	擔 / 担	100	50 kg	110.2 lb	picul or Chinese hundredweight

Mass units in the People's Republic of China since 1959

Table of mass units in the People's Republic of China since 1959^[4]
Pinyin	Character^[13]	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
lí	市厘	¹⁄_{10 000}	50 mg	0.001764 oz	cash
fēn	市分	¹⁄₁₀₀₀	500 mg	0.01764 oz	candareen
qián	市钱	¹⁄₁₀₀	5 g	0.1764 oz	mace
liǎng	市两	¹⁄₁₀	50 g	1.764 oz	tael or Chinese ounce
jīn	市斤	1	500 g	1.102 lb	catty or Chinese pound formerly 16 liang = 1 jin
dàn	市担 / 擔	100	50 kg	110.2 lb	picul or Chinese hundredweight

Metric mass units

The Chinese word for gram is 克 kè; this can take the Chinese standard SI prefixes (for "milli-", "deca-", etc.). A kilogram, however, is commonly called 公斤 gōngjīn, i.e. a metric jīn.

Hong Kong and Macau mass units

Table of Chinese mass units in Hong Kong^[7] and Macau^[8]
English	Jyutping	Character	Portuguese	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value	Notes
	lei4	厘	liz	¹⁄_{16 000}	37.79931 mg	0.02133 dr	Not defined in Hong Kong. Macanese definition may not be correct when dividing catty.
candareen (fan)	fan1	分	condorim	¹⁄₁₆₀₀	377.9936375 mg	0.2133 dr	Macanese definition of 377.9931 mg may not be correct when dividing catty.
mace (tsin)	cin4	錢	maz	¹⁄₁₆₀	3.779936375 g	2.1333 dr	Macanese definition of 3.779931 g may not be correct when dividing catty.
tael (leung)	loeng2	兩	tael	¹⁄₁₆	37.79936375 g	1.3333 oz	Macanese definition of 37.79931 g may not be correct when dividing catty.
catty (kan)	gan1	斤	cate	1	604.78982 g	1.3333 lb	Hong Kong and Macau share the definition.
picul (tam)	daam3	担 / 擔	pico	100	60.478982 kg	133.3333 lb	Hong Kong and Macau share the definition.

Hong Kong troy units

These are used for trading precious metals such as gold and silver.

Table of mass (Hong Kong troy) units^[7]
English	Character	Relative value	Metric value	Imperial value
troy candareen	金衡分	¹⁄₁₀₀	374.29 mg	0.096 drt
troy mace	金衡錢	¹⁄₁₀	3.7429 g	0.96 drt
troy tael	金衡兩	1	37.429 g	1.2 ozt

Time

See also: Chinese calendar and Dates in Chinese

Table of time units
Pinyin	Character	Relative value		Western value		Notes
Pinyin	Character	tradition value	modern value	tradition value	modern value	Notes
miǎo / hǎo	秒/毫			144 millisecond	1 second
fēn	分	100 hǎo	60 miǎo	14.4 seconds	1 minute
kè	刻	1 minor kè=10 fēn	15 fēn	2.4 minutes	15 minutes	kè was defined at ¹⁄₉₆, ¹⁄₁₀₈, or ¹⁄₁₂₀ day during the Liang dynasty, and established at ¹⁄₉₆ day after the Qing dynasty.
kè	刻	1 major kè=60 fēn	15 fēn	14.4 minutes	15 minutes
diǎn	点	100 fēn	60 fēn	24 minutes	1 hour
shí ^[14]	時 (T) 时 (S)	8 ¹⁄₃ kè	4 kè	2 hours	1 hour	the xiǎoshí(小時/小时) is currently used to express "hour" in order to avoid the ambiguity
shí ^[14]	時 (T) 时 (S)	(pre-Qin) 10 kè	4 kè	2.4 hours	1 hour
rì / tiān	日/天	12 shí	24 shí	24 hours

Historiography

As there were hundreds of unofficial measures in use, the bibliography is quite vast. Up to the 1980s or so, the book by Wu Chenglou (吳承洛), Zhongguo dulianghengshi (中國度量衡史), first printed in 1937 and republished/revised a few times since (1957, 1993), was often used as reference. It relies however mostly on literary accounts. Newer research has put more emphasis on archeological discoveries.^[15] From this latter body of work, an abridged Chinese-English overview book appeared in 2005.^[16] Alas, no comprehensive text appears to exist in English. A relatively recent and comprehensive bibliography, organized by period studied, has been compiled in 2012 by Cao, Theobald, Vogel, et al.;^[17] for a shorter list see Wilkinson's Chinese history: a manual (2000).^[15]

Footnotes

1 2 3 4 5 6 大總統令法律第1號 (7 January 1915). 公布「權度法」. Government Gazette Volume No. 957, pages 85 to 94 (in Chinese). National Central Library Gazette Online.
↑ "The Weights and Measures Act: Legislative History". Ministry of Justice (Republic of China).
1 2 3 4 5 6 "The Weights and Measures Act (1929)". Legislative Yuan.
1 2 (Chinese) 1959 Gazette of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, No. 180, pages 311 to 312
↑ Decree of the State Council Concerning the Use of Uniform Legal Measures in the Country
↑ Yearbook HK. "Yearbook." Metrication. Retrieved on 26 April 2007.
1 2 3 4 Hong Kong legal definitions for metric, Imperial, and Chinese units and its traditional Chinese version
1 2 3 4 5 Law No. 14/92/M ((Chinese) 第14/92/M號法律; (Portuguese) Lei n.º 14/92/M)
↑ Schinz, 1996
1 2 Dubs (1938), pp. 276-280; (1955), p. 160, n. 7.
1 2 Hulsewé (1961), pp. 206–207.
↑ Hill (2015), "About the Measurements", pp. xxiii-xxiv.
↑ (Chinese) 1959 Gazette of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, No. 180, page 316
↑ Nachum Dershowitz, Edward M. Reingold, "Calendrical calculations", page 207
1 2 Endymion Wilkinson (2000). Chinese history: a manual (2 ed.). Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 244–245. ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.
↑ Qiu Guangming (丘光明) with translation by Yanming Zhang (张延明), Zhongguo gudai jiliang shi tujian (中国古代计量史图鉴 — A concise history of ancient Chinese measures and weights), Hefei: Hefei gongyedaxue chubanshe (合肥工业大学出版社 — Hefei University Press), 2005, 190p., ISBN 7-81093-284-5; bilingual edition: Chinese-English
↑ Cao Jin, Ulrich Theobald, Hans Ulrich Vogel, et al., Chinese, Japanese And Western Research In Chinese Historical Metrology: A Classified Bibliography (1925-2012), Institute for Chinese and Korean Studies, University of Tübingen, Germany, 2012

References

Hill, John E. (2015) Through the Jade Gate - China to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. Vol. I. John E. Hill. CreateSpace, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-5006-9670-2.
Homer H. Dubs (1938): The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. One. Translator and editor: Homer H. Dubs. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc.
Homer H. Dubs (1955): The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Three. Translator and editor: Homer H. Dubs. Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc.
Hulsewé, (1961). "Han measures." A. F. P. Hulsewé, T'oung pao Archives, Vol. XLIX, Livre 3, pp. 206–207.
Chinese Measurement Converter - Online Chinese / Metric / Imperial Converter
Chinese/Metric/Imperial Measurement Converter

Schinz, Alfred (1996). The magic square: cities in ancient China. Edition Axel Menges. p. 428. ISBN 3-930698-02-1.

Systems of measurement

Current

General	International System of Units (SI) UK imperial system US customary units Burmese Indian

Specific	Apothecaries' Avoirdupois Troy Astronomical Electrical Temperature

Natural	Atomic Geometrised Lorentz–Heaviside Planck Quantum chromodynamical Stoney

Background

Metric	Overview Introduction Outline History Metrication

UK/US	Overview Comparison

Historic

Metric	Metre–kilogram–second Metre–tonne–second Centimetre–gram–second Gravitational

Europe	Byzantine Cornish Cypriot Czech Danish Dutch English Estonian Finnish French (Trad. • Mesures usuelles) German Greek Hungary Icelandic Irish Scottish Italian Latvia Luxembourgian Maltese Norwegian Ottoman Polish Portuguese Romanian Russian Serbian Slovak Spanish Swedish Switzerland Welsh Winchester measure

Asia	Afghan Cambodian Chinese Hindu Hong Kong India Indonesian Japanese Omani Philippine Pegu Singaporean Sri Lankan Syrian Taiwanese Tatar Thai Vietnamese

Africa	Algerian Ethiopian Egyptian Eritrean Guinean Libyan Malagasy Mauritian Moroccan Seychellois Somalian South African Tunisian Tanzanian

North America	Costa Rican Cuban Haitian Honduran Mexico Nicaraguan Puerto Rican

South America	Argentine Brazilian Chilean Colombian Paraguayan Peruvian Uruguayan Venezuelan

Ancient

List articles

Other

Science and technology in China

Architecture Astronomy Automotive industry Biotechnology Internet Software Space program Logic Mathematics Media Mining Nuclear power Railways Supercomputing Telecommunications Cyberwarfare

History	Inventions Discoveries Ancient coinage Early cartography History of measurement systems History of metallurgy Maritime history Military history Calendar

Education	Academic grading Higher education Research institutes Science museums

People	Biologists Chemists Engineers Inventors Mathematicians Nobel laureates Physicians Physicists Science writers

Institutes and programs	863 Program Research institutes Chinese Academy of Sciences Chinese Academy of Engineering Chinese Academy of Social Sciences National Natural Science Foundation of China

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Wednesday, February 03, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.