John VI of Portugal

John VI
Portrait of King D. John VI; José Leandro de Carvalho, c. 1818
King of Portugal and the Algarves
Reign	20 March 1816 – 10 March 1826
Acclamation	6 February 1818 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Predecessor	Maria I
Successor	Pedro IV
King of Brazil
Reign	20 March 1816 – 7 September 1822
Acclamation	6 February 1818
Predecessor	Maria I
Successor	Pedro I (as Emperor)
Emperor of Brazil (titular)
Tenure	15 November 1825 – 10 March 1826
Born	(1767-05-13)13 May 1767 Queluz Palace, Lisbon, Portugal
Died	10 March 1826(1826-03-10) (aged 58) Bemposta Palace, Lisbon, Portugal
Burial	Pantheon of the Braganzas, Lisbon, Portugal
Spouse	Carlota Joaquina of Spain
Issue	See Maria Teresa, Princess of Beira António, Prince of Beira Maria Isabel, Queen of Spain Pedro IV and I Infanta Maria Francisca, Countess of Molina Infanta Isabel Maria Miguel I Infanta Maria da Assunção Infanta Ana de Jesus Maria, Marquise of Loulé
Full name João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos Rafael
House	Braganza
Father	Peter III of Portugal
Mother	Maria I of Portugal
Religion	Roman Catholicism
Signature

Dom John VI (Portuguese: João VI;^[1][2] 13 May 1767 – 10 March 1826), nicknamed "the Clement", was King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves from 1816 to 1822, and, although de facto the United Kingdom over which he ruled ceased to exist, he remained so de jure from 1822 to 1825; after the recognition of Brazilian independence under the 1825 Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, he continued as King of Portugal and the Algarves until his death in 1826. Under the said Treaty he also became Titular Emperor of Brazil for life, while his son, Emperor Pedro I, was both de facto and de jure the monarch of the newly independent country.

Born in Lisbon in 1767, the son of Peter III of Portugal, and Queen Maria I, he was originally an infante (prince not heir to the throne) of Portugal, and only became heir to the throne when his older brother, José, Prince of Brazil, died in 1788, of smallpox, at the age of 27.

Before his accession to the Portuguese throne, John VI bore the titles of Duke of Braganza and Duke of Beja, as well as the title of Prince of Brazil. He served, from 1799, as Prince Regent of Portugal (and later, from 1815, as Prince Regent of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves), due to the mental illness of his mother, the Queen. Eventually, he succeeded his mother as monarch of the Portuguese Empire, with no real change in his authority, since, as Regent, he already possessed absolute powers.

One of the last representatives of absolutism, he lived during a turbulent period; his reign never saw a lasting peace. Throughout his period as Regent and later King, such major powers as Kingdom of Spain, Kingdom of France and its later successor the First French Empire and Great Britain (from 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) continually intervened in Portuguese affairs. Forced to flee to South America across the Atlantic Ocean into Brazil when troops of the Emperor Napoleon I invaded Portugal, he found himself faced there with Liberal revolts that reflected similar events in the metropolis; he was compelled to return to Europe amid new conflicts. His marriage was no less conflictual, as his wife, Carlota Joaquina of Spain, repeatedly conspired against her husband in favor of personal interests or those of her native Spain. He lost Brazil when his son Pedro declared independence, and his other son Miguel (later Miguel I of Portugal) led a rebellion that sought to depose him. According to recent scholarly research, his death may well have been caused by arsenic poisoning.

Notwithstanding these tribulations he left a lasting mark, especially in Brazil, creating numerous institutions and services that laid a foundation for national autonomy, and is considered by many researchers the true mastermind of the modern Brazilian state. Still, he has been widely (if unjustly) viewed as a cartoonish figure in Portuguese-Brazilian history, being accused of laziness, lack of political acumen and constant indecision, and often portrayed as physically grotesque.

Early life

João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos Rafael was born 13 May 1767, during the reign of his grandfather, Joseph I of Portugal, the second son of the future Queen Maria I and her husband (who was also her uncle), the future King Peter III. At the time of John's birth they were, respectively, Princess of Brazil and Infante of Portugal.

He was ten years old when his grandfather died and his mother ascended to the throne as Queen Maria I of Portugal. His childhood and youth were lived quietly, as he was a mere infante, in the shadow of his elder brother José, Prince of Brazil and 14th Duke of Braganza, the primogenitor and heir-apparent to the throne. Folklore has John as a rather uncultured youth, but according to Jorge Pedreira e Costa, he received as rigorous an education as José. Still, a French ambassador of the time painted him in unfavorable colors, seeing him as hesitant and dim. The record of this period of his life is too vague for historians to form any definitive picture.^[3]

According to tradition, his tutors in arts and sciences included Fathers Manuel do Cenáculo, Antônio Domingues do Paço and Miguel Franzini; his music masters were the organist João Cordeiro da Silva and the composer João Sousa de Carvalho; and his riding instructor Staff Sergeant Carlos Antônio Ferreira Monte. Little is known of the substance of his education. He surely received instruction in religion, law, French, and etiquette, and would presumably have learned history through reading the works of Duarte Nunes de Leão and João de Barros.^[4]

Marriage and succession

In 1785, Henrique de Meneses, 3rd Marquis of Louriçal, arranged a marriage between John and the Infanta Carlota Joaquina of Spain, daughter of King Charles IV of Spain and Queen Consort Maria Luisa of Parma, like him a junior member of a royal family. Fearing a new Iberian Union, some in the Portuguese court viewed the marriage to a Spanish infanta unfavorably. She endured four days of testing by the Portuguese ambassadors before the marriage pact was confirmed. Because John and Carlota were related, and because of the bride's youth, who was only 10 at the time, the marriage required a papal dispensation. After being confirmed, the marriage capitulation was signed in the throne room of the Spanish court, with great pomp and with the participation of both kingdoms, followed immediately by a proxy marriage.^[5] The marriage was consummated five years later.

The infanta was received at the Ducal Palace of Vila Viçosa at the beginning of May 1785, and on 9 June 1785 the couple received a nuptial benediction at the palace chapel. At the same time, John's sister Infanta Mariana Victoria was married to Infante Gabriel, also of the Spanish royal family. An assiduous correspondence between John and Mariana at that time reveals that the absence of his sister weighed upon him and, comparing her to his young wife, he wrote: "She is very smart and has a lot of judgment, whereas you have rather little, and I like her a lot, but for all that I cannot love her equally." John's young bride was little given to docility, requiring at times the intervention of Queen Maria herself. Furthermore, the difference in their ages (John being 18 years old) made him uncomfortable and anxious. Because Carlota was so young, the marriage had not been consummated, and John wrote "Here's to the arrival of the time when I shall play a lot with the Infanta. The way these things go, I think six years from now. Better that she be a bit more grown up than when she came." The consummation waited until 5 April 1790. In 1793, Carlota gave birth to the first of nine children, Teresa, Princess of Beira.^[5]

By that time, his hitherto relatively quiet life had been turned upside down by the death on 11 September 1788 of his older brother Dom José, which left John as the heir apparent to the throne with the titles of Prince of Brazil and 15th Duke of Braganza.^[6] Great hopes had ridden on Dom José, who was associated with the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment. Criticized by the clergy, he appeared to have been inclined toward the anti-clerical policies of the Marquis of Pombal.

John, in contrast, was well known for his religiosity and for favoring absolutism. The crisis of succession was aggravated with the death soon after of Ignacio de São Caetano, Archbishop of Thessalonica, the queen's confessor and a powerful political figure, who had influenced a controversial choice of Maria's ministers that favored John, but not without encountering strong opposition from important fidalgos who had ambitions for those posts. Furthermore, the year after these deaths, John was so ill that his own survival was uncertain. He recovered, but in 1791 he again fell ill "bleeding from the mouth and intestines", according to notes left by the chaplain of the Marquis of Marialva, who added that his spirit was always depressed. This created a tense climate and uncertainty about his future reign.^[7]

Regency

Meanwhile, the queen showed increasing signs of mental instability. On 10 February 1792, seventeen doctors signed a document declaring her unable to manage the kingdom, with no prospect for her condition to improve. John was reluctant to take the reins of power, rejecting the idea of a formal regency. This opened the way for elements of the nobility to form a de facto government via a Council. Rumors circulated that John exhibited symptoms of the same insanity, and that he might be prevented from ruling. According to longstanding laws that guided the institution of regency, were the regent to die or become incapable for any reason, and having children of less that fourteen years—John's situation at the time—government would be exercised by the guardians of those children or, if guardians had not been formally named, by the wife of the regent: in John's case, a Spanish infanta. Fear, suspicion and intrigue engulfed the entire institutional framework of the nation.^[8]

At the same time, the French Revolution perplexed and horrified the reigning houses of Europe. The execution of the French king Louis XVI on 21 January 1793 by the revolutionaries precipitated an international response. On 15 July 1793 Portugal signed a treaty with Spain, and on 26 September allied itself with Great Britain, both treaties pledging mutual aid against revolutionary France and bringing six thousand Portuguese soldiers into the War of the Pyrenees (1793–1795), a campaign that began with an advance to Roussillon in France and ended in defeat with French conquest of northeastern Spain. This created a delicate diplomatic problem, as Portugal could not make peace with France without damaging an alliance with England that involved several overseas interests, and thus sought a neutrality that proved fragile and tense.^[9][10]

After the defeat, Spain abandoned its alliance with Portugal and allied with France under the Peace of Basel. With Britain too powerful for France to attack directly, France set its sights on Portugal.^[11] In 1799, John officially assumed the reins of government as Prince Regent in the name of his widowed mother;^[12] that same year Napoleon Bonaparte staged his coup in France and coerced Spain to issue an ultimatum that the Portuguese break with Great Britain and submit the country to the interests of Napoleon. With John's refusal, neutrality became unviable. Spain and France invaded in 1801, setting off the War of the Oranges; a defeated Portugal signed the Treaty of Badajoz and the subsequent Treaty of Madrid, under which it ceded territory to Spain, in particular Olivenza, and made concessions to French over certain colonial territories.^[13][14] With conflicting interests among all the countries involved, the war was marked by ambiguous movements and secret agreements. Portugal, as the weakest player, could not avoid continued struggle.^[11] At the same time, John had to face an enemy at home. His wife, Carlota Joaquina, loyal to Spanish interests, initiated an intrigue with the objective of deposing her husband and taking power herself, an attempt that failed in 1805, resulting in the queen's exile from court, after which she resided at Queluz National Palace, while the regent took up residency at Mafra National Palace.^[15][16]

Flight to Brazil

The Prince Regent played desperately for time, pretending until the last moment an apparent submission to France, to the point of suggesting to George III of the United Kingdom a declaration of a fictitious war between their countries, but he did not obey the dictates of Napoleon's Continental System (a blockade against Great Britain). A new secret treaty with the British guaranteed him help in case of an eventual flight of the royal family. The accord greatly favored the British and, preserving from certain deposition a legitimate government that had always been friendly toward them, preserved their influence over the country, as the United Kingdom continued to make vast profits in trade with the Portuguese intercontinental empire. It fell to Portugal only to choose between obedience to France or to England, and the hesitancy to decide firmly placed Portugal at risk of war with not merely one of these powers but with both. In October 1807 news arrived that a French army was approaching and on 16 November a British squadron arrived in the port of Lisbon with a force of seven thousand men, with orders either to escort the royal family to Brazil or, if the government surrendered to France, to attack and conquer the Portuguese capital. The court was divided between Francophiles and Anglophiles, after anguished consideration under pressure from both sides, John decided to accept British protection and to leave for Brazil.^[11][17][18]

The invading army led by Jean-Andoche Junot advanced with some difficulty, arriving at the gates of Lisbon only on 30 November 1807.^[15] By this time, the Prince Regent, accompanied by the entire royal family and a large following of nobles, state functionaries and servants, and bringing a variety of baggage including a valuable collection of artwork and books, had already embarked, leaving the government under a regency and having recommended to the army that they not engage in hostilities with the invader. The hasty departure, during a rainstorm that left the streets a morass, caused havoc in Lisbon as an astonished population could not believe that their prince had abandoned them.^[19][20] According to the account of José Acúrsio das Neves, the departure brought forth deep emotion on the part of the Prince Regent:

He wanted to speak and could not; he wanted to move and, convulsed, did not succeed in taking a step; he walked over an abyss, and envisioned a future dark and as uncertain as the ocean to which he was about to deliver himself. Country, capital, kingdom, vassals, he was about to leave all of these suddenly, with little hope of setting eyes on them again, and all were thorns that pierced his heart.^[21]

To explain himself to the people, John ordered that posters be put up along the streets stating that his departure was unavoidable despite all efforts made to assure the integrity and peace of the kingdom. The posters recommended that everyone remain calm, orderly and not resist the invaders, so that blood not be shed in vain. Because of the rush to depart, the Prince Regent John, the Queen Maria, Prince Pedro, Prince of Beira (later Pedro I of Brazil and Pedro IV of Portugal) and Infante Miguel (later Miguel I of Portugal) were all in a single ship. This was an imprudent decision given the dangers of a transatlantic voyage in that era, placing at risk the succession of the crown in case of shipwreck. Carlota Joaquina and the infantas were on two other ships.^[22] The number of people who embarked with John remains a matter of controversy; in the 19th century there was talk of up to 30 thousand emigrants;^[23] more recent estimates vary between five hundred and fifteen thousand, the latter being close to the maximum capacity of the squadron of fifteen ships, including their crews. Still, the ships were overcrowded. According to Pedreira e Costa, taking into account all of the variables, the most likely numbers fall between four and seven thousand passengers plus the crews. Many families were separated, and even high officials failed to secure a place on the ships and were left behind. The voyage was not a tranquil one. Several ships were in precarious condition, and overcrowding created humiliating situations for the nobility, the majority of whom had to sleep huddled in the open, in the poops. Hygienic conditions were bad, including an epidemic of head lice. Many had failed to bring changes of clothing. Several people fell ill. Supplies were scarce, causing rationing. Furthermore, the flotilla spent ten days nearly becalmed in Equatorial zone under a scorching heat, where the mood turned sour and there were murmurings. The flotilla also faced two storms and was eventually dispersed near Madeira. In the middle of the voyage, Prince John changed his plans and decided to head for Salvador, Bahia, probably for political reasons—to please the inhabitants of the colony's first capital, which had given many signs of discontent with the loss of its old status—while the ships carrying the infantas held to the original destination of Rio de Janeiro.^[24][25]

Colonial Transformation

On 22 January 1808, the Prince Regent's ship and two others arrived in Baía de Todos os Santos, Brazil. The streets of Salvador were deserted, because the governor, the Count of Ponte, preferred to await the prince's orders before permitting the people to receive him. Finding this attitude odd, John ordered that all could come as they wished.^[26] However, to allow the nobility to compose themselves after such an arduous journey, the landing was postponed until the next day, when they were received joyfully amidst a procession, ringing of bells and a celebration of a Te Deum at the Cathedral. In the following days the prince received all who wished to give homage, granting the ceremony of the beija-mão (the kissing of the monarch's hand) and conceding various mercies.^[27] Among the latter, he decreed the creation of a public lecture series on economics and a school of surgery,^[28] but his most decisive action at this moment was the Decree of Opening the Ports to Friendly Nations (Decreto de Abertura dos Portos às Nações Amigas), a measure of vast political and economic importance and the first of many that went to improve conditions in the colony. However, naturally, Britain, whose economy depended in great part on maritime commerce, and for whom the Portuguese and Brazilian monarchy was now something of a protectorate, was the most direct beneficiary, obtaining various privileges.^[29]

Salvador spent a month in commemorations of the presence of the court, and tried to seduce the court into making Salvador the new seat of the kingdom, offering to construct a luxurious palace as a home for the royal family, but John declined and continued his voyage, having already announced to various nations his intention to make his capital at Rio de Janeiro. His ship entered Guanabara Bay on 7 March, where he met the infantas and other members of his entourage whose ships had arrived earlier. On the 8th, finally, the whole court disembarked, encountering a city adorned to receive them with nine days of uninterrupted celebrations.^[30] A well-known chronicler of the era, Father Perereca, eyewitness to the arrival, while lamenting the news of the invasion of metropolitan Portugal, also intuited the significance of the arrival of the court on Brazilian soil:

If so great were the motives of sorrow and distress, no less were the causes of comfort and pleasure: a new order of things was going to begin this part of the southern hemisphere. The design of the Empire of Brazil could already be considered in place, and eagerly wished the powerful hand of our lord the Prince Regent to cast the first stone of future greatness, prosperity and power of the new empire.^[31]

With a court, the essential apparatus of a sovereign state became inevitable: the senior civil, religious, and military officials; aristocrats and liberal professionals, skilled artisans, public servants. For many scholars, the transfer of the court to Rio began the establishment of the modern Brazilian state and constituted Brazil's first step toward true independence.^[32] While Brazil at this time remained formally and juridically a Portuguese colony, in the words of Caio Prado, Jr.

"Establishing in Brazil the seat of a monarchy, the regent ipso facto abolished the colonial regime under which the country had lived until then. All the characteristics of that [colonial] regime disappeared, the only remaining part of the colonial situation was to be under a foreign government. One after another, the old workings of colonial administration were abolished and replaced by those of a sovereign nation. Economic restrictions fell and thoughts of the country's interests moved to the front of government policy."^[33]

But first it was necessary to provide accommodations for the newcomers, a difficult problem to resolve given the cramped proportions of the city of Rio at that time. In particular, there were few homes suitable for the nobility, especially the case for the royal family themselves, who were installed in the viceregal palace, known today as the Paço Imperial (Imperial Palace). Though large, it was comfortless and nothing like Portuguese palaces. As large as it was, it was not enough to accommodate everyone, neighboring buildings were also requisitioned, such as the Carmelite Convent, the town hall, and even the jail. To meet the needs of other nobles and to install new government offices, innumerable small residences were hastily expropriated, their proprietors arbitrarily ejected, at times violently in the face of resistance. Despite the efforts of Viceroy Marcos de Noronha e Brito and of Joaquim José de Azevedo, the regent was still poorly accommodated. Merchant Elias Antônio Lopes offered his country house, the Quinta da Boa Vista, a sumptuous villa in excellent location that immediately met with the prince's satisfaction. Renovations and expansion transformed this into the Paço de São Cristóvão ("Palace of Saint Christopher"). Carlota Joaquina, for her part, preferred to settle on a farm near the beach of Botafogo, continuing her habit of living apart from her husband.^[34]

The city, which at that time had about 70,000 inhabitants, saw itself transformed overnight. The additional populace, full of new requirements, imposed a new organization in the supply of food and other consumer goods, including luxury items. It took years for the Portuguese to settle in, causing years of chaos in the daily life of Rio; rents doubled, taxes rose, and food was in short supply, requisitioned by the imported nobility. This soon dispelled popular enthusiasm over the prince regent's arrival. The very shape of the city began to change, with the construction of innumerable new residences, villas and other buildings, and various improvements to services and infrastructure. Likewise, the presence of the court introduced new standards of etiquette, new fashions and new customs including a new social stratification.^{[35][36][37][38]}

Among said customs, John continued in Brazil the ancient Portuguese ceremony of the beija-mão, which he esteemed greatly and which fascinated the Brazilians and became part of their folklore.^[39] He received his subjects daily, except for Sundays and holidays. The long lines waiting to pay their respects and receive favors were a mix of nobles and commoners. According to painter Henry L’Evêque, "the Prince, accompanied by a Secretary of State, a Chamberlain and some household officials, received all the petitions that were presented to him; listened attentively to all the complaints, all the requests of the applicants; consoled one, encouraged others.... The vulgarity of the manners, the familiarity of speech, the insistence of some, the prolixity of others, none of this bored him. He seemed to forget that he was their master, and remember only that he was their father."^[40] Oliveira Lim wrote that he "never confused the faces or the pleas, and the applicants marveled at how well he know their lives, their families, even small incidents that had occurred in the past and which they could not believe had risen to the notice of the king."^[41]

Throughout his stay in Brazil, John formalized the creation of a huge number of institutions and public services and boosted the economy, culture and other areas of national life. All these measures were taken principally because of the practical needs of administering a large empire in a territory previously lacking of these resources, because the predominant idea continued to be that Brazil would remain a colony, given that it was expected that the court would return to its old metropolis once the European political situation returned to normal. However, these advances became the basis for Brazil's future autonomy.^[42][43] This is not to say that all was amenities and progress. A series of political crises began shortly after his arrival with the invasion of Cayenne in French Guiana in 1809, in retaliation for the French invasion of Portugal,^[44] serious economic problems, and a painful trade agreement imposed in 1810 by the British, which in practice flooded the small internal market with useless trinkets and disadvantaged exports and the creation of new national industries.^[45][46] The national debt multiplied by twenty and corruption was rife at large institutions, including the first Bank of Brazil, which ended up bankrupt. Also, the court was extravagant and wasteful, accumulated privileges on privileges and maintained a legion of sycophants and adventurers. British consul James Henderson observed that few European courts were as large as that of Portugal. Laurentino Gomes writes that John granted more hereditary titles in his first eight years in Brazil than had been granted in the previous three hundred years of the Portuguese monarchy, not even counting more than five thousand insignia and commendations of the honorific orders of Portugal.^[47][48]

When Napoleon was defeated in 1815, the European powers held the Congress of Vienna to reorganize the political map of the continent. Portugal participated in these negotiations, but given British machinations contrary to the interests of the House of Braganza, Portugal's ambassador to the Congress, the Count of Palmela, counseled the regent to remain in Brazil, as did the powerful Prince Talleyrand, in order to strengthen the ties between metropolis and colony, including the suggestion to elevate Brazil to the condition of a kingdom united to Portugal. The representative of the United Kingdom also ended up supporting the idea, which resulted in the effective foundation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves on 16 December 1815, a juridical institution rapidly recognized by other nations.^[43]

Ascent to Throne

John's mother Queen Maria died 20 March 1816, opening the road for the regent to assume the throne. Though he began to govern as king on that date, he was not immediately consecrated as king, and was acclaimed only on 6 February 1818, with grand festivities.^[12] Meanwhile, several political matters came to the fore. The ambitious Queen Consort Carlota Joaquina had begun to conspire against Portuguese interests while still in Europe, and shortly after her arrival in Brazil established understandings with both Spaniards and with nationalists of the Río de la Plata region (now Argentina and Uruguay), seeking to gain a monarchy of her own, perhaps as regent of Spain, perhaps as queen of a new monarchy created from Spanish colonies in South America, perhaps by deposing her husband. This made any meaningful marriage to John impossible, despite his show of patience, and only the force of convention had them appear together in public. While Dona Carlota gained many sympathizers, her plots uniformly failed. Despite that, she managed to influence her husband to involve himself more directly in Spanish colonial politics, leading to the taking of Montevideo in 1817 and the annexation of Cisplatina Province in 1821.^[49][50]

During the same period, the problem arose of finding a wife for John's heir apparent, the future Pedro I of Brazil. Europe at the time considered Brazil distant, backward and unsafe, so it was not a simple task to find suitable candidates. After a year of seeking, the ambassador Pedro José Joaquim Vito de Meneses Coutinho, Marquis of Marialva, finally secured an alliance with one of Europe's most powerful royal houses, the Habsburgs, emperors of Austria, after seducing the Austrian court with numerous lies, a display of pomp, and the distribution of gold bars and diamonds among the nobility. Dom Pedro married archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria, daughter of emperor Francis I, in 1817.^[51] The emperor and his minister Metternich considered the alliance "an advantageous pact between Europe and the New World," strengthening the monarchical regime in both hemispheres and granting Austria a new sphere of influence.^[52]

Meanwhile, the situation in Portugal was by no means tranquil; absent its monarch, and devastated by the Peninsular War and the consequent mass hunger and enormous exodus of emigrants,^[53] upon the final expulsion of the French menace the metropolis had become in practice a British protectorate, commanded by Marshall William Carr Beresford, who governed with an iron fist. From the time John ascended to the throne, the Portuguese pressed for his return, initiated liberal rebellions, and formed secret societies, with the objective of bringing into session the Portuguese Cortes, which had not met since 1698. Similar liberal agitation occurred in Brazil. In 1817 the Pernambucan Revolt broke out in Recife, a republican movement that established a provisional government in Pernambuco and spread into other Brazilian states, but which was severely put down. Back in Portugal, on 24 August 1820 the Liberal Revolution of 1820 broke out in Porto, and set up a governing junta, with repercussions in Lisbon. It met as the General Extraordinary and Constituent Cortes (Cortes Gerais Extraordinárias e Constituintes), formed a government and convened elections for deputies without bothering to consult King John. The movement gained support from the Island of Madeira, the Azores and reached the captaincy of Grão-Pará and Bahia, in Brazil, leading even to an uprising by the military garrison of Rio de Janeiro itself.^[6][54]

On 30 January 1821 the Cortes met in Lisbon and decreed the formation of a Council of Regency to exercise power in the name of King John, freed many political prisoners and demanded the king's immediate return. On 20 April, King John convoked in Rio a meeting to choose deputies to the Constituent Cortes, but the following day protests in the plaza were put down violently. In Brazil the general opinion was that the king's return to Portugal could mean withdrawal from Brazil of the autonomy it had gained, returning to its prior colonial status. Under pressure, John tried to find a middle way by sending his son, the Prince Pedro, to Lisbon, to grant a constitution and establish the basis of a new government. The prince, however, already leaning toward liberal ideas, refused. The crisis had gone too far and there was no turning back. John named Pedro regent for Brazil in his name and left for Lisbon 25 April, after a stay of thirteen years in Brazil, a country he would always miss.^[6][12][54]

Return to Portugal

The ships bringing John and his court arrived in Lisbon 3 July 1821. His return was orchestrated in such a manner as not to imply that the king had been coerced, but in fact a new political environment had already been established.^[6] A constitution had been drafted, and the king was required to swear loyalty to it 1 October 1822, surrendering various prerogatives. Dona Carlota refused to follow her husband in this, and thus was dispossessed of her political rights and deposed of her title as queen. Meanwhile, the king had lost out in Brazil as well. His son Pedro, opting to stay in that country, led a revolt proclaiming Brazilian independence 7 September 1822, assuming the title of emperor.^[12][55] Tradition says that before journeying to Portugal, John had anticipated future events and had said to his son: "Pedro, Brazil will soon be separated from Portugal: if so, put the crown on your head before some adventurer grabs it." According to the memoirs of the Count of Palmela, Brazilian independence had come about through common accord between the king and the prince. In any event, later correspondence between the two shows the prince's concern not to disturb his father.^[56] However, Portugal did not officially recognize Brazilian independence at this time.^[12]

The liberal constitution to which the king had sworn loyalty was in effect only for a few months. Not everyone in Portugal supported liberalism, and an absolutist movement arose. On 23 February 1823, in Trás-os-Montes, o Francisco Silveira, Count of Amarante proclaimed an absolute monarchy; this did not immediately have an effect, and new agitations followed. On 27 May the infante Dom Miguel, instigated by his mother Dona Carlota, led another revolt known as the Vilafrancada, with the intent of restoring absolutism. John changed the game by supporting his son to avoid his own deposition—desired by the party of the queen—and appeared in public on his birthday alongside his son, who wore a uniform of the National Guard, a military corps that had been disbanded by the liberals, receiving the applause of the militia. The king personally went to Vila Franca to better administer the uprising, ultimately returning to Lisbon in triumph. The political climate was undecided, and even the staunchest defenders of liberalism feared to take a strong stand on its behalf. Before its dissolution, the Cortes protested against any change in the recently approved constitution, but the absolute regime was restored,^[12][57] the queen's rights reestablished, and the king acclaimed for a second time 5 June 1823. John, repressed demonstrations against this restoration, deported some of the liberals and arrested others, ordered the restoration of judiciary and institutions more in line with the new political orientation and created a commission to draft a basis for a new charter to replace the constitution.^[57][58]

The alliance with the infante Miguel did not bear fruit. Influenced as always by his mother, Miguel led the April Revolt or Abrilada by the Lisbon military garrison on 29 April 1824. The revolt had the pretext of crushing the Freemasons and defending the king from threats of death that the Masons has supposedly made against him, but John was taken into custody at the Bemposta Palace, several political enemies of Miguel's also being imprisoned elsewhere. The infante's intent was to force his father to abdicate. Alerted to the situation, the diplomatic corps managed to enter Bemposta Palace. Those who held the king could not resist such authorities, and restored a measure of freedom to the king. On 9 May, on the advice of friendly ambassadors, John pretended to travel to Caxias but, in fact, sought refuge with a British fleet anchored in the port. From aboard the ship Windsor Castle he sent reprimanded his son, deposed him from command of the army, and ordered him to release his political prisoners. Miguel was exiled. With the defeat of the rebellion, both liberals and absolutists came out into the streets to celebrate the survival of the legitimate government.^[12][59] On 14 May, the king returned to Bemposta, reconstituting the council of ministers and showing generosity to the others who had rebelled. Still, this did not dissuade the queen from further conspiracies. The police discovered another rebellion planned for 26 October, on the basis of which John placed his wife under house arrest in the Queluz Palace.^[12]

Final years

At the end of his reign King John ordered the creation of a free port in Lisbon, but the measure was not implemented. He ordered further inquiry in the investigation of the death of his former friend the Marquis of Loulé, but final judgment was never rendered. On 5 June 1824 he granted amnesty to those involved in the Porto uprising, except for nine officers who were exiled. On the same day the old constitution of the kingdom came back into force, and the Cortes reconvened to prepare a new text. The change of constitution faced several obstacles, mainly from Spain and from supporters of the queen.^[60]

However, Portugal's biggest problems at this time related to the independence of Brazil, until then the country's largest source of wealth. The loss of Brazil had a great negative impact on the Portuguese economy. An expedition to reconquer the former colony was even considered, but the idea was soon abandoned. Difficult negotiations and consultations undertaken in Europe in Rio de Janeiro, with British mediation and pressure, resulted in the final recognition of the independence on 29 August 1825. At the same time, the king freed all the Brazilians who were prisoners and authorized trade between both nations. It was agreed that Pedro govern Brazil as a sovereign with the title of Emperor, John keeping for himself the honor of Titular Emperor of Brazil; from this time, he signed official documents as "His Majesty the Emperor and King John VI" (Sua Majestade o Imperador e Rei Dom João VI). Brazil was required to pay certain funds that it had borrowed from Portugal. Nothing in the treaty spoke of the succession of the two crowns, but Pedro, still acting as the Prince Royal of Portugal and Algarve, implicitly remained heir to the Portuguese throne.^[12][60]

On 4 March 1826 John, returned from the Hieronymites Monastery where he had lunched, and retired to Bemposta Palace feeling poorly. He was racked for several days by symptoms including vomiting and convulsions. He appeared to be getting better, but by way of prudence designated his daughter, the infanta Isabel Maria, as regent. On the night of 9 March he took a turn for the worse, and died at approximately 5 a.m. on the 10th. The infanta immediately assumed the internal government of Portugal, and Pedro was recognized as the legitimate heir as Dom Pedro IV of Portugal. Doctors could not definitively determine a cause of death, but it was suspected that he had been poisoned. His body was embalmed and buried in the mausoleum of the kings of Portugal, the Royal Pantheon of the House of Braganza, in the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora.^[61] In the 1990s a team of investigators exhumed the Chinese ceramic pot that contained his bowels. Fragments of his heart were rehydrated and submitted to an analysis that detected enough arsenic to kill two people, confirming the longstanding suspicions of assassination by poison.^[62][63]

Private life

As a youth John was a retiring figure, heavily influenced by the clergy, living surrounded by priests and attending daily Mass in the church. Nonetheless, Oliveira Lima affirms that rather than being an expression of personal piety, this merely reflected Portuguese culture at that time, and that the king...

"...understood that the Church, with its body of traditions and its moral discipline, could only be useful for a good government in his manner, paternal and exclusive, of populations whose dominion was inherited with the scepter. Because of this, he was repeatedly the guest of monks and patron to composers of sacred music, but none of these Epicurean or artistic demonstrations compromised his free thought or denatured his skeptical tolerance. ... He made more use of the refectory of the monastery than of its chapel, because [the latter] was about observance and in [the former] one thought of gastronomy, and in terms of observance the pragmatic one was enough for him. In the Royal Chapel he more took pleasure with the senses than he prayed with the spirit: andantes took the place of meditations."^[64]

He had a great appreciation of sacred music and was a great reader of works about art, but he detested physical activity. He appeared to have suffered periodic crises of depression.^[65] An aversion to changes in his routine extended to his clothing: he wore the same coat until it tore, forcing his chamberlains to sew it on his body while he slept in it. He suffered from panic attacks when he heard thunder, staying in his rooms with the windows shut and receiving no one.^[66]

John's marriage was never a happy one. Rumors circulated that at the age of 25 he fell in love with Eugênia José de Menezes, his wife's chaperone. She became pregnant, and John was suspected of being the father. The case was hushed up and the young woman was sent to Spain to bear the child. She gave birth to a daughter, whose name is unknown. The mother lived the rest of her life in nunneries and John supported her economically. Historians Tobias Monteiro and Patrick Wilcken write that there are indications that John also had a homosexual relationship as a sexual outlet, given his disastrous marriage, in which he lived apart from his wife, with whom he was together only on ceremonial occasions. His partner in this relationship would have been his favorite manservant, Francisco de Sousa Lobato, who, according to these historians, may have regularly masturbated his master. While it may have been out of sheer malice, a priest named Miguel stated that he once stumbled upon the scene and therefore was deported to Angola, but not before leaving written testimony. Regardless of the truth or falsity of the claim, Rufino de Sousa received a variety of honors, accumulating among others the charges of adviser to the king, secretary of the Casa do Infantado, secretary of the Bureau of Conscience and Orders (Mesa de Consciência e Ordens) and governor of the Santa Cruz fortress, receiving also the title of Baron and later Viscount of Vila Nova da Rainha.^[65]

In the precarious and spare environment of Rio the king's personal habits were simple. In contrast to his relative isolation in Portugal, he became more personally dynamic and interested in nature. He moved frequently between the Paço de São Cristóvão and the viceregal palace in the city, staying also at times at Paquetá Island, Governador Island, at Praia Grande (the beach at Niterói), and at the House of Santa Cruz. He went hunting and happily slept in a tent or under a tree. He liked the countryside, despite the swarms of mosquitoes and other pests and the scorching heat of the tropics that were detested by the majority of the Portuguese and other foreigners.^[67]

Legacy

In the course of his few years living in Brazil, John ordered the creation of a series of institutions, projects and services that brought the country immense economic, administrative, juridical, scientific, cultural, artistic and other benefits, although not all went successfully, and some were downright dysfunctional or unnecessary, as Hipólito José da Costa mordantly observed.^[48] Among these, he was responsible for establishing the Imprensa Régia (the country's first publishing house), the Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden^[68] the Arsenal de Marinha, the Fábrica de Pólvora (gunpowder factory),^[69] Rio's fire department, Brazil's merchant marine, and the charity hospital known as the Casa dos Expostos.^[70] He also established various educational programs in Rio, Pernambuco, Bahia and other places, teaching such subjects as dogmatic and moral theology, integral calculus, mechanics, hydrodynamics, chemistry, arithmetic, geometry, French, English, botany and agriculture, among others. He instigated the foundation of various societies and academies for scientific, literary and artistic studies, such as the Junta Vacínica (administering the smallpox vaccine, the Royal Bahiense Society of Men of Letters, the Academic Institute of Sciences and Fine Arts, the Fluminense Academy of Sciences and Arts,^[71] the Escola Anatômica, Cirúrgica e Médica do Rio de Janeiro,^[72] the Royal Academy of Artillery, Fortification and Design,^[73] the Academia dos Guardas-Marinhas, the Academia Militar,^[69] the National Library of Brazil,^[74] the Royal Museum (now National Museum of Brazil),^[75] the Teatro Real de São João (now Teatro João Caetano), as well as recruiting internationally famous soloists and patronizing other musicians of the Royal Chapel, including Father José Maurício, the leading Brazilian composer of his time,^[70] supporting also the coming of the Missão Artística Francesa, which resulted in the establishment of the Escola Real de Ciências, Artes e Ofícios, predecessor of the present-day Escola Nacional de Belas Artes of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, of fundamental importance the renewal of teaching and art production in Brazil.^[76]

John's policies led to far-reaching economic changes, beginning with the opening of the ports and the abolition of the Portuguese commercial monopolies, with the United Kingdom being the great beneficiary. On the one hand, traders based in Brazil had to face strong foreign competition; on the other, it encouraged the creation of new manufacturing and other economic activities that were previously banned, poor or nonexistent in Brazil. At the same time, he created such high-level administrative bodies as the War Ministry, the Foreign Ministry, and the Ministry of Marine and Overseas; the Councils of State and of Finance, the Supreme Military Council, the Military Archive, the Bureaus of Justice and of Conscience and Orders, the Casa de Suplicação (Supreme Court), the Intendency General of Police, the first Bank of Brazil^[68][69] the Royal Board of Commerce, Agriculture, Factories and Navigation,^[77] and the General Postal Administration,^[69] as well as bringing Brazilians into administrative and staff positions, which helped diminish tensions between the natives and the Portuguese.^[78] He also encouraged agricultural production, especially cotton, rice and sugar cane, opened roads and encouraged the development of inland waterways, stimulating the movement of people, goods and products between regions.^[79]

Controversies

According to Pedreira and Costa, few Portuguese monarchs have as large a place in the popular imagination as Dom João VI. That image is very varied, "but rarely for good reason. ... It is not strange that the tribulations of his marriage and family life and the references to his personality and personal customs, inviting easy caricature and circulation of an unflattering, if not comic, tradition."^[80] The king is popularly shown as indolent, silly and clumsy, subjugated by a shrewish wife, a disgusting glutton who always had baked chicken in his coat pockets to eat them at any time with greasy hands,^[42][81] a version typified by the Brazilian film Carlota Joaquina – Princesa do Brasil (1995),^[42] a parody mixed with sharp social criticism. That work had enormous repercussions, but, according to the critical commentary of Ronaldo Vainfas, "it is a story full of errors of all types, misrepresentations, imprecisions, inventions";^[82] for historian Luiz Carlos Villalta, "it constitutes a broad attack on historical knowledge",^[83] in contrast to director Carla Camurati's stated intent "to produce a cinematic narrative that would constitute a type of historical novel with pedagogic function and, at the same time, would offer the viewer knowledge of the past and would help, as a people, to think about the present. It does not offer new historical knowledge to the viewer, even if one were to treat history as a novel: it reinforces, in truth, the ideas that the viewers bring, being zero in terms of increased knowledge... In this way, it leads the viewer more to debauchery than to critical reflection on the history of Brazil".^[84]

Diverse visual representations of John range from an overweight, oversized, sloppy appearance to a dignified and elegant character.^[85] As for historians' portrayals, researcher Ismênia de Lima Martins writes, "If there is agreement among all authors who relied on the testimony of those who knew him closely for his kindness and affability, all the rest is controversy. While some pointed to his countenance of a statesman, others considered him a coward and completely unprepared to govern. In any event, Dom João VI left his indelible mark on Portuguese-Brazilian history, a fact that resonates to the present, through a historiography that insists on judging the king, despite the transformations that discipline experienced over the course of the twentieth century".^[86]

In governing, John always depended on strong auxiliaries. Prominent among these were Rodrigo de Sousa Coutinho, 1st Count of Linhares, António de Araújo e Azevedo, 1st Count of Barca, and Tomás Antônio de Vila Nova Portugal, who may be considered the mentors of many of John's most important undertakings,^[87] but according to John Luccock, a reliable observer of the era, "The prince regent has been various times accused of apathy; to me, he seemed to have greater sensitivity and strength of character than was generally attributed to him by both friends and opponents. He was placed in new circumstances by which he was tested, bowing before them with patience; if incited, he acted with vigor and promptness".^[88] He also praised the character of the king, reaffirming his kindness and attention.^[89] Oliveira Lima, with his classic Dom João VI no Brasil (1908), was one of the major figures responsible for the beginning of John's large-scale rehabilitation.^[81][90] He researched innumerable documents of the era without finding unfavorable descriptions of the king by Brazilians or by ambassadors and other diplomats accredited to the court. On the contrary, he found many accounts that painted him in favorable colors, such as the testimonies left by the British consul Henderson and the U.S. minister Sumter, who "greatly preferred to address himself directly to the monarch, always willing to do justice, than to confer with his minsters.... deeming him in this matter much more advanced than his courtiers".^[91] Diplomatic documents also confirm the breadth of his political vision, aiming to give Brazil an importance in the Americas comparable to the United States, adopting a discourse similar the U.S. doctrine of Manifest Destiny. He asserted his authority without violence, more in a persuasive and affable manner; his conduct of international affairs, although sometimes unsuccessful and somewhat given to imperialist ambitions, in many other ways was far-seeing and harmonious,as indicated by the many actions described above that improved the living conditions of the Brazilian colony.^[64][89]

Nonetheless, the French general Jean-Andoche Junot described him as "a weak man, suspicious of everyone and everything, jealous of his authority but incapable of making it respected. He is dominated by the fathers [that is, priests] and can act only under the duress of fear", and several Brazilian historians such as Pandiá Calógeras, Tobias Monteiro and Luiz Norton draw him in comparably dark colors. Among the Portuguese, such as Oliveira Martins and Raul Brandão, he was invariably portrayed as a burlesque figure until the conservative resurgence of 1926, when he began to find defenders, such as Fortunato de Almeida, Alfredo Pimenta and Valentim Alexandre.^[81][92][93] It is also certain that many were disaffected with him, that he raised taxes and aggravated the debt, multiplied titles and hereditary privilege, that he could not allay the vast array of internal dissensions or eliminate entrenched administrative corruption, and that he left Brazil on the brink of bankruptcy when he emptied the treasury to return to Portugal.^[42][81][94]

Whatever the king's character may have been, the importance of his reign for a remarkable spurt of development for Brazil and, indeed, for the very unity of that nation is incontestable. Gilberto Freyre affirms that "Dom John VI was one of the personalities who had the greatest influence over the formation of the nation.... he was an ideal mediator.... between tradition – which he incarnated – and innovation – which he welcomed and promoted – during that decisive period for the Brazilian future".^[95] As Laurentino Gomes puts it, "no other period of Brazilian history testifies to such profound decisive and rapid changes as the thirteen years in which the Portuguese court lived in Rio de Janeiro". Scholars such as Oliveira Lima, Maria Odila da Silva Dias, Roderick Barman and the aforementioned Laurentino believe that had John not come to the Americas and installed a strong central government, probably the large territory of Brazil, with important regional differences, would have fragmented into several distinct nations, as occurred with the vast neighboring Spanish colony. This opinion was shared by the British admiral Sir Sidney Smith, commander of the squadron that escorted the Portuguese ships as the fled to Brazil.^[42][96]

Recent biographies try to separate fact from legend and counter the folklore of ridicule that had formed around King John and which lacks documentary basis.^[42] Lúcia Bastos warns that even today we need to be careful to place certain matters in their historical context, such as the question of corruption, noting that although there were enormous costs and clear abuses, at that time there was no clear separation between the public treasury and the monarch's private accounts, and in the logic of the Old Regime "the king is the owner of the state... of which the distribution of spoils forms part: the king is the dispenser of justice and spoils".^[81] In the words of Leandro Loyola, "from the new research a ruler emerges who had his limitations, but who encountered a totally adverse situation and survived it, despite governing a small, poor, decadent country such as Portugal at the beginning of the 19th century."^[42] Before dying on Saint Helena, his most powerful enemy, Napoleon, said of him: "He was the only one who deceived me."^[97] The Marquis of Caravelas, praised him in the Brazilian Senate on the occasion of John's death, saying, "All of us who are here have many reasons to praise the memory of King John VI, we all ought to be grateful, for the benefits he gave us: he raised Brazil to a kingdom, provided well for all of us, treated us always with great affection, and all Brazilians are obligated to him."^[98]

Marriage and descendants

John married Carlota Joaquina of Spain (25 April 1775 – 7 December 1830) in 1785 and had several children:

Name	Birth	Death	Notes
Maria Teresa, Princess of Beira	29 April 1793	17 January 1874	Married first her cousin Pedro Carlos de Borbón y Bragança, Infante of Spain and Portugal and second to Carlos, Infante of Spain, widower of her sister Maria Francisca.
Francisco António, Prince of Beira	21 March 1795	11 June 1801	Died at the age of 6, making his younger brother, Pedro, the heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal.
Infanta Maria Isabel	19 May 1797	26 December 1818	Married Ferdinand VII, King of Spain.
Peter IV of Portugal, I of Brazil	12 October 1798	24 September 1834	Stayed in Brazil after the Peninsular War in Portugal. Proclaimed the Independence of Brazil in 1822 and became its first monarch as Emperor Peter I. He was also King of Portugal as Peter IV in 1826.
Infanta Maria Francisca	22 April 1800	4 September 1834	Married Carlos, Infante of Spain (his first marriage).
Infanta Isabel Maria	4 July 1801	22 April 1876	Served as regent of Portugal from 1826 to 1828; died unmarried
Miguel I	26 October 1802	14 November 1866	Known by the Liberals as the Usurper, he was King of Portugal between 1828 and 1834. He was forced to abdicate after the Liberal Wars.
Infanta Maria da Assunção	25 June 1805	7 January 1834	Died unmarried
Infanta Ana de Jesus Maria, Marchioness of Loulé	23 October 1806	22 June 1857	Married Nuno José Severo de Mendoça Rolim de Moura Barreto, Marquis and then Duke of Loulé and had issue.

Ancestry

Ancestors of John VI of Portugal

16. John IV of Portugal               8. Peter II of Portugal (= 24)                       17. Luisa de Guzmán               4. John V of Portugal (= 12)                             18. Philip William, Elector Palatine (= 22)               9. Maria Sofia of the Palatinate (= 25)                       19. Elisabeth Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt (= 23)               2. Peter III of Portugal                                   20. Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor               10. Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (= 26)                       21. Maria Anna of Spain               5. Maria Anna of Austria (= 13)                             22. Philip William, Elector Palatine (= 18)               11. Eleonor Magdalene of the Palatinate (= 27)                       23. Elisabeth Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt (= 19)               1. João VI of Portugal                                         24. Peter II of Portugal (= 8)               12. John V of Portugal (= 4)                       25. Maria Sofia of the Palatinate (= 9)               6. Joseph I of Portugal                             26. Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (= 10)               13. Maria Anna of Austria (= 5)                       27. Eleonor Magdalene of the Palatinate (= 11)               3. Maria I of Portugal                                   28. Louis, Grand Dauphin               14. Philip V of Spain                       29. Duchess Maria Anna of Bavaria               7. Mariana Victoria of Spain                             30. Odoardo Farnese, Hereditary Prince of Parma               15. Elisabeth Farnese                       31. Countess Palatine Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg

Notes

Bibliography

• Loyola, Leandro (30 January 2008), "A nova história de Dom João VI", Revista Época (in Portuguese) (506) .
• Martins, Ismênia de Lima, "Dom João – Príncipe Regente e Rei – um soberano e muitas controvérsias", Revista Navigator (in Portuguese) (11): 39 .
• Gomes, Laurentino (2007). 1808 — How a mad queen, a coward prince and a corrupt court fooled Napoleon and changed the History of Portugal and Brazil (in Portuguese). Planeta. 

References

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "John VI". Encyclopædia Britannica 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 444. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to John VI of Portugal.

John VI of Portugal House of Braganza Cadet branch of the House of Aviz Born: 13 May 1767 Died: 10 March 1826
Regnal titles
Preceded by Maria I	King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves later King of Portugal and the Algarves 1816–1826	Succeeded by Peter IV
Portuguese royalty
Preceded by Joseph	Prince of Brazil later Prince Royal of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves Duke of Braganza 1788–1816	Succeeded by Pedro

Monarchs of Portugal House of Burgundy (1139–1383) Afonso I Sancho I Afonso II Sancho II Afonso III Dinis I Afonso IV Pedro I Fernando I House of Aviz (1385–1580) João I Duarte I Afonso V João II Manuel I João III Sebastião I Henrique I House of Habsburg (1581–1640) Filipe I Filipe II Filipe III House of Braganza (1640–1853) João IV Afonso VI Pedro II João V José I Maria I with Pedro III João VI Pedro IV Maria II Miguel I Maria II with Fernando II House of Braganza-Coburg (1853–1910) Pedro V Luís I Carlos I Manuel II

Princes of Brazil Teodósio (1645–1653) Afonso (1653–1656) João (1688) João (1689–1706) Pedro (1712-1714) José (1714–1750) Maria (1760–1777) José (1777–1788) João (1788–1816) Pedro (1816–1817)

Dukes of Braganza Feudal Dukes Afonso Fernando I Fernando II Jaime Teodósio I João I Teodósio II João II Heir to the Throne Teodósio Afonso Isabel Luísa João João Maria Bárbara Pedro José Maria Francisca José João Pedro de Alcântara Maria da Glória Pedro Carlos Luís Filipe Claimant to the Throne Miguel Miguel Duarte Nuno Duarte Pio

Infantes of Portugal The generations indicate descent from Afonso I, and continues through the House of Aviz, the House of Habsburg through Infanta Isabel, Holy Roman Empress and Queen of Spain, and the House of Braganza through Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza. 1st generation Infante Henrique Sancho I Infante João 2nd generation Infante Raimundo Afonso II Infante Pedro, Count of Urgell Infante Fernando, Count of Flanders Infante Henrique 3rd generation Sancho II Afonso III Infante Fernando, Lord of Serpa Infante Vicente 4th generation Infante Roberto Infante Fernando Dinis I Infante Afonso, Lord of Portalegre Infante Vicente 5th generation Afonso IV Infante Afonso, Lord of Leiria 6th generation Infante Afonso Infante Dinis Pedro I Infante João 7th generation Infante Luís Fernando I Infante Afonso Infante João, Duke of Valencia de Campos Infante Dinis, Lord of Cifuentes 8th generation Infante Pedro Infante Afonso (1382) Infante Afonso (1390–1400) Duarte I Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra Infante Henrique, Duke of Viseu Infante João, Constable of Portugal Infante Fernando 9th generation Infante João Afonso V Infante Fernando, Duke of Viseu Infante Duarte Infante Pedro, Constable of Portugal Infante João, Prince of Antioch Cardinal-Infante Jaime of Coimbra Infante Diogo, Constable of Portugal 10th generation João, Prince of Portugal João II Infante João, Duke of Viseu Infante Diogo, Duke of Viseu Infante Duarte of Viseu Infante Dinis of Viseu Infante Simão of Viseu Infante Afonso of Viseu Manuel I 11th generation Afonso, Prince of Portugal Infante João Miguel da Paz, Prince of Portugal and Asturias* João III Infante Luís, Duke of Beja Infante Fernando, Duke of Guarda Cardinal-Infante Afonso Henrique I (The Cardinal-King) Infante Duarte, Duke of Guimarães Infante António Infante Carlos 12th generation Afonso, Prince of Portugal Manuel, Prince of Portugal Filipe, Prince of Portugal Infante Dinis João Manuel, Prince of Portugal Infante António Infante Duarte, Duke of Guimarães 13th generation Sebastião I Carlos, Prince of Portugal and Asturias§# Diogo, Prince of Portugal and Asturias§# Filipe II§# Manuel, Hereditary Prince of Portugalƒ 14th generation Filipe III§# Infante Carlos§# Cardinal-Infante Fernando§# Infante Alfonso Mauricio§# 15th generation Baltasar Carlos, Prince of Portugal and Asturias§# Infante Francisco Fernando§# Teodósio, Prince of Brazil Afonso VI Pedro II 16th generation João, Prince of Brazil João V Infante Francisco, Duke of Beja Infante António Infante Manuel, Count of Ourém 17th generation Pedro, Prince of Brazil José I Infante Carlos Pedro III Infante Alexandre 18th generation None 19th generation José, Prince of Brazil Infante João (1762) Infante João Francisco João VI 20th generation Francisco António, Prince of Beira Pedro I of Brazil & IV of Portugal Miguel I Infante Pedro Carlos§ 21st generation Miguel, Prince of Beira João Carlos, Prince of Beira Pedro II of Brazil‡ Infante Miguel, Duke of Braganza Infante Sebastião§ 22nd generation Pedro V¶ Luís I¶ Infante João, Duke of Beja¶ Infante Fernando¶ Infante Augusto, Duke of Coimbra¶ Infante Leopoldo¶ Infante Eugénio¶ Infante Miguel, Duke of Viseu Infante Francisco José Infante Duarte Nuno, Duke of Braganza 23rd generation Carlos I¶ Infante Afonso, Duke of Porto¶ Infante Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza Infante Miguel, Duke of Viseu Infante Henrique, Duke of Coimbra 24th generation Luís Filipe, Prince Royal¶ Manuel II¶ Infante Afonso, Prince of Beira Infante Dinis, Duke of Porto * also an infante of Castile and León, Aragon, Sicily and Naples,  § also an infante of Spain,  # also an archduke of Austria,  ‡ also an imperial prince of Brazil,  ¶ also a prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke in Saxony  ƒ claimant infante

Brazilian Imperial Family Forefathers Queen Maria I* King-Emperor João VI* Queen-Empress Carlota* First generation Emperor Pedro I* Empress Leopoldina* Empress Amélie Second generation Emperor Pedro II Empress Teresa Cristina Maria II of Portugal* Januária, Princess Imperial and Countess of Aquila* Princess Paula Francisca, Princess of Joinville Princess Maria Third generation Afonso, Prince Imperial Pedro, Prince Imperial Isabel, Princess Imperial Prince Gaston of Orléans, Count of Eu Leopoldina, Princess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Fourth generation Prince Pedro Augusto Prince Augusto Leopoldo Prince Jose Fernando Prince Luis Gastao Pedro de Alcântara, Prince of Grão-Pará Prince Luís Princess Maria Pia Prince Antônio Gastão Consorts are in italics - * member of the Portuguese Royal Family

Napoleonic Wars Third Coalition Fourth Coalition Peninsular War Fifth Coalition French Invasion of Russia Sixth Coalition Seventh Coalition Belligerents France, client states and allies France Polish Legions Italy Holland Etruria Swiss Confederation Naples Confederation of the Rhine Bavaria Saxony Westphalia Württemberg Denmark–Norway Ottoman Empire Persia Spain Coalition forces United Kingdom Austria Russia Prussia Spain Portugal Sicily Papal States Ottoman Empire Persia Sardinia Sweden Netherlands Brunswick Hanover Nassau French Royalists Major battles Prelude French Revolution First Coalition Second Coalition 18 Brumaire Planned invasion of the United Kingdom Duc d'Enghien Execution Coronation of Napoleon 1805 Diamond Rock Cape Finisterre Wertingen Günzburg Haslach-Jungingen Elchingen Ulm Verona Trafalgar Caldiero Cape Ortegal Amstetten Dürenstein Schöngrabern Austerlitz 1806 Gaeta Campo Tenese Maida Schleiz Saalfeld Jena–Auerstedt Erfurt Halle Magdeburg Prenzlau Pasewalk Stettin Waren-Nossentin Lübeck Greater Poland Uprising Hameln Czarnowo Golymin Pułtusk 1807 Mohrungen Stralsund Eylau Ostrołęka Kolberg Danzig Mileto Guttstadt-Deppen Heilsberg Friedland Invasion of Portugal 1808 Dos de Mayo Bruch Rosily Squadron Cabezón 1st Zaragoza Valencia Medina de Rioseco Bailén Roliça Vimeiro Pancorbo Valmaseda Burgos Espinosa Tudela Somosierra 2nd Zaragoza Sahagún Benavente 1809 Castellón Uclés Corunna Valls Tyrolean Rebellion Villafranca Yevenes/Yébenes Ciudad Real 1st Porto Medellín Bergisel Sacile Teugen-Hausen Raszyn Abensberg Landshut Eckmühl Ratisbon Neumarkt-Sankt Veit Dalmatian Campaign Ebelsberg Gerona Piave River Grijó 2nd Porto Wörgl Tarvis Aspern-Essling Alcañiz Sankt Michael Stralsund Raab María Graz Wagram Korneuburg Stockerau Gefrees Hollabrunn Schöngrabern Armistice of Znaim Talavera Walcheren Campaign Ölper Almonacid Tamames Ocaña Alba de Tormes 1810 Cádiz Astorga Ciudad Rodrigo Barquilla Côa Almeida Bussaco 1811 Gebora Barrosa Pombal Redinha Casal Novo Campo Maior Sabugal Almeida Fuentes de Oñoro Tarragona Albuera Usagre Saguntum Arroyo dos Molinos Valencia 1812 Ciudad Rodrigo Badajoz Villagarcia Almaraz Maguilla Mir Salamanca García Hernández Saltanovka Ostrovno Vitebsk Klyastitsy Majadahonda Smolensk 1st Polotsk Valutino Mesoten Borodino Burgos Tarutino 2nd Polotsk Venta del Pozo Maloyaroslavets Chashniki Vyazma Smoliani Krasnoi Berezina 1813 Castalla Lützen Bautzen Tarragona Luckau Vitoria San Sebastián Pyrenees Sorauren Großbeeren Katzbach Dresden 1st Kulm San Marcial Dennewitz 2nd Kulm Göhrde Bidassoa Leipzig Hanau Nivelle Bornhöved Sehested 1814 Brienne La Rothière Mincio River Champaubert Montmirail Château-Thierry Vauchamps Garris Mormant Montereau Orthez Bar-sur-Aube Laon Reims Craonne Arcis-sur-Aube Fère-Champenoise Saint-Dizier Montmartre Paris Toulouse Bayonne 1815 Panaro Occhiobello Carpi Casaglia Ronco Cesenatico Pesaro Scapezzano Tolentino Ancona Castel di Sangro San Germano Gaeta Quatre Bras Ligny Waterloo Wavre Rocheserviere La Suffel Rocquencourt Issy Information French and ally military and political leaders Napoleon Louis-Alexandre Berthier Joachim Murat Louis-Nicolas Davout Jean Lannes André Masséna Michel Ney Jean-de-Dieu Soult Jean-Baptiste Bessières Pierre-Charles Villeneuve Joseph I Louis Bonaparte Jérôme Bonaparte Prince Poniatowski Prince Eugène Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria Frederick Augustus I of Saxony Frederick I of Württemberg Frederick VI of Denmark Coalition military and political leaders Duke of Wellington Horatio Nelson Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor Archduke Charles Prince von Schwarzenberg Archduke John of Austria Alexander I of Russia Mikhail Kutuzov Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly Count Bennigsen Pyotr Bagration Frederick William III of Prussia Gebhard von Blücher Duke of Brunswick Prince of Hohenlohe Ferdinand VII of Spain Miguel de Álava Maria I of Portugal Prince Regent John of Portugal Count of Feira William, Prince of Orange Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden Prince Charles John of Sweden Louis XVIII of France Related conflicts English Wars Gunboat War Dano-Swedish War Pomeranian War (Franco-Swedish War) Russo-Persian War Russo-Turkish War Finnish War Anglo-Turkish War Anglo-Russian War Anglo-Swedish War War of 1812 Swedish–Norwegian War Treaties Campo Formio Lunéville Amiens Artlenburg Pressburg Finckenstein Tilsit Cintra Schönbrunn Paris (1810) Tauroggen Ried Chaumont Kiel Mantua Casalanza Paris (1815) Miscellaneous Bibliography Continental System England expects that every man will do his duty Casualties Grande Armée Longwood House Bourbon Restoration Portal Military History definition media quotes

Authority control WorldCat VIAF: 269013446 LCCN: n81118785 ISNI: 0000 0001 2211 9422 GND: 119512602 SUDOC: 050564730 BNF: cb12649127s (data)