Kabardian grammar
Kabardian is a Northwest Caucasian language with an ergative verb-final clause structure.
Noun
Noun cases
In addition to distinguishing between singular and plural nouns by marking the latter with the suffix '-хэ' /-xa/
- щӏалэ [ɕʼaːɮa] ('boy') becomes щӏалэхэ [ɕʼaːɮaxa] ('boys').
- шы [ʃə] ('horse') becomes шыхэ [ʃəxa] ('horses').
Kabardian also declines nouns into four different cases, each with corresponding suffixes: absolutive, ergative, instrumental, and invertive.
| Case | Suffix | example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cyrillic | IPA | ||
| Absolutive | р | /r/ | щӏалэр [ɕʼaːlar] ('the boy') |
| Ergative | м | /m/ | щӏалэм [ɕʼaːlam] ('the boy's') |
| Instrumental | (м)кӏэ | /(m)t͡ʃʼa/ | щӏалэмкӏэ [ɕʼaːɮamt͡ʃʼa] ('using the boy') |
| Invertive | ыу | /əw/ | щӏалу [ɕʼaɮəw] ('boy') |
Absolutive case
Has the suffix - р /r/ (e.g. щӏалэр [ɕʼaːɮar] 'the boy', щӏалэхэр [ɕʼaːɮaxar] ('the boys'), шыр [ʃər] 'the horse'). This case has two main functions:
- Marking the subject of intransitive verbs
щIалэр йоджэ щӏалэ-р йо-джэ [ɕʼaːɮar jawd͡ʒa] the boy (abs.) (s)he is reading "the boy is reading"
- Marking the direct object of transitive verbs
сэ тхылъыр къэсщтащ сэ тхылъы-р къэ-с-щта-щ [sa txəɬər qasɕtaːɕ] I the book (abs.) I picked it up "I picked the book up"
Ergative case
Has the suffix -м /-m/ (e.g. щӏалэм [ɕʼaːɮam] 'the boy's', щӏалэхэмэ [ɕʼaːɮaxama] 'the
boys'', шым [ʃəm] 'the horse's). When it's plural it has the suffix -мэ (-ma). This case has several functions:
- Marking the subject of transitive verbs
сэ егъэджакӏуэм упщӏэ естащ сэ егъэджакӏуэ-м упщӏэ естащ [sa jaʁad͡ʒaːkʷʼam wəpɕʼa jastaːɕ] I the teacher (eng.) a question I gave to "I gave the teacher a question"
- Marking the direct object of intransitive verbs
щӏалэр тхылъым йоджэ щӏалэ-р тхылъ-ым йоджэ [ɕʼaːɮar txəɬəm jawd͡ʒa] the boy (abs.) the book (erg.) (s)he reads "the boy reads the book"
- Marking circumstance of action, e.g. feature of place, time of action
- жылэ /ʒəɮa/ village → жылэм /ʒəɮam/ in the village
- жэщ /ʒaɕə/ night → жэщым /ʒaɕəm/ in the night.
- зэман /zamaːn/ distant past → зэманым /zamaːnəm/ in the distant past.
сэ къалэм сыщыӏащ сэ къалэ-м сыщыӏащ [sa qaːɮam səɕəʔaːɕ] I the city (erg.) I was there "I was in the village"
Instrumental-Directional Case
Has the suffix -мкӏэ /mt͡ʃʼa/ or -кӏэ /t͡ʃʼa/ (e.g. кӏэлэмкӏэ [t͡ʃʼaːɮamt͡ʃʼa] 'using the boy', щӏэлэкӏэ [ɕʼaːɮat͡ʃʼa] 'using a boy', кӏалэхэмкӏэ [t͡ʃaːɮaxamt͡ʃʼa] 'using the boys', щӏалэхэкӏэ [ɕʼaːɮaxat͡ʃʼa] 'using boys', псыкӏэ [psət͡ʃʼa] 'using water', псымкӏэ [psəmt͡ʃʼa] 'using the water').
- Marking the instrument or tool of action:
- къэлэм /qalam/ pencil → къэлэмкӏэ /qalamt͡ʃʼa/ using a pencil.
- къэлэм /qalam/ pencil → къэлэмымкӏэ /qalaməmt͡ʃʼa/ using the pencil.
- уадэ /waːda/ hammer → уадэкӏэ /waːdat͡ʃʼa/ using a hammer.
- уадэ /waːda/ hammer → уадэмкӏэ /waːdamt͡ʃʼa/ using the hammer.
сэ къэрэндащкӏэ сотхэ сэ къэрэндащ-кӏэ сотхэ [sa qarandaːɕt͡ʃʼa sawtxa] I pencil (ins.) I write "I write using a pencil" щӏалэр адыгэбзэкӏэ мэпсалъэ щӏалэ-р адыгэбзэ-кӏэ мэпсалъэ [ɕʼaːɮar aːdəɣabzat͡ʃʼa mapsaːɬa] boy (arg.) using Circassian language (ins.) (s)he is speaking "The boy is speaking (using) Circassian language."
- Marking the direction of action:
- гъуэгу /ʁʷaɡʷ/ road → гъуэгумкӏэ /ʁʷaɡʷəmt͡ʃʼa/ from the road (direction).
- унэ /wəna/ house → унэмкӏэ /wənamt͡ʃʼa/ from the house.
- хы /xə/ sea → хымкӏэ /xəmt͡ʃʼa/ from the sea (direction).
дэ къуажэмкӏэ докӏуэ дэ къуажэ-мкӏэ докӏуэ [da qʷaːʒamt͡ʃʼa dawkʷʼa] we village (ins.) we go "we are going in the direction of the village" Том, нобэди еджапӏэмкӏэ ныщӏыхьэ Том, нобэди еджапӏэ-мкӏэ ныщӏыхьэ [tom nawbadi jad͡ʒaːpʼamt͡ʃʼa nəɕʼəħa] Tom (name) today school (ins.) stop by "Tom, come to our school today"
Invertive
Has the suffix -уэ /wa/, or -у /əw/ (e.g. щӏалу [ɕʼaːɮəw] 'boy'). This case has a number of functions:
- Marking the reception of another quality by the subject:
фошыгъуу зы килограмм къэсщэхуащ фошыгъу-у зы килограмм къэсщэхуащ [fawʃəʁʷəw zə kilogrami qasɕaxʷaːɕ] suger (inv.) one kilogram I bought "I bought one kilogram of sugar"
Lack of subject and object
Colloquially, the subject or object may both be dropped if clear from context.
- Both subject and object are mentioned :
щӏалэм пщащэр елъэгъу щӏалэ-м пщащэ-р елъэгъу [ɕʼaːɮam pɕaːɕar jaɬaʁʷə] the boy (erg.) the girl (abs.) (s)he is seeing "the boy is seeing the girl"
- If the direct object is not mentioned :
щӏалэм елъэгъу щӏалэ-м елъэгъу [ɕʼaːɮam jaɬaʁʷə] the boy (erg.) (s)he is seeing "the boy is seeing him/her/it"
- If the subject is not mentioned :
пщащэр елъэгъу пщащэ-р елъэгъу [pɕaːɕar jaɬaʁʷə] the girl (abs.) (s)he is seeing "(s)he is seeing the girl"
- If both subject and object are not mentioned :
елъэгъу елъэгъу [jaɬaʁʷə] (s)he is seeing "(s)he is seeing him/her/it"
Noun and adjective
In Adyghe, if a noun is accompanied by an adjective, the adjective always placed right after the noun
and also gets the suffixes that indicate the noun case.
- Absolutive case
пщэщэ дахэр макӏуэ [pɕaɕa daːxar maːkʷʼa] girl the pretty (abs.) (s)he is going "the pretty girl is going"
- Ergative case
щӏалэ кӏыхьэм ешхы мыӏэрысэ [ɕʼaːɮa t͡ʃʼəħam jaʃxə məʔarəsa] boy the long (erg.) he is eating a/the the apple (abs.) "the long boy is eating the apple"
- Instrumental case
къэрэндащ папцӏэмкӏэ сотхэ [qarandaːɕ papt͡sʼamt͡ʃʼa sawtxa] pencil sharp (ins.) I am writing "I am writing with (using) the sharp pencil"
In case the whole sentence consists of only a noun and an adjective, the adjective can also be placed before the noun. In this case the adjective does not get the suffix either when placed after the noun or before it.
дахэ пщащэр [daːxa pʂaːʂa] pretty the girl (abs.) "The girl is pretty"
Creating nouns from verbs
In Kabardian someone (person) or something (animal, plant, object) that does a specific verb (or something happened to him/it) can be represented with the verb word with the additional suffix -э (a) (for present tense -рэ (-ra)). For example:
- макӏуэ /maːkʷ'a/ - he is going → макӏуэрэ /maːkʷ'ara/ - the person that's going
- машхэх /maːʃxax/ - they are eating → машхэхэрэ /maːʃxaxara/ - the people that are eating.
- мэлэжьащ /malaʑaːɕ/ - he worked → мэлэжьащэ /malaʑaːɕa/ - the person that worked.
макӏуэрэр сикъуэш макӏуэ-рэр си-къуэш [maːkʷʼarar səjʃ] the person that is going (abs.) my brother "the person that is going is my brother"
Creating nouns from adjective
In Kabardian someone (person) or something (animal, plant, object) that have a specific adjective can be presented with the adjective word with the additional noun case suffix (absolutive, ergative, etc.) For example:
- дахэ /daːxa/ - pretty → дахэр /daːxar/ - the pretty person (absolutive case).
- ӏэфӏ /ʔafʼə/ - tasty → ӏэфӏэр /ʔafʼar / - the tasty ones (absolutive case).
- щӏыӏэ /ɕʼəʔa/ - cold → щӏыӏэм /ɕʼəʔam/ - in the cold (ergative case).
щӏалэр хуабэм хэт щӏалэ-р хуабэ-м хэт [ɕʼaːɮar xʷaːbam xat] the boy (abs.) the heat (erg.) (s)he is standing in "The boy is standing in the heat"
Pronouns
Personal and personal-demonstrative pronouns
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First-person | Second-person | Third-person | First-person | Second-person | Third-person | |||||||
| Cyrillic | IPA | Cyrillic | IPA | Cyrillic | IPA | Cyrillic | IPA | Cyrillic | IPA | Cyrillic | IPA | |
| Absolutive | сэ | sa | уэ | wa | ар | aːr | дэ | da | фэ | fa | ахэр | aːxar |
| Ergative | сэ | sa | уэ | wa | абы | aːbə | дэ | da | фэ | fa | абыхэм | aːbəxam |
| Instrumental | сэркӏэ | sart͡ʃʼa | уэркӏэ | wart͡ʃʼa | абыкӏэ | aːbət͡ʃʼa | дэркӏэ | dart͡ʃʼa | фэркӏэ | fart͡ʃʼa | абыхэмкӏэ | aːbəxamt͡ʃʼa |
| Invertive | сэру | sarəw | уэру | warəw | ару | aːrəw | дэру | darəw | фэру | farəw | ахэру | aːxarəw |
сэ тхылъым седжащ сэ тхылъы-м се-дж-ащ [sa txəɬəm sajd͡ʒaːɕ] I the book (erg.) (s)he read "I read the book" дэркӏэ мы шхыныр лъапӏэ дэр-кӏэ мы шхыны-р лъапӏэ [dart͡ʃʼa mə ʃxənər ɬaːpʼa] For us (ins.) this the food (abs.) expensive "This food is expensive for us"
Demonstrative Pronouns
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cyrillic | IPA | Cyrillic | IPA | |
| Absolutive | мы, мор | mə, mawr | мыхэр, мохэр | məxar, mawxar |
| Ergative | мыбы, мобы | məbə, mawbə | мыбыхэм, мобыхэм | məbəxam, mawbəxam |
| Instrumental | мыбыкIэ, мобыкIэ | məbət͡ʃʼa, mawbət͡ʃʼa | мыбыхэмкIэ, мобыхэмкIэ | məbəxamt͡ʃʼa, mawbəxamt͡ʃʼa |
| Invertive | мыру, мору | mərəw, mawrəw | мыхэру, мохэру | məxarəw, mawxarəw |
мыбы хьэлэгъу ешхы мыбы хьэлэгъу е-шхы [məbə ħaɮaʁʷ haʃxə] This (erg.) a bread (s)he eats "This person/animal eats bread" мыбыкӏэ щӏалэр къакӏуэ мыбы0кӏэ щӏалэ0р къа-кӏуэ [məbət͡ʼa ɕʼaːɮar qaːkʷʼa] This way (ins.) the boy (abs.) (s)he is coming "The boy is coming from this way"
Possessive Pronouns
| Plurality | Person | Prefix | meaning | example | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cyrillic | IPA | ||||
| Singular | 1st person | си- | /səj-/ | "my" | сиунэ /səjwəna/ - my house; ситхылъ /səjtxəɬ/ - my book |
| 2nd person | уи- | /wəj-/ | "your" | уиунэ /wəjwəna/ - your house; уитхылъ /wəjtxəɬ/ - your book | |
| 3rd person | и- | /jə-/ | "his" | иунэ /jəwəna/ - his house; итхылъ /jətxəɬ/ - his book | |
| Plural | 1st person | ди- | /dəj-/ | "our" | диунэ /dəjwəna/ - our house; дитхылъ /dəjtxəɬ/ - our book |
| 2nd person | фи- | /fəj-/ | "your" | фиунэ /fəjwəna/ - your house; фитхылъ /fəjtxəɬ/ - your book | |
| 3rd person | я- | /jaː-/ | "their" | яунэ /jaːwəna/ - their house; ятхылъ /jaːtxəɬ/ - their book | |
си унэ фыкъакӏуэ си унэ фы-къа-кӏуэ [səj wəna fəqaːkʷʼa] my house come (plural) "Come to my house" ди машинэкӏэ къалэм докӏуэ ди машинэ-кӏэ къалэм до-кӏуэ [dəj maːʃinat͡ʃʼa qaːɮam dawkʷʼa] Our using the car (ins.) the city (erg.) we are going "we are going to the city with our car"
Verbs
The verbal system of Kabardian is very complex. The verb usually goes at the end of the sentence.
Conjugation
Here is the positional conjugation of some verbs, showing how the root changes indicate position:
| stands | sits | lies | |
| Body position/Pose | щыт (ɕət) | щыс (ɕəs) | щылъ (ɕəɬ) |
| On | тет (tajt) | тес (tajs) | телъ (tajɬ) |
| Under | щIэт (ɕ’at) | щIэс (ɕ’as) | щIэлъ (ɕ’aɬ) |
| Among | хэт (xat) | хэс (xas) | хэлъ (xaɬ) |
| Within some area | дэт (dat) | дэс (das) | дэлъ (daɬ) |
| Behind | Iут (ʔʷət) | Iyc (ʔʷəs) | Iулъ (ʔʷəɬ) |
| Inside | ит (jət) | иc (jəs) | илъ (jəɬ) |
| Hanging on | пыт (pət) | пыc (pəs) | пылъ (pəɬ) |
| On body | гуэт (ɡʷat) | гуэc (ɡʷas) | гуэлъ (ɡʷaɬ) |
| Corner | къуэт (qʷat) | къуэc (qʷas) | къуэлъ (qʷaɬ) |
| Side | бгъуэдэт (bʁʷadat) | бгъуэдэc (bʁʷadas) | бгъуэдэлъ (bʁʷadaɬ) |
Examples:
щыт - [someone or something] stands (as a pose);
Iут - [someone or something] stands (behind);
щIэт - [someone or something] stands (under)
тет - [someone or something] stands (above)
дэт - [someone or something] stands (between), etc.
Tense
Present
Intransitive verbs :
| Plurality | Person | Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | солажьэ | sawɮaːʑa | I work, I am working |
| Second-person | уолажьэ | wawɮaːʑa | You work, You are working | |
| Third-person | мэлажьэ | maɮaːʑa | He work, He is working | |
| Plural | First-person | долажьэ | dawɮaːʑa | We work, We are working |
| Second-person | фолажьэ | fawɮaːʑa | You (pl.) work, You are working | |
| Third-person | мэлажьэх | maɮaːʑax | They work, They are working | |
Transitive verbs :
| Plurality | Person | Positive | Negative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning | Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning | ||
| Singular | First-person | соджэ | sawd͡ʒa | I read, I am reading | седжэркъым | sajd͡ʒarqəm | I don’t read, I am not reading |
| Second-person | уоджэ | wawd͡ʒa | You read, You are reading | уеджэркъым | wajd͡ʒarqəm | You don’t read, You are not reading | |
| Third-person | йоджэ | jawd͡ʒa | He read, He is reading | еджэркъым | jad͡ʒarqəm | He doesn't read, He is not reading | |
| Plural | First-person | доджэ | dawd͡ʒa | We read, We are reading | деджэркъым | dajd͡ʒarqəm | We don’t read, We are not reading |
| Second-person | фоджэ | fawd͡ʒa | You (pl.) read, You are reading | феджэркъым | fajd͡ʒarqəm | You don’t read, You are not reading | |
| Third-person | йоджэх | jawd͡ʒax | They study, They are studying | еджэхэркъым | jad͡ʒaxarqəm | They don’t read, They are not reading | |
Transitive verb examples :
- Сэ адыгэбзэ грамматикэр содж (I study Circassian grammar)
- Уэ адыгэбзэ грамматикэр уодж (You study Circassian grammar)
- Абы адыгэбзэ грамматикэр едж (He/she studies Circassian grammar)
- Дэ адыгэбзэ грамматикэр додж (We study Circassian grammar)
- Фэ адыгэбзэ грамматикэр фодж (You (pl.) study Circassian grammar)
- Абыхэм адыгэбзэ грамматикэр ядж or Адыгэбзэ грамматикэр яджхэр (They study Circassian grammar)
Intransitive poly-personal verb examples :
- Сэ тхылъым соджэ (I read the book, I am reading the book)
- Уэ тхылъым уоджэ (You read the book, you are reading the book)
- Абы тхылъым йоджэ (He/she reads the book, he/she is reading the book)
- Дэ тхылъым доджэ (We read the book, we are reading the book)
- Фэ тхылъым фоджэ (You (pl.) read the book, you are reading the book)
- Абыхэм тхылъым йоджэ or Тхылъым йоджэхэр (They read the book, they are reading the book)
Future
Indicating certainty :
| Plurality | Person | Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | сылэжьэнущ | səɮaʑanawɕ | I will [definitely] work |
| Second-person | улэжьэнущ | wəɮaʑanawɕ | You will [definitely] work | |
| Third-person | лэжьэнущ | ɮaʑanawɕ | He will [definitely] work | |
| Plural | First-person | дылэжьэнущ | dəɮaʑanawɕ | We will [definitely] work |
| Second-person | фылэжьэнущ | fəɮaʑanawɕ | You will [definitely] work | |
| Third-person | лэжьэнущ | ɮaʑanawɕ | They will [definitely] work | |
Indicating some uncertainty :
| Plurality | Person | Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | сылэжьэнщ | səɮaʑanawɕ | I will/may work |
| Second-person | улэжьэнщ | wəɮaʑanawɕ | You will/may work | |
| Third-person | лэжьэнщ | ɮaʑanawɕ | He will/may work | |
| Plural | First-person | дылэжьэнщ | dəɮaʑanawɕ | We will/may work |
| Second-person | фылэжьэнщ | fəɮaʑanawɕ | You will/may work | |
| Third-person | лэжьэнщхэщ | ɮaʑanɕxaɕ | They will/may work | |
Negative :
| Plurality | Person | Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | сылэжьэнкъым | səɮaʑanqəm | I won’t work |
| Second-person | улэжьэнкъым | wəɮaʑanqəm | You won’t work | |
| Third-person | лэжьэнкъым | ɮaʑanqəm | He won’t work | |
| Plural | First-person | длэжьэнкъым | dəɮaʑanqəm | We won’t work |
| Second-person | флэжьэнкъым | fəɮaʑanqəm | You (pl.) won’t work | |
| Third-person | лэжьэнхэкъым | ɮaʑanxaqəm | They won’t work | |
Past
Type 1 :
The past tense of verbs of type 1 are formed by adding -aщ /-aːɕ/, the stative form of the affirmative verbal suffix, to the end of the stem. Intransitive verbs indicate that the action took place, but with no indication as to the duration, instant nor completeness of the action.
| Plurality | Person | Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | седжащ | sajd͡ʒaːɕ | I [have] read |
| Second-person | уеджащ | wajd͡ʒaːɕ | You [have] read | |
| Third-person | еджащ | jad͡ʒaːɕ | He [has] read | |
| Plural | First-person | деджащ | dajd͡ʒaːɕ | We [have] read |
| Second-person | феджащ | fajd͡ʒaːɕ | You [have] read | |
| Third-person | еджащ | jad͡ʒaːɕ | They [have] read | |
Transitive verbs convey more specific information as regards to completeness of the action, and therefore they indicate some certainty as to the outcome of the action.
| Plurality | Person | Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | зджащ | zd͡ʒaːɕ | I [have] read |
| Second-person | уджащ | wd͡ʒaːɕ | You [have] read | |
| Third-person | иджащ | jəd͡ʒaːɕ | He [has] read | |
| Plural | First-person | дджащ | dd͡ʒaːɕ | We [have] read |
| Second-person | вджащ | vd͡ʒaːɕ | You [have] read | |
| Third-person | яджащ | jaːd͡ʒaːɕ | They [have] read | |
Negative :
| Plurality | Person | Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | First-person | седжакъым | sajd͡ʒaːqəm | I didn’t read |
| Second-person | уеджакъым | wajd͡ʒaːqəm | You didn’t read | |
| Third-person | еджакъым | jad͡ʒaːqəm | He didn’t read | |
| Plural | First-person | деджакъым | dajd͡ʒaːqəm | We didn’t read |
| Second-person | феджакъым | fajd͡ʒaːqəm | You (pl.) didn’t read | |
| Third-person | еджахэкъым | jad͡ʒaːxaqəm | They didn’t read | |
Type 2 :
This is the past perfect tense. It is formed as in type 1 but with the addition of the infix -гъ.
| Plurality | Person | Positive | Negative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning | Cyrillic | IPA | Meaning | ||
| Singular | First-person | сытхагъащ | sətxaːʁaːɕ | I wrote | сытхагъакъым | sətxaːʁaːqəm | I didn’t write |
| Second-person | утхагъащ | wətxaːʁaːɕ | You wrote | утхагъакъым | wətxaːʁaːqəm | You didn’t write | |
| Third-person | тхагъащ | txaːʁaːɕ | He wrote | тхагъакъым | txaːʁaːqəm | He didn’t write | |
| Plural | First-person | дытхагъащ | dətxaːʁaːɕ | We wrote | дытхагъакъым | dətxaːʁaːqəm | We didn’t write |
| Second-person | фытхагъащ | fətxaːʁaːɕ | You wrote | фытхагъакъым | fətxaːʁaːqəm | You didn’t write | |
| Third-person | тхагъащэх | txaːʁaːɕax | They wrote | тхагъакъым | txaːʁaːqəm | They didn’t write | |
Type 3 :
Verbs of this group designate repetition of action in a vividly expressed manner. They are formed by adding the suffix –т.
- Сэ жысIэрт (I kept saying)
- Дэ дылажьэрт (We worked repeatedly)
- Ар еджэрт (He read many times)
Negative forms:
- Сэ жысIэртэкъым (I did not kept saying)
- Дэ дылажьэртэкъым (We did not work repeatedly)
- Ар еджэртэкъым (He did not read many times)
Verbal Affixes
The Kabardian language has an especially complex morphology. A verb by its set of morphemes can express subject's and object's person, place, time, manner of action, negative, and other types of grammatical categories. A verb can have some combinations of different affixes to describe a specific verbs in a different situations.
Verbal Prefixes
Causative
гъэ~ (гъа~) designates causation; rendered by the verbs: to force, compel, make; to order, tell; to allow, permit; to give the opportunity to do something.; also forms transitive verbs; for example :
- псэлъэн: to talk → гъэпсэлъэн: to make (somebody.) talk.
- мэжэлІэн: to become hungry → гъэмэжэлІэн: to make (somebody.) go hungry.
- шхэн: to eat → гъэшхэн: to feed (somebody.)
- бзэхын: ещ disappear → гъэбзэхын: to hide/conceal (somebody., something.) quickly.
Sociative
дэ~ designates action performed jointly with somebody., or stay/sojourn with somebody.
- шхэн: to eat → дэшхэн: to eat with somebody.
- кӏуэн : to go → дэкӏуэн : to go with somebody.
жьэ- (жьэхэ-)
жьэ~ (жьэхэ~) designates action directed at something.; for example :
- жьэхэплъэн: to look steadily (at), to stare (at).
- жьэхэуэн: (vi) to push,shove (somebody., something.); to hit, strike (against somebody., something.); to collide (with).
Towards the mouth
жьэдэ~ designates action performed in or towards the mouth; for example :
- жьэдэдзэн: (vt) to throw (something.) in the mouth (usually somebody. else’s).
- жьэдэплъэн: (vi) to look into (somebody.’s) mouth.
зэ-
зэ~ is used in formation of reciprocal verbs; for example :
- зэзэуэн: to fight each other;
It is also used in formation of reflexive verbs; for example :
- зэгъэжьэн: (vt) to force oneself to wait;
- зэлъэфэлІэн: (vt) to drag to oneself.
зэдэ~ is used in formation of reciprocal verbs; for example :
- зэдэгушыIэн: to joke with one another.
- зэтеутхыхьын: to splash all over.
зэхэ~ designates totality of action; for example :
- зэхэутхыхьын: to splash all over.
- зэхэтхыхьын: to cover (for example :
- piece of paper) with writing.
Destination
здэ~ designates destination of action; for example :
- сыздэкIуэнур сощIэ: I know where I am going to.
Reflexive
зы~ designates reflexive action; for example :
- зылъэщІын: to wipe oneself.
- зыплъыхьын: to look about oneself.
Motion (directed) inside
кІуэцІы~ (кІуэцІыры~) designates motion (directed) inside, or from within (something.), through (something.); for example :
- кІуэцІыхун: to fall out (from inside something.)
- кІуэцІырыхун: to collapse, come down through (something.)
It also designates location of somebody., something., somewhere.; or inside something., or extraction of somebody., something. from somewhere., or from inside something.; for example :
- сабий шхыІэным кІуэцІылъхьэн: to wrap up the child in the blanket.
Discrete and opposite prefix къэ~ (qa~)
къэ~ (verbal prefix) designates arrival, approach, movement directed to the speaker; for example :
- мафІэгур къэсащ: the train has got in.
It also designates approach of some season, time; for example :
- щІымахуэр къэсащ: winter has arrived.
It also adds a tinge of definiteness to the verb; for example :
- къэпсэлъэн: to deliver a speech; to begin to speak.
нэ~ prefix
нэ~ (ны~) (verbal prefix) designates direction of motion from speaker to second person; for example :
- ар уи деж нэкІуащ: he went to you.
- ар уи деж ныщIыхьащ: he went to visit you.
It also forms verbs that convey a sense of completion of an action; for example :
- нэдысын: to finish (sewing); нэвысын: to finish ploughing/tilling.
- нэджысын: to finish (reading), to read to the end.
Against prefix (фӏэ-) (fʼ-)
фӏэ~ (фӏы~) (verbal prefix) designates action done against somebody’s will; for example :
- кIуэн: to go → фІэкIуэн: to go against somebody’s wish.
In favour of or for prefix (ху-) (xʷa-)
ху(э)~ (verbal prefix) designates action performed to please somebody, for somebody’s sake, in somebody's interests; for example :
- анэм Іуэху хуэщІэн: to do work for one's mother
Verbal Infixes
The negative infix (~мы~) (~mə~)
~мы~ negatory infix; for example :
- жыIэ: say → жумыIэ: do not say.
- къакIуэ: come → укъэмыкIуэ: do not come.
Verbal Suffixes
Completion suffix -гъах (-ʁaːx)
~гъэхэ (~хэ) (verbal suffix) designates absolute accomplishment/realization of the action; for example :
- кIуагъэхэщ: he’s already gone.
Frequentative ~ж (~ʒ)
~ж (verbal suffix) designates recurrence/repetition of action; for example :
- къэсын: to arrive → къэсыжын: to arrive again.
- къэшэн: to bring → къэшэжын: to bring again.
Completion and its results Suffix -и (-əj)
~и (connective suffix) and, also; for example :
- къакIуи еплъ: come and have a look.
The negative suffix (~къым) (~qəm)
~къым (verbal suffix) negatory suffix; for example :
- хьэщIэр иджыри къэс къэсакъым: the guest hasn’t arrived yet.
- сэ еджапIэм сыкIуакъым: I didn’t go to school.
Conditional mood suffix -мэ (-ma)
~м(э) conditional suffix; for example :
- ар къакIуэмэ, сэ бэзэрым сыкIуэнущ: If he comes, I will go to the market.
Concessive mood -ми (-məj)
~ми (conjunctional suffix) designates concessive mood; for example :
- укIуами: even if you had gone.
Infinitive -н (-n)
~н infinitive forming suffix; for example :
- тхэн: to write.
- кIуэн: to go.
Often (~рей)
~рей (verbal suffix) designates recurrence, presence of a characteristic; for example :
- мэпсэлъэрей: he is fond of talking; he is garrulous.
- мэдауэрей: he is given to brawling; he is a brawler.
Imperative mood
~т (verbal suffix) designates the imperative mood; for example :
- жыIэт: do say; just say.
- тхэт: just write.
Subjunctive mood
~тэмэ (conjunctional suffix) designates subjunctive mood; for example :
- укIуатэмэ: if you had gone.
Concessive mood
~тэми (conjunctional suffix) designates concessive mood; for example :
- укIуатэми: even if you had gone.
Can (Capable) Suffix -фы (-fə)
~ф (verbal suffix) designates the ability to perform the indicated action; for example :
- жыІэфын: to be able to speak/talk; to speak eloquently/articulately;to manage to say (something.)
- хьыфын: to manage, be able, to take/carry (away) (something. somewhere.).
Plural -хэ (-xa)
~хэ pluralizing suffix; for example :
- къэкIуахэщ: they came.
Preliminary condition
~хэ (~х) (verbal suffix) designates preliminary condition; for example :
- зытхьэщIыхэн: wash yourself first.
- зытхьэщIыхи шхэ: first wash yourself, and then eat.
Absolute negation
~ххэ (verbal suffix) designates absolute negation; for example :
- сыкIуэххэнкъым: I will definitely not go.
Numbers
- Numbers from zero to ten are specific words
- 1 зы
[zə] - 2 тӀу [tʷʼə]
- 3 щы [ɕə]
- 4 плӀы [pɬʼə]
- 5 тху [txʷə]
- 6 хы [xə]
- 7 блы [bɮə]
- 8 и [jə]
- 9 бгъу [bʁʷə]
- 10 пщӏы [pɕʼə]
- Numbers from eleven to nineteen are built with the word for ten, followed by кӏу ([kʷʼə]) and the unit digit:
- 11 пщӏыкӀуз [pɕʼəkʷʼəz]
- 12 пщӏыкӀутIу [pɕʼəkʷʼətʷʼ]
- 13 пщӏыкӀущ [pɕʼəkʷʼəɕ]
- 14 пщӏыкӀуплI [pɕʼəkʷʼəpɬʼ]
- 15 пщӏыкӀутху [pɕʼəkʷʼətxʷ]
- 16 пщӏыкӀух [pɕʼəkʷʼəx]
- 17 пщӏыкӀубл [pɕʼəkʷʼəbɮ]
- 18 пщӏыкӀуй [pɕʼəkʷʼəj]
- 19 пщӏыкӀубгъу [pɕʼəkʷʼəbʁʷ]}
- The tens follow a vigesimal system from forty up, with the exception of fifty:
- 20 тӀощӏ [tʷʼaɕʼə] (20)
- 21 тӀощӏэ зырэ [tʷʼaɕʼəra zəra] (20 and 1)
- 22 тӀощӏэ тIурэ [tʷʼaɕʼəra tʷʼəra] (20 and 2)
- 23 тӀощӏэ щырэ [tʷʼaɕʼəra ɕəra] (20 and 3)
- ...
- 30 щэщӏ [ɕaɕʼ] (30)
- 31 щэщӏрэ зырэ [ɕaɕʼra zəra] (30 and 1)
- 32 щэщӏрэ тIурэ [ɕaɕʼra tʷʼəra] (30 and 2)
- ...
- 40 плIыщI [pɬʼəɕʼ] (20 × 2)
- 50 тхущI,[txʷəɕʼ] (half-hundred)
- 60 хыщI,[xəɕʼ] (20 × 3)
- 70 блыщI [bɮəɕʼ] (20 × 3 and 10)
- 80 ищI [jəɕʼ] (20 × 4)
- 90 бгъущI [bʁʷəɕʼ] (20 × 4 and 10)
- One hundred is щэ (ɕa). The hundreds are formed by the hundred word root (щ (ɕ)) followed by -и-
(-i-) and the multiplier digit root.
- 100 щэ (ɕa)
- 101 щэрэ зырэ (ɕara zəra) (100 and 1)
- 110 щэрэ пщӏырэ (ɕara pʃʼəra) (100 and 10)
- 200 щитӀу (ɕitʷʼ) (100 × 2)
- 201 щитӀурэ зырэ (ɕitʷʼəra zəra) (200 × 2 and 1)
- 300 щищ (ɕiɕ) (100 × 3)
- 400 щиплӀ (ɕipɬʼ) (100 × 4)
- 500 щитху (ɕitxʷ) (100 × 5)
- 600 щих (ɕix) (100 × 6)
- 700 щибл (ɕibɮ) (100 × 7)
- 800 щий (ɕij) (100 × 8)
- 900 щибгъу (ɕibʁʷ) (100 × 9)
- One thousand is мин (min). The thousands are formed by the thousand word root (мин (məjn))
followed by -и- (-i-) and the multiplier digit root.
- 1000 мин (min)
- 1001 минрэ зырэ (minra zəra) (1000 and 1)
- 1010 минрэ пщӏырэ (minra pʃʼəra) (1000 and 10)
- 1100 минрэ щэрэ (minra ɕara) (1000 and 100)
- 2000 минитӀу (minitʷʼ) (1000 × 2)
- 3000 минищ (miniɕ) (1000 × 3)
- 4000 миниплӀ (minipɬʼ) (1000 × 4)
- 5000 минитху (minitxʷ) (1000 × 5)
- 6000 миних (minix) (1000 × 6)
- 7000 минибл (minibɮ) (1000 × 7)
- 8000 миний (minij) (1000 × 8)
- 9000 минибгъу (minibʁʷ) (1000 × 9)
- 10000 минипщӏ (minipʃʼ) (1000 × 10)
- 11000 минипщӀыкӀуз (minipʃʼəkʷʼəz) (1000 × 11)
- 12000 минипщӀыкӀутIу (minipʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼ) (1000 × 12)
- 20000 минитӀощӏ (minitʷʼaɕʼə) (1000 × 20)
- 100000 минищэ (miniɕa) (1000 × 100)
- 200000 минищитӀу (miniɕitʷʼ) (1000 × 200)
When composed, the hundred word takes the -рэ (-ra) suffix, as well as the ten and the unit if any (e.g.: щэрэ зырэ (ʂara zəra) [101], щэрэ тIурэ (ʂara tʷʼəra) [102], щэрэ пщӀыкӀузырэ (pʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼəra) [111], щитӀурэ щэщӀырэ плIырэ (ʂitʷʼəra ɕat͡ʃəra pɬʼəra) [234]).
Ordinal numbers
- Except апэрэ/япэрэ - first (aːpara/jaːpara) are formed by prefix я- (jaː-) and suffix – нэрэ (- nara). For
example: ятIунэрэ - second (jaːtʷʼənara), ящынэрэ - third (jaːɕənara), яплIынэрэ - fourth (jaːpɬʼənara).
- first - Япэ [jaːpa]
- second - ЕтIуанэ [jatʼaːna]
- third - Ещанэ [jaɕaːna]
- firth - Еянэ [jajaːna]
- tenth - ЕпщIанэ [japɕʼaːna]
- eleventh - ЕпщыкIузанэ [japɕʼəkʷʼəzaːna]
- sixteenth. - ЕпщыкIуханэ [japɕʼəkʷʼəxaːna]
Discrete numbers
- Зырыз - in ones, one by one
- ТIурытI - in twos, two by two
- Щырыщ - in threes, three by three
- ПлIырыплI - in fours, four by four
- Тхурытху - in fives, five by five
- Хырых - in sixes, six by six
- Блырыбл - in sevens, seven by seven
- Ири - in eights, eight by eight
- Бгъурыбгъу - in nines, nine by nine
- ПщIырыпщI - in tens, ten by ten
Fractional numbers
- half (1÷2) - Ныкъуэ [nəqʷa]
- one third (1÷3) - щанэ [ɕaːna]
- two thirds (2÷3) - щанитӏу [ɕaːnitʷʼ] (1÷3 × 2)
- one fourth (1÷4) - плӀанэ [pɬʼaːna]
- two fourths (2÷4) - плӀанитӏу [pɬʼaːnitʷʼ] (1÷4 × 2)
- three fourths (3÷4) - плӀанищ [pɬʼaːniɕ] (1÷4 × 3)
- one fifth (1÷5) - тфанэ [tfaːna]
- one sixth (1÷6) - ханэ [xaːna]
- one seventh (1÷7) - бланэ [blaːna]
- one eighth (1÷8) - янэ [jaːna]
- one ninth (1÷9) - бгъуанэ [bʁʷaːna]
- one tenth (1÷10) - пщӀанэ [pʃʼaːna]
- one eleventh (1÷11) - пщӀыкӏузанэ [pʃʼəkʷʼəzaːna]
- one twelfth (1÷12) - пщӀыкӏутӏуанэ [pʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼaːna]
- one twentieth (1÷20) - тӏощӏанэ [tʷʼaɕʼaːna]
- one hundredth (1÷100) - щанэ [ɕaːna]
References
Bibliography
- Аркадьев, П. М.; Ландер, Ю. А.; Летучий, А. Б.; Сумбатова, Н. Р.; Тестелец, Я. Г. Введение. Основные
сведения об адыгейском языке в кн.: "Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике
адыгейского языка" под ред.: П. М. Аркадьев, А. Б. Летучий, Н. Р. Сумбатова, Я. Г. Тестелец. Москва:
РГГУ, 2009 (Arkadiev, P. M.; Lander, Yu. A.; Letuchiy, A. B.; Sumbatova, N. R.; Testelets, Ya. G.
Introduction. Basic information about Adyghe language in "Aspects of polysyntheticity: studies on
Adyghe grammar" edited by: P. M. Arkadiev, A. B. Letuchiy, N. R. Sumbatova, Ya. G. Testelets. Moscow,
RGGU, 2009) (in Russian) ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0
- Ranko Matasović,A SHORT GRAMMAR OF EAST CIRCASSIAN (KABARDIAN):