Librarianship and human rights in the United States

Librarianship and human rights in the U.S. are linked by the philosophy and practice of library and information professionals supporting the rights enumerated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), particularly the established rights to information, knowledge and free expression.

The American Library Association (ALA), the national voice of the profession, has developed statements, policies and initiatives supporting human rights by affirming intellectual freedom, privacy and confidentiality, and the rights of all people to access library services and resources on an equitable basis. The daily work of librarians contributes to the personal growth, enrichment and capabilities of individuals, which is considered to be an integral approach to advancing human rights.[1]

Librarians, both individually and collectively, have a long history of engagement with human rights issues as they pertain to libraries and the communities they serve: against censorship and discrimination; and in support of the rights of immigrants, cultural minorities, poor people, the homeless and unemployed, people with disabilities, children and young adults, the LGBT community, older adults, those who are illiterate, and the imprisoned. Librarians also protect human rights by developing diverse collections, programs and services; promoting literacy; and preserving cultural and historical records.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and librarianship

The UDHR is viewed as a set of ideals to guide librarianship.[2] Librarianship is most closely associated with Article 19, which concerns the human right to freedom of opinion and expression, and the right to access and share information and ideas.[3] But alignment goes beyond Article 19.

Librarians also protect other human rights detailed in the UDHR, including freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Article 18), peaceful assembly and association (Article 20), confidentiality (Articles 1, 2, 3 and 6), privacy (Articles 3 and 12), education (Article 26), and participation in the cultural life of the community (Article 27).[4]

Librarians protect and promote human rights on a societal level, serving as a cornerstone of democracy by helping people find quality information and develop the information literacy skills needed to be informed citizens and full participants in society. They also protect democracy by promoting transparency in government, informing people about their rights and benefits, providing programs on civic issues, and offering free meeting spaces for community organizations.[5] In times of disaster, they serve as critical community hubs and communication centers.[6]

Librarians protect and promote human rights on an individual level—–respecting and protecting the right to free and equitable access to information for all and providing resources for personal enrichment and growth.[5] Librarianship is aligned with the human capabilities approach to development, which contributes to human rights by valuing and supporting the development of each person.[3]:340

Philosophy of American librarianship related to human rights

Core values

Human rights is a professional ethic that informs the practice of librarianship.[7] The ALA, the profession's voice in the U.S., defines the core values of librarianship as information access, confidentiality/privacy, democracy, diversity, education and lifelong learning, intellectual freedom, preservation, the public good, professionalism, service and social responsibility.[8]

Information access is considered a "linchpin right" on which other human rights depend, because information is essential for supporting an informed citizenry that knows what their rights are and what their government is doing, or not doing, to respect those rights.[7]:72 Free and equal access to information also supports lifelong learning for all, whether for personal enrichment, building individual capabilities or for fulfillment of a goal, such as starting a business, learning new software, discovering cultural history or finding healthcare.[2]:69

Equity of access, which is a key action area of the ALA,[9] is central to the philosophy of librarianship. All people, "regardless of age, education, ethnicity, language, income, physical limitations or geographic barriers,” should have access to the information they need.[10] Among the many ways in which librarians work to serve all populations are by working to eliminate barriers to service, providing materials in different languages, hiring bilingual and bicultural staff, and offering literacy instruction and ESOL courses. The ALA has policies addressing free access by all, including minors, LGBT, people with disabilities, the imprisoned, people living in poverty, cultural minorities, homeless people, immigrants, and people of all ages.[2][3]:349 ALA policy also addresses diversity in terms of equity of access to information resources, services and technologies, especially for those who face language, cultural and other barriers.[11]

The ALA's adoption of “social responsibility and the public good” as a core organizational value[9] suggests that librarians have a responsibility to resist threats to intellectual freedom and advocate for democratic principles and human rights; and to address through social action the root causes of such problems as discrimination, poverty and homelessness, which are barriers to full and equal participation.[12][13][14]:5–7

Library Bill of Rights

The ALA Library Bill of Rights, which is considered the “central document” of librarianship,[15] expresses the profession’s policy on intellectual freedom. It rejects censorship and “affirms the ethical imperative to provide unrestricted access to information and to guard against impediments to open inquiry.”[16] The Library Bill of Rights, together with the Freedom to Read Statement,[17] was instrumental in librarians’ defense of intellectual freedom in the McCarthy era and is still cited regularly in response to challenges of library materials.[18]

The Library Bill of Rights is an evolving document that has become more inclusive, expansive and firmer in its commitment to intellectual freedom since it was first adopted by ALA leadership in 1939. In 1961, for example, it was amended in support of civil rights, supporting the right to use a library regardless of “race, religion, national origins or political views.”[18] Its applicability to specific library issues has been codified by ALA leadership in a series of interpretations, including the reaffirmation of the right to privacy and confidentiality of library users (2002), linked to Article 12 of the UDHR (right to privacy).[16]

The ALA made a strong, explicit statement in support of human rights in 1991 with The Universal Right to Free Expression: An Interpretation of the Library Bill of Rights. This interpretation refers to specific human rights enumerated in the UDHR as “inalienable rights of every person, regardless of origin, age, background, or views”: freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Article 18); freedom of opinion and expression (Article 19); and freedom to peaceful assembly and association (Article 20). The ALA also declared that it "is unswerving in its commitment to human rights and intellectual freedom," noting that "the two are inseparably linked and inextricably entwined.” It also “rejects censorship in any form” and advocates for the free flow of information internationally.[18][19]

Other expressions of library philosophy linked to human rights

The ALA's Code of Ethics, which establishes the obligations and professional responsibilities of librarians, refers to "a profession explicitly committed to intellectual freedom and the freedom of access to information." Included in its ethical guidelines for librarians are protection of library users' privacy and confidentiality, and resistance to "all efforts to censor library resources."[20]

Libraries: An American Value, adopted in 1999 and endorsed widely by ALA state chapters and divisions, communicated to the public the profession’s commitment to assure free access to “books, ideas, resources and information.” It includes pledges to defend the rights of people of all ages to use the library; to reflect diversity in resources and services; to protect individual privacy and confidentiality; and to contribute toward lifelong learning for all.[21]

The ALA’s Declaration for the Right to Libraries (2013-2014) refers to the UDHR in its preamble, along with the U.S. Declaration of Independence, as an inspiration for asserting that “libraries are essential to a democratic society” and that all people have a “right to quality libraries.” It is based on the many roles of libraries: connecting people with the information and ideas they need, supporting literacy and lifelong learning; serving all people equitably, building communities; protecting the “right to know” and the “right to read;” creating a literate and informed society; advancing knowledge and research; and preserving cultural heritage.[22]

The profession has also long expressed a global perspective on human rights. In 1978, an ALA International Relations Policy Statement pronounced support for intellectual freedom and human rights around the world, saying that “threats to the freedom of expression of any persons become threats to the freedom of all.”[3]:342 In 1991, the ALA endorsed UDHR Article 19 as part of its international relations policy, pledging to work with other members of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) to support human rights and freedom of expression.[23] An ALA resolution in 1997 on "IFLA, Human Rights and Freedom of Expression" explicitly linked the profession's defense of intellectual freedom and human rights.[14]:10 The ALA has also adopted a series of resolutions on international human rights and free expression over the years in response to specific infringements on human rights and the free flow of information in some countries.[24]

In response to concerns about patron privacy after passage of the USA PATRIOT Act, the ALA passed a resolution in 2002 reaffirming the profession's commitment to intellectual freedom and confidentiality and its opposition to government intimidation, citing the "tolerance of dissent [as] the hallmark of a free and democratic society."[25]

Librarianship and human rights in praxis

The daily tasks of librarians are characterized as human rights work: helping people of all ages and all abilities find information and resources for enrichment, personal growth, lifelong learning, literacy, career, health, civic participation and much more.[12][26]

Librarians, especially those who specialize in archival work, preserve and organize historical records, digitize them and make them accessible to all, including records of human rights abuses.[26] Examples include the ALA’s Human Rights Video Project, which provided documentary films on human rights topics free to hundreds of libraries for public screenings and discussions;[27] and the University of Minnesota’s Human Rights Library, which houses over 60,000 core human rights documents from over 150 countries.[28]

Librarians provide resources and programs to advance childhood and adult literacy skills, which support civic participation and the ability to access and use information. Libraries provide a gateway to the internet for those who do not have access otherwise; and librarians offer digital and information literacy training.[7]

Additionally, library culture often mirrors the attitudes and perspectives of their communities and time periods. Nonetheless, throughout the history of American librarianship, especially beginning in the mid-20th century, individuals and organizations have advocated for human rights. The issues and the way they are approached vary between time periods, people, and organizations but the evidence that librarians have been promoting for human rights in the U.S. is irrefutable.

Freedom of information

"Librarians lead the battle for freedom of information...Librarians carry information and knowledge beyond barriers imposed by the page or machine into the minds of people. Librarians not only use all sources of information, in all formats, but lead the effort to make them all accessible and understandable to the rest of society" John N. Berry III (1991)[29]

Paul Sturges lists the following as necessary for a society that has achieved Freedom of Information:

While modern American librarianship has shown wide support for the aforementioned conditions it has had to negotiate a nuanced space when supporting the Freedom of Information. Therefore, librarians must balance combating censorship with promoting intellectual freedom, open access, privacy rights, and respecting the rights of authors.[31] Hence, while librarians can be symbolically important voices in favor of the Freedom of Information, professional and communal considerations often limit their ability to fully endorse what full freedom of information would entail.[30] State and national library organizations strive to remain aware of new or proposed FOI laws so that they can play a part in voicing concerns and improving bills, laws, and resolutions.

Intellectual freedom

The American Library Association defines intellectual freedom as the right of every individual, without restriction, to seek and receive information.[32] It is based upon the idea that a stable and healthy democratic society progresses when ideas can be crafted and shared without social, political, or governmental restrictions. This American librarianship value is in line with First Amendment rights, established by the United States Constitution. Librarians strive to establish a balance along the spectrum of intellectual freedom - where on one side ideas flow unchecked, even harmful ones, and strict censorship exists on the other side. Librarianship allows for any person, regardless of their age, background, or beliefs to access information by any author despite whatever beliefs or viewpoints that author may hold. The individual has the freedom to decide how they express their own views and ideas as well as how they receive the views and ideas of others.[31]

The first library in the United States to issue a formal intellectual freedom policy was the Chicago Public Library in 1936.[33]

The American Library Association launched a Committee on Intellectual Freedom in 1940. Currently, the ALA also maintains an Office of Intellectual Freedom which was established in 1967, one year after the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) was made law by the U.S. federal government.[34][35]

In 1977, the ALA completed the controversial film The Speaker. The film details the fictionalized experience of a speaker who is denied the right to speak out on his offensive views concerning race. The main theme of the film was issues of intellectual freedom. ALA members debated whether or not the film should be released. but in the end the film was released.[35][36]

In 1991 the ALA added Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to their policy manual.[35]

Several state library organizations and associations possess Intellectual Freedom Committees which routinely handle issues of intellectual freedom and the freedom of information.

Progressive librarianship and the Critical Library Movement

The Critical Library Movement describes the shift librarianship has taken towards an interest in social change. The critical library movement incorporates progressive librarianship, activist librarianship, socially responsible librarianship, radical librarianship, independent librarianship, alternative librarianship, and anarchist librarianship.[14] The movement can be traced to the 1930s push, among library activists, to get the ALA to play a larger role in responding to issues which included intellectual freedom, segregation, library unions, and peace. The movement has continued into the modern era and encompasses several forms of librarianship. Progressive librarianship, or socially responsible librarianship, is the most widely used term used to describe librarians who uphold the values which inform the Critical Library Movement.[14]

Progressive librarianship entails active advocacy and maintains the view that librarianship should not strictly adhere to ideas of being neutral and apolitical. They believe that the libraries role in a free and democratic society necessitates that libraries defend civil and independent democracy for all.[37]

Not every librarian who believes in human rights is necessarily a progressive librarian or a part of the Critical Library Movement. Some librarians have vocally denounced library organizations and staff advocating for issues of social justice or issues that are not obviously and explicitly related to library and information services. Some librarians, such as David Berninghausen, argued that the Library Bill of Rights does not include or support taking positions on or getting involved in issues of war, pollution, promoting human brotherhood, upholding the separation of church and state, the voting age, the viability of higher education, or LGBT rights. They do not say that such issues are unimportant or must be ignored, but that getting involved with them in a professional capacity could destroy organizations and the profession. They believe that it is unethical for librarians to publicly take positions on matters not directly connected to librarianship. In the early 1970s this became known as "The Berninghausen Debate".[38][39]

Progressive Librarianship and Women

History

Although, there was a "Women's Meeting" at the 1882 14th American Libraries Conference, where issues concerning the salaries of women librarians and what female patrons do in reading rooms, librarians did not become formally active in feminist issues until over 80 years later.

In 1969 the first women's rights task force was founded, the National Women's Liberation Front for Librarians (NWFFL or New-Waffle). At the 1970 ALA Conference in Detroit, NWFFL would become the ALA Social Responsibility Roundtable's Task Force on the Status of Women. It was also in 1969 that children's librarians, after being unable to find children's books that included working mothers, worked to remedy the situation and succeeded in their efforts. Showing that librarians can work with publishers to diversify female representation in literature.[40]

Librarians can do more to help end gender discrimination and even violence. An integral tool in the fight against gender discrimination and violence against women is empowerment. In order to promote such empowerment, the abilities of individuals and women as a whole must be strengthened in lieu of positive action. Libraries can play a pivotal role in making the public aware of inaccuracies in gender stereotypes and the harmful effects of gender biases.[41] They can also craft online paths or pathfinders in order to help women who have been affected by domestic violence so that they can be connected to the resources and information they need.

Equal Rights Amendment

The subject of women receiving equal pay for doing the same job as their male counterparts came up in librarianship long before the Equal Rights Amendment was proposed.In 1919, an American Library Association resolution promoting equal pay and opportunities for women in librarian was defeated by a large margin. In 1970, Betty Wilson brought forth a resolution that would have the ALA refrain from using facilities that discriminate against women. That resolution was also defeated by the membership.[40] However, In 1977 the American Library Association took a stand for the Equal Rights Amendment. The organization stated that they would no longer hold conferences in states that did not ratify the amendment, with the boycott measure set to take place in 1981.[42][43] An ERA Task Force was formed in 1979 towards this goal and a sum of $25,000 was allocated towards task force operations in unratified states. At the time, a number of state library associations passed pro-ERA resolutions and formed committees on women in libraries.[42]

Progressive Librarianship and African Americans

History

Negative or inaccurate depictions of African Americans have long been reinforced through literature and popular culture. To counteract this inaccurate portrayal, librarians, of various ethnic and cultural backgrounds, have worked with authors and publishers to ensure that racist stereotypes are kept out of books. Such efforts have been supported by Article 22 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights since its inception in 1948.

Approximately 85 years ago African American children were routinely exposed to the negative images of African American people and their culture as this is how they were depicted in children's books. Around the 1920s African American parents, librarians, and educators realized these depictions were detrimental to both African American and white children, and therefore needed to be removed from library shelves. There was a need for writers to create educational books for children that could be more useful and much more truthful. In response, the Associated Publishers, an African American publishing company founded in 1927 and backed by African American authors, educators, and historical scholars such as Carter G. Woodson and Charles Wesley, began publishing informative books that taught the history and culture of African Americans.[44]

Advocacy

In 1871, Daniel P. Murray began working in the Library of Congress and much of his career was concerned with positive representation of Blacks in the U.S. In 1899 Murray organized an exhibit on "Negro Authors" for the 1900 Paris Exhibition, which culminated in the work known as the "Preliminary List of Books and Pamphlets by Negro Authors". Murray's goal was to collect every text authored by a Black author in existence. His collection would eventually become the Library of Congress' "Colored Author Collection".[45] Charlemae Rollins, who began working for the Chicago Public Library system in 1932, wrote several collection development guides which suggest titles that feature fair depictions of African Americans, mostly for children's books. Rollins also advocated for considering African American children in the collection development process as well as including materials by Black authors.[46] Murray and Rollins present examples of activist African American librarians who advocated for accurate and fair representations of Black Americans in literature through outreach and their writing.

Nonetheless, librarians who were not African American also advocated for fairer representations in literature and public perceptions. Ernestine Rose (1880-1961) was one of the most progressive librarian voices of her time, believing that positive representations of African Americans in books could not only empower African Americans but also dispel harmful stereotypes among white patrons as well.[47] She even contacted Daniel P. Murray after he'd retired with the express wish to make the "one of the best Negro libraries in America" after recognizing the dearth of books on, about, and African Americans.[45] Rose was also concerned with African American representation within librarianship. She deliberately diversified her workforce by hiring Nella Larson and Pura Belpré. Furthermore, Rose chaired the first meeting of the American Library Association's Work with Negroes Round Table in 1922.[47]

Segregation: "The Silent Subject"

After the first meeting of the 1922 American Library Association's Work with Negro Round table convened, the temporary chairperson, Ernestine Rose, worked with her integrated staff to conduct a survey on service to African Americans in public libraries. Out of the 122 survey questionnaires sent out they received ninety-eight responses. The responses reflected the inequity in how African Americans were hired and served by libraries across the U.S. The work of the round table ended in 1923, mainly because no one could agree on how to pursue a solution to the issue.[47]

Issues involving segregated populations were especially prevalent in Rose's survey. However, it wasn't all in the communities themselves. Librarianship also struggled with issues of integrationist versus segregationist practices. In 1936, the American Library Association sent a letter that outlined the conditions African American libraries would need to agree to in order to attend: they would not be allowed to view the exhibits, register in hotels where white delegates were roomed, could not attend meetings where food would be served, and would have to sit in a segregated portion of halls for any sessions they might attend. They eventually decided not to hold conventions in places where all members could not fully attend, although the first integrated conference would not occur until 1956.[48][49]

Despite the stance of the ALA, several librarians spoke out against segregation on an individual level. Librarians such as Ruth Brown, Juliette Hampton Morgan, and Emily Wheelock Reed either lost their jobs or were forced out of them for their pro-integrationist stances.[31][50]

In 1960, the Library Journal and its editor, Eric Moon, began publishing a series of controversial editorials attacking segregationist practices and the ALA's perceived silence on the matter. Moon characterized segregation and the issues of unequal library service as "The Silent Subject".[51] White southern librarians, like Rick Estes, gave credibility to the Library Journal's campaign by describing the detrimental effect of segregation on millions of African Americans.[52] In 1961, the ALA added amendment V, supporting equal library access for all, to the Library Bill of Rights.

The African American Civil Rights Movement would continue throughout the 1960s with librarians aiding the effort. In 1964, as a part of the Freedom Summer initiative, twenty-five temporary Freedom Libraries opened in Mississippi.[49] Freedom libraries could be found within community centers established for the Freedom Summer movement and were run by volunteers. The libraries, run by volunteers, aimed to support efforts in literacy, voting rights, and to allow access to materials in non-integrated areas.[53][54]

Historical milestones

Colonial America

As the printing industry expands, by the 1700s, the social culture shifts from the idea that only the wealthy should have access to books and education to the social premise of equitable access to education and books. In 1638, Harvard University establishes the first institutional library; by 1764, Harvard's library contains 5,000 volumes of books.[55]

Boston Public Library and social responsibility

Historically, the library profession's claim to neutrality has drawn a line between professional issues such as literacy and so-called non-library issues such as war, politics, segregation, and poverty.[56]

While not explicitly employing the term social responsibility, the July 1852 Report of the Trustees of the Boston Public Library makes clear that the library has two primary social obligations:

  1. To equalize and maximize individual opportunities to participate in civil society while fighting conflicting cultural, political, and social influences; and
  2. To provide the public with a means of developing a uniquely American culture, founded on the notion of an engaged citizenship.[57] The notion of social responsibility has long been at the center of the professional ideology that grounds thought and justifies practice in librarianship.[57]

Additionally, the idea that people agree to tax themselves for the support of the public library — an institution that activates human capabilities; diminishes the division between people of different classes; and provides access to information — is an indicator of our society's commitment to fundamental human rights, democracy, and social responsibility.[58]

1930s – 1950s

1960s – 1970s

1980s – 1990s

2000 to present

Current and future concerns for the 21st century

Though many positive steps have been made, librarianship continues to face challenges to democracy, social responsibilities, and human rights. In recent years, libraries have banned homeless people from checking out books; books with homosexual themes have been moved to "adult only" areas; gay pride displays have been ordered down; Spanish-language materials have been refused to be purchased; and the Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA) and Deleting Online Predators Act (DOPA) have aimed to limit access to information available on the Internet.[81] Censorship, intellectual freedom, closing of libraries, and discrimination remain critical issues for librarianship, while the ALA has no authority to enforce what individual library administrations do.[82] Despite these challenges, librarians are fighting back against budget cuts and closures, providing access to materials, protecting the freedom of inquiry, and allowing groups to meet in their common areas.[83] The ALA provides numerous tools to libraries and librarians and has developed several task forces to cover human rights issues. The ALA's 2015 Strategic Plan envisions a future in which librarians are committed to diversity, globalization of information, intellectual freedom, and social responsibility for the public good.[84] McCook and Phenix (2011) argue that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights can provide libraries with a widely understood international document that can be used to guide development of policy, and services that help maintain policy.

Mathiesen has proposed that governments have an obligation to create and fund public libraries, because access to them is a human right. Starting with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and appealing to recent work in Human Rights Theory, she argues that there is a right to information, which states are obligated to fulfill. Given that libraries are highly effective institutions for ensuring that this right is fulfilled, there is a derived human right to a public library.[85]

The essay, "True Community: Connecting the Millennium Development Goals to Public Library Services in the United States"[86] asserts that U.S. public libraries have the potential to actively participate in realizing the collective vision of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

Notable individuals

The following individuals are noted for their contributions to the cause of human rights and the field of librarianship:

Notable organizations

The organizations listed below exemplify the link between libraries, librarianship and human rights:

U.S. librarianship and human rights awards

There are a number of awards provided by library organizations in an effort to encourage and acknowledge individuals who support various issues in human rights. This is a list of some of those awards:

References

  1. ↑ Sen, Amartya (July 2005). "Human rights and capabilities". Journal of Human Development 6 (2): 151–166. doi:10.1080/14649880500120491.
  2. 1 2 3 McCook, K. & Phenix, K. J. (2006). "Public libraries and human rights". Public Library Quarterly 25 (1/2): 57–73. doi:10.1300/J118v25n01_05.
  3. 1 2 3 4 McCook, K. (2011). Introduction to public librarianship. New York, NY: Neal-Schuman.
  4. ↑ Samek, T. & Rioux, K. (2008). "Apologies, boycotts & law reform: Why and how library and information workers talk and walk human rights". International Conference on Libraries from a Human Rights Perspective. Ramallah, Palestine: Ramallah Centre for Human Rights Studies. pp. 59–66.
  5. 1 2 Kranich, N.C. (2001). Libraries & democracy: The cornerstones of liberty. Chicago, IL: American Library Association.
  6. ↑ LeBoeuf, M. (2006). "Disasters Strike, Public Libraries prevail: The impact of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita on Louisiana public libraries". Louisiana Libraries 68 (4): 3–7.
  7. 1 2 3 Mathiesen, K. (Spring 2013). "The human right to a public library". Journal of Information Ethics 22 (1): 60–79. doi:10.3172/JIE.22.1.60.
  8. ↑ "B.1.1 Core Values of Librarianship (Old Number 40.1)". American Library Association. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  9. 1 2 "ALA 2015 Strategic Plan". American Library Association. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  10. ↑ "Equity of Access". American Library Association. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  11. ↑ "ALA Policy Manual". American Library Association. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  12. 1 2 McCook, K. & Phenix, K. J. (2008). Human rights, democracy and librarians. In B. E. Sheldon and K. Haycock, The portable MLIS: Insights from the experts. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.
  13. ↑ Jensen, R. "The myth of the neutral professional". Progressive Librarian 24: 28–34.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Samek, T. Librarianship and human rights: A twenty-first century guide. Oxford, U.K.: Chandos.
  15. ↑ Rubin, R. E. (2004). Foundations of library and information science. New York, NY: Neal-Schuman.
  16. 1 2 "Interpretations of the Library Bill of Rights". American Library Association. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  17. ↑ "The Freedom to Read Statement". Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  18. 1 2 3 "Intellectual Freedom Manual". American Library Association Office of Intellectual Freedom. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  19. ↑ "The Universal Right to Free Expression". American Library Association. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  20. ↑ "Code of Ethics of the American Library Association". Retrieved 29 March 2014.
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  23. ↑ "B.6 International Relations (Old Number 58)". American Library Association. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
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  25. ↑ "Resolution Reaffirming the Principles of Intellectual Freedom in the Aftermath of Terrorist Attacks". American Library Association. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
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  27. ↑ "The human rights video project". American Library Association. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  28. ↑ "Human Rights Library - University of Minnesota". Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  29. ↑ Berry III, J. N. (1991, December 15). Librarians Disprove Extremist Theories. Library Journal. p. 6.
  30. 1 2 Sturges, P., & Crnogorac, V. (2012). The library and transparency. Alexandria, 23(1), 44-54.
  31. 1 2 3 Rubin, R. (2000). Foundations of library and information science / Richard E. Rubin. New York : Neal-Schuman Publishers, c2000.
  32. ↑ Adams, H. R. (2007). What Is Intellectual Freedom?. School Library Monthly, 24(1), 32.
  33. 1 2 McCook, K. (2011). Introduction to public librarianship. New York, NY: Neal-Schuman.
  34. ↑ ALA Office for Intellectual Freedom. (2014). Mission. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/offices/oif
  35. 1 2 3 American Library Association. (2014). Freedom to read. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/aboutala/missionhistory/plan/freedomtoread
  36. 1 2 Progressive Librarians Guild. (2014). Miriam Braverman. Retrieved from http://progressivelibrariansguild.org/content/bravermanbio.shtml
  37. ↑ Progressive Librarians Guild. (n.d.). Statement of purpose. Retrieved from http://progressivelibrariansguild.org/content/purpose.shtml
  38. ↑ Berninghausen, D., Wedgeworth, R. F., Summers, F., Schuman, P., Robbins, J., Jones, C. S., & ... Armitage, A. (1993). Social responsibility vs. the Library Bill of Rights. (reprint of article from Nov. 15, 1972 Library Journal and excerpts from the Jan. 1, 1973 Library Journal). Library Journal, (15). 1.
  39. ↑ < Wedgeworth, R. S., & Summers, F. (1993). The Berninghausen debate. Library Journal, 118(15), S3.
  40. 1 2 Schuman, P., & Weibel, K.(1979).The Women Arisen.American Libraries, 10(6), 322.
  41. ↑ Anaeme, F. (2012). Reducing Gender Discrimination and Violence against Women through Library and Information Services. Library Philosophy & Practice, 50-55.
  42. 1 2 Librarians for ERA. (1982). Wilson Library Bulletin, 57289-312.
  43. ↑ ALA women's rights stand: Alabama warns of impact. (1977). Library Journal, 102(18), 2105.
  44. ↑ Tolson, Nancy (1998). "Making books available: the role of early libraries, librarians, and booksellers in the promotion of African American children's literature". African American Review 32 (1): 9–16.
  45. 1 2 Walker, B. E. (2005). Daniel Alexander Payne Murray (1852-1925), Forgotten Librarian, Bibliographer, and Historian. Libraries & Culture: A Journal Of Library History, 40(1), 25-37. doi:10.1353/lac.2005.0019
  46. ↑ Saunders, D. (1955). Charlemae Rollins. ALA Bulletin, (2), 68. doi:10.2307/25694415
  47. 1 2 3 Jenkins, B. L. (1990). A white librarian in a black harlem. Library Quarterly, 60(3), 216-231.
  48. ↑ Kniffel, L. (2000). To Be Black and a Librarian: Talking with E.J. Josey. American Libraries, 31(1), 80.
  49. 1 2 Wheeler, M.B., Johnson-Houston, D., & Boyd, H. (2006). Timeline in Library Development for African Americans. Retrieved from http://www.americanlibrariesmagazine.org/resources/slctdarticles/aframtimeline
  50. ↑ Robbins, L. S. (2000). The Dismissal of Miss Ruth Brown : Civil Rights, Censorship, and the American Library. Norman, Okla: University of Oklahoma Press.
  51. ↑ Lipscomb, C. E. (2004). Race and librarianship: part I. Journal Of The Medical Library Association, 92(3), 299-301.
  52. ↑ Lipscomb, C. (n.d). Race and librarianship: part II. Journal Of The Medical Library Association, 93(3), 308-310.
  53. ↑ Fenton, M. (2011). The Freedom Libraries. Retrieved from http://littleknownblacklibrarianfacts.blogspot.com/2011/07/freedom-libraries.html
  54. ↑ Emery, K., Braselmann, S., & Gold, L.R. (2004). Introduction Freedom Summer and the freedom schools. Retrieved from http://educationanddemocracy.org/FSCfiles/A_02_Introduction.htm
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  63. ↑ (Rubin, 2004, p. 295)
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  65. 1 2 "ALA Feminist Task Force". libr.org.
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  70. ↑ "Keeping the Faith: The Public Library's Commitment to Adult Education, 1950 ...". google.com.
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  73. ↑ Samek 2007, p. 9.
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  89. ↑ American Library Association. (2014). About the Coretta Scott King Book Awards. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/emiert/cskbookawards/about
  90. ↑ Jean E. Coleman Library Outreach Lecture. American Library Association. http://www.ala.org/offices/olos/olosprograms/jeanecoleman/jeanecoleman
  91. ↑ Progressive Librarians Guild. (2014). Call for Submissions. Retrieved from http://progressivelibrariansguild.org/content/award.shtml
  92. ↑ Association for Library Service to Children. (2014). Welcome to the Pura Belpré award home page! Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/belpremedal
  93. ↑ University of Illinois Graduate School of Library and Information Science. (2014). Robert B. Downs Intellectual Freedom Award. Retrieved from http://www.lis.illinois.edu/newsroom/awards/downs-award
  94. ↑ American Library Association. (2014). Stonewall Book Awards. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/glbtrt/award
  95. ↑ REFORMA (2015). Trejo Librarian of the Year, http://www.reforma.org/content.asp?contentid=45

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