Outline of thought

A chimpanzee thinking.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to thought (thinking):

Thought (also called thinking) – the mental process in which beings form psychological associations and models of the world. Thinking is manipulating information, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. Thought, the act of thinking, produces thoughts. A thought may be an idea, an image, a sound or even an emotional feeling that arises from the brain.

Nature of thought

Thought (or thinking) can be described as all of the following:

An activity taking place in a:
- brain – organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals (only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain). It is the physical structure associated with the mind.
  - mind – abstract entity with the cognitive faculties of consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, and memory. Having a mind is a characteristic of humans, but which also may apply to other life forms.^[1]^[2] Activities taking place in a mind are called mental processes or cognitive functions.
- computer (see automated reasoning, below) – general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a sequence of operations (an algorithm) can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.
An activity of intelligence – intellectual capacity, which is characterized by perception, consciousness, self-awareness, and volition. Through their intelligence, humans possess the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, comprehend ideas, plan, problem solve, make decisions, retaining, and use language to communicate. Intelligence enables humans to experience and think.
- A type of mental process – something that individuals can do with their minds. Mental processes include perception, memory, thinking, volition, and emotion. Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead.
Thought as a biological adaptation mechanism^[3]

Types of thoughts

Concept
- Abstract concept
- Concrete concept
Conjecture
Decision (see Decision-making, below)
Definition
Explanation
Hypothesis
Idea
Logical argument
Logical assertion
Mental image
Percept (see also perception)
Premise
Proposition
Syllogism
Thought experiment

Content of thoughts

Types of thought (thinking)

Listed below are types of thought, also known as thinking processes.

Animal thought

See Animal cognition

Human thought

Analysis
Awareness
Calculation
- Estimation
Categorization
Causal thinking
Cognitive restructuring
Computational thinking
Convergent thinking
Counterfactual thinking – creating possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred; by thinking "What if?" or "If I had only...". This is for correcting mistakes to avoid making them again in the future. If a person is able to consider another outcome based on a different path, they may take that path in the future and avoid the undesired outcome. It is obvious that the past cannot be changed, however, it is likely that similar situations may occur in the future, and thus we take our counterfactual thoughts as a learning experience.
Critical thinking
Divergent thinking
Evaluation
Integrative thinking
Internal monologue (surface thoughts)
Introspection
Learning and memory
Parallel thinking
Prediction
Recollection
Stochastic thinking
Strategic thinking
Visual thinking

Classifications of thought

Williams' Taxonomy

Creative processes

Creative processes –

Decision-making

Erroneous thinking

see Error for some examples, see also Human error)

Emotional intelligence (emotionally based thinking)

Emotional intelligence –

Problem solving

Problem solving steps
- Problem finding
- Problem shaping
Process of elimination
Systems thinking
- Critical systems thinking
Problem-solving strategy – steps one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting to one’s own goal. Some would refer to this as the ‘problem-solving cycle’. (Bransford & Stein, 1993) In this cycle one will recognize the problem, define the problem, develop a strategy to fix the problem, organize the knowledge of the problem cycle, figure-out the resources at the user's disposal, monitor one's progress, and evaluate the solution for accuracy.
- Abstraction – solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system
- Analogy – using a solution that solves an analogous problem
- Brainstorming – (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found
- Divide and conquer – breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems
- Hypothesis testing – assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption
- Lateral thinking – approaching solutions indirectly and creatively
- Means-ends analysis – choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal
- Method of focal objects – synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new
- Morphological analysis – assessing the output and interactions of an entire system
- Proof – try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving it
- Reduction – transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist
- Research – employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems
- Root cause analysis – identifying the cause of a problem
- Trial-and-error – testing possible solutions until the right one is found
- Troubleshooting –
Problem-solving methodology –
- APS (Applied Problem Solving)^[4]
- Eight Disciplines Problem Solving
- GROW model
- How to Solve It
- Kepner-Tregoe Problem Solving and Decision Making
- OODA loop (observe, orient, decide, and act)
- PDCA (plan–do–check–act)
- RPR Problem Diagnosis (rapid problem resolution)
- TRIZ (in Russian: Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch, "theory of solving inventor's problems")

Reasoning

Reasoning –

Abstract thinking
Adaptive reasoning
Analogical reasoning
Analytic reasoning
Case-based reasoning
Critical thinking
Defeasible reasoning – from authority: if p then (defeasibly) q
Diagrammatic reasoning – reasoning by means of visual representations. Visualizing concepts and ideas with of diagrams and imagery instead of by linguistic or algebraic means
Emotional reasoning (erroneous) – a cognitive distortion in which emotion overpowers reason, to the point the subject is unwilling or unable to accept the reality of a situation because of it.
Fallacious reasoning (erroneous) – (logical errors; see Fallacies, above)
Heuristics
Historical thinking
Intuitive reasoning
Lateral thinking
Logic (see also Logical reasoning)
- Abductive reasoning – from data and theory: p and q are correlated, and q is sufficient for p; hence, if p then (abducibly) q as cause
- Deductive reasoning – from meaning postulate, axiom, or contingent assertion: if p then q (i.e., q or not-p)
- Inductive reasoning – theory formation; from data, coherence, simplicity, and confirmation: (inducibly) "if p then q"; hence, if p then (deducibly-but-revisably) q
- Inference
Moral reasoning – process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic.^[5] This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
Probabilistic reasoning – from combinatorics and indifference: if p then (probably) q
Proportional reasoning – using "the concept of proportions when analyzing and solving a mathematical situation."^[6]
Rational thinking
Semiosis
Statistical reasoning – from data and presumption: the frequency of qs among ps is high (or inference from a model fit to data); hence, (in the right context) if p then (probably) q
Synthetic reasoning
Verbal reasoning – understanding and reasoning using concepts framed in words
Visual reasoning – process of manipulating one's mental image of an object in order to reach a certain conclusion – for example, mentally constructing a piece of machinery to experiment with different mechanisms

Machine thought

Machine thought (outline)

Artificial creativity
Automated reasoning
- Commonsense reasoning
- Model-based reasoning
- Opportunistic reasoning
- Qualitative reasoning – automated reasoning about continuous aspects of the physical world, such as space, time, and quantity, for the purpose of problem solving and planning using qualitative rather than quantitative information
- Spatial–temporal reasoning
- Textual case based reasoning
Computer program (recorded machine thought instructions)
Human-based computation
Natural language processing (outline)

Organizational thought

Organizational thought (thinking by organizations)

Management information system
Organizational communication
Organizational planning
- Strategic planning
Strategic thinking
Systems thinking

Aspects of the thinker

Aspects of the thinker which may affect (help or hamper) his or her thinking:

Properties of thought

Fields that study thought

Thought tools and thought research

History of thinking

Main article: History of reasoning

Nootropics (cognitive enhancers and smart drugs)

Main article: Nootropic

Substances that improve mental performance:

5-HTP
Adrafinil (Olmifon)
Aniracetam
Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera)
Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi)
Caffeine
Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR)
Centrophenoxine
Choline
Cholinergics
Chromium
Coenzyme q-10
Coffee
Creatine
DMAE
Ergoloid mesylates (Hydergine)
Huperzine A
Idebenone
Inositol
L-dopa
Lecithin
Lemon Balm (Melissa Officinalis)
Lipoic acid
Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
Modafinil (Provigil)
Oxiracetam
Phenibut
Phenylalanine
Piracetam (Nootropil)
Pramiracetam
Pyritinol (Enerbol)
Rhodiola Rosea
Selegiline (Deprenyl)
Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus)
St John's Wort
Sutherlandia Frutescens
Tea
Theanine
Theophylline
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Vasopressin
Vinpocetine
Nicotinic acid (vitamin B₃)
Vitamin B₅
Vitamin B₆
Vitamin B₁₂
Vitamin C
Yohimbe

Organizational thinking concepts

Main articles: Organizational studies and Organizational psychology

Teaching methods and skills

Main articles: Education and Teaching

Awards related to thinking

Awards for acts of genius

Nobel Prize
Pulitzer Prize
MacArthur Grant

Organizations

Associations pertaining to thought
High IQ societies
- Mega Society
- Mensa
Mind Sports Organisations
- World Mind Sports Games
Think tanks

Media

Publications

Books

Handbook of Automated Reasoning

Periodicals

Television programs

Thinkabout (U.S. TV series)

Persons associated with thinking

Related concepts

Awareness and perception

Main articles: Awareness and Perception

Learning and memory

Main articles: Education, Learning and Memory

References

↑ Dictionary.com, "mind": "1. (in a human or other conscious being) the element, part, substance, or process that reasons, thinks, feels, wills, perceives, judges, etc.: the processes of the human mind. 2. Psychology. the totality of conscious and unconscious mental processes and activities. 3. intellect or understanding, as distinguished from the faculties of feeling and willing; intelligence."
↑ Google definition, "mind": "The element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness."
↑ Danko Nikolić (2014). "Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC].".
↑ Ivan Fantin (2014). Applied Problem Solving. Method, Applications, Root Causes, Countermeasures, Poka-Yoke and A3. How to make things happen to solve problems. Milan, Italy: Createspace, an Amazon company. ISBN 978-1499122282
↑ "Definition of: Moral Reasoning". Retrieved 21 July 2011.
↑ http://quizlet.com/dictionary/proportional-reasoning/
↑ "History of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy". National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists. Retrieved March 8, 2011.

External links

Fries, Daniel F. "The Uniqueness of Human Relaxed Thinking". Corpina Nootropics (Nov-Dec 2013). Retrieved 2007-04-23.
The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts, Free Online Book

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