Lakshmi

"Mahalakshmi" redirects here. For other uses, see Mahalakshmi (disambiguation) and Lakshmi (disambiguation).
Lakshmi

goddess of wealth and beauty

Raja Ravi Varma's Lakshmi
Devanagari लक्ष्मी
Sanskrit transliteration lakṣmī
Affiliation Devi (Tridevi)
Abode Vaikuntha, Ksheera Sagara
Mantra Om Hrim Shri Lakshmibhyo Namaha
Consort Vishnu
Mount Elephant, Owl

Lakshmi (Sanskrit:लक्ष्मी, lakṣmī, ˈləkʂmiː) is the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune, and prosperity (both material and spiritual). She is the wife and active energy of Lord Vishnu.[1] Her four hands represent the four goals of human life considered important to the Hindu way of life – dharma, kāma, artha, and moksha.[2][3] Representations of Lakshmi are also found in Jain monuments. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal, and southeast Asia, goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics and attributes of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi with minor iconographic differences.[4]

Lakshmi is also called Sri[5] or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six auspicious and divine strength even to Vishnu. When Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended as his respective consorts: Sita (Rama's wife) and Rukmini (Krishna's wife).[6] In the ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi.[7] The marriage and relationship between Lakshmi and Vishnu as wife and husband, states Patricia Monaghan, is "the paradigm for rituals and ceremonies for the bride and groom in Hindu weddings."[8]

Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for goddess Lakshmi in the Scytho-Parthian kingdom and throughout India by the 1st millennium BC.[9][10] Lakshmi's iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout southeast Asia, estimated to be from second half of 1st millennium AD.[11][12]

In modern times, Lakshmi is worshiped as the goddess of wealth. She is also worshipped as the consort of Vishnu in many temples. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honor.[13]

Etymology

Lakshmi (Lakṣmī) is one of many Hindu deities whose meaning and significance evolved in ancient Sanskrit texts.[14]

Lakshmi is mentioned once in Rig Veda, but the context suggests that the word does not mean "goddess of wealth and fortune," rather it means "kindred mark or sign of auspicious fortune."[5][14]

भद्रैषां लक्ष्मीर्निहिताधि वाचि
bhadraiṣāṁ lakṣmīrnihitādhi vāci
"an auspicious fortune is attached to their words"

— Rig Veda, x.71.2, Translated by John Muir[14]

In Atharva Veda, composed about 1000 BC, Lakshmi evolves into a complex concept with plural manifestations. Book 7, Chapter 115 of Atharva Veda describes the plurality, asserting that a hundred Lakshmis are born with the body of a mortal at birth, some good, punya (virtuous) and auspicious, while others bad, paapi (evil) and unfortunate. The good are welcomed, while the bad urged to leave.[14] The concept and spirit of Lakshmi and her association with fortune and the good is significant enough that Atharva Veda mentions it in multiple books: for example, in Book 12, Chapter 5 as punya Lakshmi.[15] In some chapters of Atharva Veda, Lakshmi connotes the good, an auspicious sign, good luck, good fortune, prosperity, success, and happiness.[5]

Goddess Lakshmi
Bharhut Stupa, 2nd century BC
Coins of Gandhara, 1st century BC
Coinage of Gupta Empire
Cambodia
Vietnam, 10th century
Malaysia
Lakshmi is one of the trinity of Hindu goddesses. Her iconography is found in ancient and modern Hindu temples.

Later, Lakshmi is referred to as the goddess of fortune, identified with Śrī and regarded as the wife of Viṣṇu (Nārāyaṇa).[5] For example, in Shatapatha Brahmana, variously estimated to be composed between 800 BC and 300 BC, Śrī (Lakshmi) is part of one of many theories, in ancient India, about the creation of universe. In Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Śrī emerges from Prajāpati, after his intense meditation on creation of life and nature of universe. Śrī is described as the beautiful, resplendent and trembling woman at her birth with immense energy and powers.[14] The gods were bewitched, desire her and immediately become covetous of her. The gods approach Prajāpati and request permission to kill her and then take her powers, talents and gifts. Prajāpati refuses, tells the gods that males should not kill females, and that they can seek her gifts without violence.[16] The gods then approach Lakshmi, deity Agni gets food, Soma gets kingly authority, Varuna gets imperial authority, Mitra acquires martial energy, Indra gets force, Brihaspati gets priestly authority, Savitri acquires dominion, Pushan gets splendor, Sarasvati takes nourishment and Tvashtri gets forms.[14] The hymns of Shatapatha Brahmana thus describe Śrī as a goddess born with and personifying a diverse range of talents and powers.

According to another legend, she emerges during the creation of universe, floating over the water on the expanded petals of a lotus flower; she is also variously regarded as the wife of Dharma, the mother of Kāma, the sister or mother of Dhātṛ and Vidhātṛ, the wife of Dattatreya, one of the nine Śaktis of Viṣṇu, a manifestation of Prakṛti as identified with Dākshāyaṇī in Bharataśrama, and as Sītā, the wife of Rāma.[5][17]

In the Epics of Hinduism, such as in the Mahabharata, Lakshmi personifies wealth, riches, beauty, happiness, loveliness, grace, charm and splendor.[5] In another Hindu legend about the creation of universe as described in the Ramayana,[18] Lakshmi springs with other precious things from the foam of the ocean of milk when it is churned by the gods and demons for the recovery of the Amṛta. She appeared with a lotus in her hand, and so she is also called Padmā.[5][19]

Root of the word

Lakshmi in Sanskrit is derived from the root word lakṣ (लक्ष्) and lakṣa (लक्ष), meaning "to perceive, observe, know, understand" and "goal, aim, objective" respectively.[20] These roots give Lakshmi the symbolism: know and understand your goal.[21] A related term is lakṣaṇa, which means "sign, target, aim, symbol, attribute, quality, lucky mark, auspicious opportunity."[22]

Symbolism and iconography

Bas relief of Gaja Lakshmi at Sanchi Stupa, 3rd century BCE.

The image, icons, and sculptures of Lakshmi are represented with symbolism. Her name is derived from Sanskrit root words for knowing the goal and understanding the objective.[21] Her four arms are symbolic of the four goals of humanity that are considered good in Hinduism - dharma (pursuit of ethical, moral life), artha (pursuit of wealth, means of life), kāma (pursuit of love, emotional fulfillment), and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge, liberation).[3][23]

In Lakshmi's iconography, she is either sitting or standing on a lotus and typically carrying a lotus in one or two hands. The lotus carries symbolic meanings in Hinduism and other Indian traditions. It symbolically represents reality, consciousness, and karma (work, deed) in the Sahasrara context, and knowledge and self-realization in other contexts.[24] The lotus, a flower that blossoms in clean or dirty water, also symbolizes purity and beauty regardless of the good or bad circumstances in which its grows. It is a reminder that good and prosperity can bloom and not be affected by evil in one's surrounding.[25][26] Below, behind, or on the sides, Lakshmi is sometimes shown with one or two elephants and occasionally with an owl. Elephants symbolize work, activity, and strength, as well as water, rain, and fertility for abundant prosperity.[27] The owl signifies the patient striving to observe, see, and discover knowledge particularly when surrounded by darkness. As a bird reputedly blinded by daylight, the owl also serves as a symbolic reminder to refrain from blindness and greed after knowledge and wealth has been acquired.[28]

Manuscript painting of Gaja-Lakṣmī, ca 1780 AD.

In some representations, wealth either symbolically pours out from one of her hands or she simply holds a jar of money. This symbolism has a dual meaning: wealth manifested through Lakshmi means both material as well as spiritual wealth.[24] Her face and open hands are in a mudra that signify compassion, giving, or daana (charity).[23]

Lakshmi typically wears a red dress embroidered with golden threads, symbolism for beauty and wealth. She, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, is often represented with her husband Vishnu, the god who maintains human life filled with justice and peace. This symbolism implies wealth and prosperity is coupled with maintenance of life, justice, and peace.[24]

Names

Lakshmi has numerous names, and numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite her various names.[7][29] She is very closely associated with the lotus, and her many epithets are connected to the flower, such as:

Additional names include:

Her other names include:[7] Ambika, Manushri, Mohini, Chakrika, Kamalika, Aishwarya, Lalima, Indira, Kalyani, Nandika, Nandini, Rujula, Vaishnavi, Samruddhi, Narayani, Bhargavi, Sridevi, Chanchala, Jalaja, Madhavi, Sujata, Shreya, Maheshwari, Madhu, Madhavi, Paramaa, Janamodini, Tripura, Tulasi, Ketaki, Malati, Vidhya, Trilochana, Tilottama, Subha, Chandika, Devi, Kriyalakshmi, Viroopa, Vani, Gayatri, Savitri, Apara or Aparajita, Aparna, Aruna, Akhila, Bala, Tara, Kuhu, Poornima, Aditi, Anumati, Avashyaa, Sita, Taruni, Jyotsna, Jyoti, Nimeshika, Atibha, Ishaani, Smriti and Sri.[29] She is also referred to as Jaganmaatha ("Mother of the Universe") in Shri Mahalakshmi Ashtakam.

Ancient literature on Lakshmi

Upanishads

Shakta Upanishads are dedicated to the trinity of goddesses - Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Parvati. Saubhagya Lakshmi Upanishad, estimated to be composed before 300 BC, describes the qualities, characteristics, and powers of Lakshmi.[30] In the second part of the Upanishad, the emphasis shifts to the use of yoga and transcendence from material craving in order to achieve spiritual knowledge and self-realization, the true wealth.[31][32] Saubhagya-Lakshmi Upanishad synonymously uses Sri to describe Lakshmi.[30]

Stotrams and Sutras

Numerous ancient Stotram and Sutras of Hinduism recite hymns dedicated to Lakshmi.[7] She is a major goddess in the Puranas and Itihasa of Hinduism. In ancient scriptures of India, all women are declared to be embodiments of Lakshmi. For example,[7]

Every woman is an embodiment of you.
You exist as little girls in their childhood,
As young women in their youth,
And as elderly women in their old age.

— Sri Kamala Stotram[7]

Every woman is an emanation of you.

— Sri Daivakrta Laksmi Stotram[7]

Ancient prayers dedicated to Lakshmi seek both material and spiritual wealth in prayers.[33]

Puranas

Lakshmi features prominently in the Puranas of Hinduism. Vishnu Purana, in particular, dedicates many sections to her and also refers to her as Śrī.[34] J. A. B. van Buitenen translates passages describing Lakshmi in Vishnu Purana as, "Śrī, loyal to Vishnu, is the mother of the world. Vishnu is the meaning, Śrī is the speech. She is the conduct, he the behavior. Vishnu is knowledge, she the insight. He is dharma, she the virtuous action. She is the earth, he earth's upholder. She is contentment, he the satisfaction. She is wish, he is the desire. Śrī is the sky, Vishnu the Self of everything. He is the moon, she the beauty of moon. He is the ocean, she is the shore".[34]

Subhasita, gnomic and didactic literature

Lakshmi, along with Parvati and Saraswati, is a subject of extensive Subhasita, gnomic and didactic literature of India.[35] Composed in the 1st millennium BC through the 16th century AD, they are short poems, proverbs, couplets, or aphorisms in Sanskrit written in a precise meter. They sometimes take the form of dialogue between Lakshmi and Vishnu or highlight the spiritual message in Vedas and ethical maxims from Hindu Epics through Lakshmi.[35] An example Subhashita is Puranarthasamgraha, compiled by Vekataraya in South India, where Lakshmi and Vishnu discuss niti (right, moral conduct) and rajaniti (statesmanship, right governance) - covering in 30 chapters and ethical and moral questions about personal, social, and political life.[36]

Manifestations and aspects

Lakshmi with Vishnu in Paramaribo Hindu temple, Suriname.

In eastern India, Lakshmi is seen as a form of one goddess Devi, the Supreme power; Devi is also called Durga or Shakti. Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Parvati are typically conceptualized as distinct in most of India, but in states such as West Bengal and Odisha, they are regionally believed to be forms of Durga.[37]

Lakshmi is seen in two forms, Bhudevi and Sridevi, both at the sides of Sri Venkateshwara or Vishnu. Bhudevi is the representation and totality of the material world or energy, called the aparam Prakriti, in which she is called Mother Earth. Sridevi is the spiritual world or energy called the Prakriti. Lakshmi is the power of Vishnu.[1]

Inside temples, Lakshmi is often shown together with Vishnu. In certain parts of India, Lakshmi plays a special role as the mediator between her husband Vishnu and his worldly devotees. When asking Vishnu for grace or forgiveness, the devotees often approach Him through the intermediary presence of Lakshmi.[38] She is also the personification of the spiritual fulfillment.[39] Lakshmi embodies the spiritual world, also known as Vaikunta, the abode of Lakshmi-Narayana or Vishnu, or what would be considered heaven in Vaishnavism. Lakshmi is the embodiment of God's superior spiritual feminine energy, Param Prakriti, which purifies, empowers, and uplifts the individual.

Secondary manifestations

Main article: Ashta Lakshmi

Ashta Lakshmi (Sanskrit: अष्टलक्ष्मी,Aṣṭalakṣmī, lit. "eight Lakshmis") is a group of eight secondary manifestations of Lakshmi. The Ashta Lakshmis preside over eight sources of wealth and thus represent the eight powers of Shri Lakshmi. Temples dedicated to Ashta Lakshmi are found in Tamil Nadu, such as the Ashtalakshmi Kovil near Chennai and in many other states of India.[40]

The eight Ashta Lakshmis are as follows:

Gaja Lakshmi at Shravanabelagola Temple, Karnataka.
Ashta Lakshmi
आदि लक्ष्मी (ఆదిలక్ష్మి; ಆದಿಲಕ್ಷ್ಮಿ) Ādi Lakṣmī The First manifestation of Lakshmi
धान्य लक्ष्मी (ధాన్యలక్ష్మి; ಧಾನ್ಯಲಕ್ಷ್ಮಿ) Dhānya Lakṣmī Granary wealth
धैर्य लक्ष्मी (ధైర్యలక్ష్మి; ಧೈರ್ಯಲಕ್ಷ್ಮಿ) Veera Lakṣmī Wealth of courage
गज लक्ष्मी (గజలక్ష్మి; ಗಜಲಕ್ಷ್ಮಿ) Gaja Lakṣmī Elephants spraying water, wealth of fertility, rains, and food.[41]
सन्तान लक्ष्मी (సంతానలక్ష్మి; ಸಂತಾನಲಕ್ಷ್ಮಿ) Santāna Lakṣmī Wealth of continuity, progeny
विजय लक्ष्मी (విజయలక్ష్మి; ವಿಜಯಲಕ್ಷ್ಮಿ) Vijaya Lakṣmī Wealth of victory
विद्या लक्ष्मी (విద్యాలక్ష్మి; ವಿದ್ಯಾಲಕ್ಷ್ಮಿ) Aishwarya Lakṣmī Wealth of knowledge and education
धन लक्ष्मी (ధనలక్ష్మి; ಧನಲಕ್ಷ್ಮಿ) Dhana Lakṣmī Monetary wealth
Ashta Lakshmi murti worshipped in a Golu display during Dusshera.

Other secondary representations of the goddess include Lakshmi manifesting in three forms: Sri Devi, Bhoo devi, and Neela devi. This threefold goddess can be found, for example, in Sri Bhu Neela Sahita Temple near Dwaraka Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh, and in the Adinath Swami Temple in Tamil Nadu.[42] Sri Devi represents movable assets (called Chanchala), and Bhoodevi represents immovable assets (Achanchala).

Mahalakshmi is also shown presiding over eight forms of wealth, the eight great siddhis (ashta siddhis) of spiritual knowledge or Jnana (Sanskrit: ज्ञान, jñāna).

In Nepal, Mahalakshmi is shown with 16 hands, each holding a sacred emblem, expressing a sacred gesture, or forming a mudra (lotus, pot, mudra of blessing, book, rosary, bell, shield, bow, arrow, sword, trident, mudra of admonition, noose, skull cap, and kettledrum.)[43] In this representation, Mahalakshmi manifests as a kind, compassionate, tranquil deity sitting not on a lotus, but on a lion.[43]

Jain temples

Some Jain temples also depict Sri Lakshmi as a goddess of artha (wealth) and kama (pleasure). For example, she is exhibited with Vishnu in Parshvanatha Jain Temple at the Khajuraho Monuments of Madhya Pradesh,[44] where she is shown pressed against Vishnu's chest, while Vishnu cups a breast in his palm. The presence of Vishnu-Lakshmi iconography in a Jain temple built near the Hindu temples of Khajuraho, suggests the sharing and acceptance of Lakshmi across a spectrum of Indian religions.[44] This commonality is reflected in the praise of Lakshmi found in the Jain text Kalpa Sūtra.[45]

Creation and legends

A manuscript depicting Samudra Manthan, with Lakshmi emerging with lotus in her hands.

Devas (gods) and asuras (demons) were both mortal at one time in Hinduism. Amrit, the divine nectar that grants immortality, could only be obtained by churning the Kshirsagar (Ocean of Milk). The devas and asuras both sought immortality and decided to churn the Kshirsagar with Mount Mandhara. The samudra manthan commenced with the devas on one side and the asuras on the other. Vishnu incarnated as Kurma, the tortoise, and a mountain was placed on the tortoise as a churning pole. Vasuki, the great venom-spewing serpent-god, was wrapped around the mountain and used to churn the ocean. A host of divine celestial objects came up during the churning. Along with them emerged the goddess Lakshmi. In some versions, she is said to be the daughter of the sea god since she emerged from the sea.

In the Garuda Purana, Linga Purana and Padma Purana she is said to have been born as the daughter of the divine sage Bhrigu and his wife Khyaati and was named "Bhargavi." According to the Vishnu Purana, the universe was created when the Devas (good) and Asuras (evil) churn the cosmic ocean of milk (Ksheera Sagara). Lakshmi came out of the ocean bearing lotus, along with the divine cow Kamadhenu, Varuni, the tree Parijat, the Apsaras, the Chandra (the moon), and Dhanvantari with Amrita (nectar of immortality). When she appeared, she had a choice to go to Devas or the Asuras. She chose Devas' side; and among thirty deities, she chose to be with Vishnu. Thereafter, in all three worlds, the lotus-bearing goddess was celebrated.[34]

Celebration in Hindu society

Many Hindus worship Lakshmi on Diwali, the festival of lights.[46] It is celebrated in autumn, typically October or November every year.[47] The festival spiritually signifies the victory of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, good over evil, and hope over despair.[48]

Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate and decorate their homes and offices.[49] On Diwali night, Hindus dress up in new clothes or their best outfits, light up diyas (lamps and candles) inside and outside their home, and participate in family puja (prayers) typically to Lakshmi. After puja, fireworks follow,[50] then a family feast including mithai (sweets), and an exchange of gifts between family members and close friends. Diwali also marks a major shopping period, since Lakshmi connotes auspiciousness, wealth, and prosperity.[51] This festival dedicated to Lakshmi is considered by Hindus to be one of the most important and joyous festivals of the year.

Gaja Lakshmi Puja is another autumn festival celebrated on Sharad Purnima in many parts of India on the full-moon day in the month of Ashvin (September–October).[13] The Sharad Purnima, also called Kojaagari Purnima or Kumar Purnima, is a harvest festival marking the end of monsoon season. There is a traditional celebration of the moon called the 'Kaumudi celebration', Kaumudi meaning moonlight.[52] On Sharad Purnima night, goddess Lakshmi is thanked and worshiped for the harvests.

Regional variations

Karnataka

In Karnataka, Varalakshmi Vratam during the Hindu month of Shraavana is the main festival featuring goddess Lakshmi. In addition Vaibhava Lakshmi vritha is performed over several weeks. This can be during any time of the year. The celebration includes puja on consecutive Friday evenings in which a married woman offers milk and items such as coconut and beetle nuts to other married women. There are several Maha Lakshmi temples in Karnataka. Shri Purandara Dasa's famous musical composition ‘Bhagyaada Lakshmi baaramma’ is very popular and sung in almost all religious functions including weddings.

Odisha

Lakshmi is the goddess thanked after autumn harvests in the month of Mrigashīrsha. Women celebrate the festival Manabasa Gurubara or Lakshmi Puja. On each Thursday of the month, the houses are cleaned and the floors are decorated with floral designs drawn with rice powder mixed with water, called jhoti. Footprints are painted from the doorstep to the place of worship, symbolizing that Lakshmi has entered the house. The roofs are decorated with flower garlands and festoons woven out of paddy stalks. After a purification bath in the morning, the women of the region symbolically offer prayers to paddy considered a bounty from Lakshmi. Different rice cakes and Khiri (rice soup prepared with milk and sugar) are prepared in households, offered to the deity, and then eaten by all.

People in Odisha also worship Gaja Lakshmi on Sharad Purnima, also known as Kumar Purnima. Children wear new clothes, and families celebrate the day with feasts. They play a kind of game known as puchi and other country games.

Tamil Nadu

In Tamil Nadu, Most important festival absorbed for Sri Lakshmi is Varalakshmi vritha which is performed during the month of Tamil month Aadi (Mid-July to Mid- August), Where a married women fast on the vritha day and perform a vedic ritual during the evening followed by offerings. Other major festival is during Navratri during which 4th,5th and 6th days are declared for Sri Lakshmi and special pooja is performed, vedic hymns and Tamil devotional songs are sung in both in temples and residence. Tamil Nadu also holds many large Temples dedicated to Sri Lakshmi. Few notable temples are Besant nagar Asta lakshmi temple, Vellore sripuram (A Golden temple), Sriranganayagi temple in Srirangam.

West Bengal
Kojagiri Lakshmi puja

In Bengal, Lakshmi is worshiped on Kojagiri Purnima in autumn when the moon is full on the brightest night of the year. Riding on her mount, the great white owl, she is believed to bless wealth and resources for content lives on this night. The owl symbolically represents penetrating sight in the darkness of night.

During the celebrations, lotus flowers, sandalwood, vermilion, betel leaves, nuts, fruits, and various sweet preparations made from jaggery, rice, and coconut are used for her ritual worship.

Apart from the autumnal celebration, Lakshmi, along with Alakshmi (her shadow energy), is also worshiped during Diwali in some Bengali communities. The goddess Kali of Kalighat in Kolkata is worshiped in Mahalakshmi form during Diwali. Some people observe Lakshmi Vrata/Puja (fasting and prayer). Women sing a string of poems called 'Panchali,' narrating the glories of goddess Lakshmi.


Hymns

Countless hymns, prayers, shlokas, stotra, songs, and legends dedicated to Mahalakshmi are recited during the ritual worship of Lakshmi.[7]

These include Sri Mahalakshmi Ashtakam, Sri Lakshmi Sahasaranama Stotra (by Sanathkumara), Sri Stuti (by Sri Vedantha Desikar), Sri Lakshmi Stuti (by Indra), Sri Kanakadhara Stotra (by Sri Aadhi Shankaracharya), Sri Chatussloki (by Sri Yamunacharya), Sri Lakshmi Sloka (by Bhagavan Sri Hari Swamiji) and Sri Sukta, which is contained in the Vedas. Sri Sukta contains the Lakshmi Gayatri Mantra (Om Shree Mahaalakshmyai ca vidmahe Vishnu patnyai ca dheemahi tanno Lakshmi prachodayat Om).[53]

Culture

One of Lakshmi's names, Sri (also spelled Shri, pronounced as shree), is commonly used as an honorific prefix or suffix in cultural discourse and human relationships. Affixed to the names of distinguished persons, the honorifics "Shri" (also "Sri," "Shree") and "Shrimati" (also "Srimati," "Shreemati") imply beauty, wealth, prosperity, and auspiciousness.

Archaeology

A representation of the goddess as Gaja Lakshmi, or Lakshmi flanked by two elephants spraying her with water, is one of the most frequently found in archaeological sites. An ancient sculpture of Gaja Lakshmi (from the Sonkh site at Mathura) dates to the pre-Kushan Empire era.[9] The Atranjikhera site in modern Uttar Pradesh has yielded terracotta plaque with images of Lakshmi dating to the 2nd century BC. Other archaeological sites with ancient Lakshmi terracotta figurines from the 1st millennium BC include Vaisali, Sravasti, Kausambi, Campa, and Candraketugadh.[10]

The goddess Lakshmi is frequently found in ancient coins of various Hindu kingdoms from Afghanistan to India. Gaja Lakshmi has been found on coins of Scytho-Parthian kings Azes II and Azilises; she also appears on Shunga Empire king Jyesthamitra era coins, both dating to the 1st millennium BC. Coins from the 1st through 4th century AD found in various locations in India such as Ayodhaya, Mathura, Ujjain, Sanchi, Bodh Gaya, Kanauj, all feature Lakshmi.[54] Similarly, ancient Greco-Indian gems and seals with images of Lakshmi have been found, estimated to be from the 1st millennium BC.[55]

A 1400-year-old rare granite sculpture of Lakshmi has been recovered at the Waghama village along the Jehlum in the Anantnag district of Jammu and Kashmir.[56]

A statuette of Lakshmi found in Pompeii, Italy, dates to before the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD.[57]

Related goddesses

Japan

Goddess Kishijoten of Japan corresponds to Lakshmi. Kishijoten is the goddess of beauty, fortune, and prosperity.[58] Kishijoten is considered the sister of the deity Bishamon (毘沙門, also known as Tamon or Bishamon-ten); Bishamon protects human life, fights evil, and brings good fortune. In ancient and medieval Japan, Kishijoten was the goddess worshiped for luck and prosperity, particularly on behalf of children. Kishijoten was also the guardian goddess of Geishas. While Bishamon and Kishijoten are found in ancient Chinese and Japanese Buddhist literature, their roots have been traced to deities in Hinduism.[58]

Tibet and Nepal

Goddess Vasudhara in Tibetan and Nepalese culture is closely analogous to goddess Lakshmi as well.[4]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Das, Subhamoy. "Lakshmi: Goddess of Wealth & Beauty!". Hinduism.about.com. Retrieved 2012-11-09.
  2. ↑ Constantina Rhodes (2011), Invoking Lakshmi: The Goddess of Wealth in Song and Ceremony, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438433202, pages 29-47, 220-252
  3. 1 2 Divali - THE SYMBOLISM OF LAKSHMI National Library and Information System Authority, Trinidad and Tobago (2009)
  4. 1 2 Miranda Shaw (2006), Buddhist Goddesses of India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691127583, Chapter 13 with pages 258-262
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 lakṣmī, Monier-Williams' Sanskrit–English Dictionary, University of Washington Archives
  6. ↑ Essential Hinduism; by Steven Rosen (2006); p. 136
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Constantina Rhodes (2011), Invoking Lakshmi: The Goddess of Wealth in Song and Ceremony, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438433202
  8. ↑ Patricia Monaghan, Goddesses in World Culture, Volume 1, Praeger, ISBN 978-0313354656, page 5-11
  9. 1 2 Upinder Singh (2009), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, ISBN 978-8131711200, Pearson Education, pages 438
  10. 1 2 Asha Vishnu (1993), Material life of northern India: Based on an archaeological study, 3rd century B.C. to 1st century B.C, ISBN 978-8170994107, pages 194-195
  11. ↑ Vitorio Roveda (June, 2004), The Archaeology of Khmer Images, Aséanie, Volume 13, Issue 13, pages 11-46
  12. ↑ O goddess where art thou? S. James, Cornell University (2011)
  13. 1 2 Constance Jones (2011), in Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations (Editor: J Gordon Melton), ISBN 978-1598842050, pages 253-254 and 798
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 John Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India - Their Religions and Institutions at Google Books, Volume 5, pp. 348-362 with footnotes
  15. ↑ "अप क्रामति सूनृता वीर्यं पुन्या लक्ष्मीः"; अथर्ववेद: काण्डं 12 Atharva Veda Sanskrit Original Archive
  16. ↑ Naama Drury (2010), The Sacrificial Ritual In The Satapatha Brahmana, ISBN 978-8120826656, pages 61-102
  17. ↑ Monier Williams Religious Thought and Life in India, Part 1, 2nd Edition, pages 103-112
  18. ↑ Ramayana, i.45.40-43
  19. ↑ Monier Williams Religious Thought and Life in India, Part 1, 2nd Edition, pages 108-111
  20. ↑ lakṣ, लक्ष् Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, University of Koeln, Germany
  21. 1 2 Carol Plum-Ucci, Celebrate Diwali, ISBN 978-0766027787, pages 79-86
  22. ↑ lakṣaṇa Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, University of Koeln, Germany
  23. 1 2 A Parasarthy (1983), Symbolism in Hinduism, Chinmaya Mission Publication, ISBN 978-8175971493, pages 57-59
  24. 1 2 3 A Parasarthy (1983), Symbolism in Hinduism, Chinmaya Mission Publication, ISBN 978-8175971493, pages 91-92, 160-162
  25. ↑ R.S. Nathan (1983), Symbolism in Hinduism, Chinmaya Mission Publication, ISBN 978-8175971493, page 16
  26. ↑ Lynne Gibson (2002), Hinduism, Heinemann, ISBN 978-0435336196, page 29
  27. ↑ Hope Werness (2007), Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in World Art, Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-0826419132, pages 159-167
  28. ↑ Ajnatanama (1983), Symbolism in Hinduism, Chinmaya Mission Publication, ISBN 978-8175971493, page 317-318
  29. 1 2 Vijaya Kumara, 108 Names Of Lakshmi, Sterling Publishers, ISBN 9788120720282
  30. 1 2 A Mahadeva (1950), Saubhagya-Lakshmi Upanishad in The Shakta Upanishads with the Commentary of Sri Upanishad Brahma Yogin, Adyar Library Series No. 10, Madras
  31. ↑ Saubhagya Lakshmi Upanishad Original text of the Upanishad in Sanskrit
  32. ↑ A. G. Krishna Warrier (1931, Translator), Saubhagya Lakshmi Upanishad, The Theosophical Publishing House, Chennai, ISBN 978-0835673181
  33. ↑ Constantina Rhodes (2011), Invoking Lakshmi: The Goddess of Wealth in Song and Ceremony, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438433202,
    Quote: Through illusion,
    A person can become disconnected,
    From his higher self,
    Wandering about from place to place,
    Bereft of clear thought,
    Lost in destructive behavior.
    It matters not how much truth,
    May shine forth in the world,
    Illuminating the entire creation,
    For one cannot acquire wisdom,
    Unless it is experienced,
    Through the opening on the heart.[...]
  34. 1 2 3 J. A. B. van Buitenen (Translator), Cornelia Dimmitt (Editor), Classical Hinduism: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press, ISBN 978-0877221227, pages 95-99
  35. 1 2 Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhasita, Gnomic and Didactic Literature, A History of Indian literature, Volume 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447015462
  36. ↑ Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhasita, Gnomic and Didactic Literature, A History of Indian literature, Volume 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447015462, page 22
  37. ↑ Christopher John Fuller (2004), The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691120485, page 41
  38. ↑ Pages 31 and 32 in Kinsley, David. Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-520-06339-6
  39. ↑ Srimad Devi Bhagwata Purana
  40. ↑ Vidya Dehejia and Thomas Coburn, Devi: the great goddess : female divinity in South Asian art, Smithsonian, ISBN 978-3791321295
  41. ↑ Anna Dallapiccola (2007), Indian art in detail, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674026919, pages 11-27
  42. ↑ Stephen Knapp, Spiritual India Handbook, ISBN 978-8184950243, page 392
  43. 1 2 Pratapaditya Pal (1985), Art of Nepal: A Catalogue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art Collection, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520054073, page 120
  44. 1 2 Vidya Dehejia (2009), The Body Adorned: Sacred and Profane in Indian Art, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231140287, page 151
  45. ↑ Hermann Jacobi (Editor: Max Muller, Republished with edits by Mahendra Kulasrestha), The Golden Book of Jainism, ISBN 978-8183820141, page 213
  46. ↑ Vera, Zak (February 2010). Invisible River: Sir Richard's Last Mission. ISBN 978-1-4389-0020-9. Retrieved 26 October 2011. First Diwali day called Dhanteras or wealth worship. We perform Laskshmi-Puja in evening when clay diyas lighted to drive away shadows of evil spirits.
  47. ↑ Diwali Encyclopædia Britannica (2009)
  48. ↑ Jean Mead, How and why Do Hindus Celebrate Divali?, ISBN 978-0-237-534-127
  49. ↑ Pramodkumar (March 2008). Meri Khoj Ek Bharat Ki. ISBN 978-1-4357-1240-9. Retrieved 26 October 2011. It is extremely important to keep the house spotlessly clean and pure on Diwali. Lamps are lit in the evening to welcome the goddess. They are believed to light up her path.
  50. ↑ Solski, Ruth (2008). Big Book of Canadian Celebrations. S&S Learning Materials. ISBN 978-1-55035-849-0. Retrieved 26 October 2011. Fireworks and firecrackers are set off to chase away evil spirits, so it is a noisy holiday too.
  51. ↑ India Journal: ‘Tis the Season to be Shopping Devita Saraf, The Wall Street Journal (August 2010)
  52. ↑ "Sharad Poornima".
  53. ↑ Lakshmi Stotra Sanskrit documents
  54. ↑ Upinder Singh (2009), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, ISBN 978-8131711200, Pearson Education, pages 438, 480 for image
  55. ↑ Duffield Osborne (1914), A Graeco-Indian Engraved Gem, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 18, No. 1, pages 32-34
  56. ↑ "The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Jammu & Kashmir". Tribuneindia.com. Retrieved 2012-11-09.
  57. ↑ http://www.pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/R1/1%2008%2005.htm
  58. 1 2 Charles Russell Coulter and Patricia Turner (2013), Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities, Taylor and Francis, ISBN 9781135963903, page 102

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