Indo-Aryan migration theory

Part of a series on
Indo-European topics
Languages List of Indo-European languages Historical Albanian African Romance Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Insular Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Thracian Illyrian Phrygian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Celtic Proto-Italic Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian)
Philology Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses
Origins Indo-European migrations Homeland Kurgan hypothesis Anatolian hypothesis Paleolithic Continuity Theory Armenian hypothesis Eurasian nomads Indo-Aryan migrations Fringe theories Indigenous Aryans Indo-Aryan migration debate
Archaeology Chalcolithic Steppe Kurgan culture Kurgan Cernavodă Yamna Kemi Oba Domestication of the horse Dnieper-Donets Samara Sredny Stog Khvalynsk Maykop Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Cucuteni Funnelbeaker Bronze Age Steppe Chariot Abashevo culture Andronovo Afanasevo Catacomb Sintashta Srubna Europe Beaker Tumulus Unetice Urnfield Lusatian Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Trzciniec South-Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware
Peoples and societies Reconstructed Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Historical Bronze Age Anatolians Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Iranians Scythians Persians Medes Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkans/Anatolia: Thracians Dacians Illyrians Phrygians Middle Ages Balts Slavs Tocharians Albanians Medieval Europe Greater Persia Medieval India
Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Historical Hittite Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Persian Zoroastrianism Yazdânism Ossetian Paleo-Balkans Armenian Greek Roman Celtic Gaelic Gaulish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic
Academic research Indo-European studies Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary

The Indo-Aryan migration theory^{[note 1]} explains the introduction of the Indo-Aryan languages in the Indian subcontinent by proposing a migration from the Sintashta culture^[3][4] through Bactria-Margiana Culture and into northern Indian subcontinent (modern day India, Pakistan and Nepal). These migrations started approximately 1,800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly Inner Asia. It was part of the diffusion of Indo-European languages from the proto-Indo-European homeland at the Pontic steppe, a large area of grasslands in far Eastern Europe, which started in the 5th to 4th millennia BCE, and the Indo-European migrations out of the Eurasian steppes, which started approximately 2,000 BCE.^[5][2]

The theory posits that these Indo-Aryan speaking people may have been a genetically diverse group of people who were united by shared cultural norms and language, referred to as aryā, "noble." Diffusion of this culture and language took place by patron-client systems, which allowed for the absorption and acculturalisation of other groups into this culture, and explains the strong influence on other cultures with which it interacted.

The idea of an Indo-Aryan immigration was developed shortly after the discovery of the Indo-European language family in the late 18th century, when similarities between western and Indian languages had been noted. Given these similarities, a single source or origin was proposed, which was diffused by migrations from some original homeland. This linguistic argument^[6] is complemented with archaeological, literary, and cultural evidence, and research and discussions on it continue.

The Proto-Indo-Iranians, from which the Indo-Aryans developed, are identified with the Sintashta culture (2100–1800 BCE),^[7] and the Andronovo culture,^[8] which flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in the steppes around the Aral sea, present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. The proto-Indo-Iranians were influenced by the Bactria-Margiana Culture, south of the Andronovo culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians,^[9] whereafter the Indo-Aryans migrated into the Levant and north-western India.

Description of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory

The Indo-Aryan Migration theory is part of a larger theoretical framework. This framework explains the similarities between a wide range of contemporary and ancient languages. It combines linguistic, archaeological and anthropological research.^[10][11] This provides an overview of the development of indo-European languages, and the spread of these Indo-European languages by migration and acculturation.^[11]

Linguistics: relationships between languages

The linguistic part traces the connections between the various Indo-European languages, and reconstructs proto-Indo-European. This is possible because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Especially sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between languages which at first sight might seem very different. ^[11]

Archaeology: migrations

The archaeological part posits an "Urheimat" at the Pontic steppes, which developed after the introduction of cattle at the steppes around 5,200 BCE.^[11] This introduction marked the change from foragist to pastoralist cultures, and the development of a hierarchical social system with chieftains, patron-client systems, and the exchange of goods and gifts.^[11] The oldest nucleus may have been the Samara culture (late 6th and early 5th millennium BC), at a bend in the Wolga.

A wider "horizon" developed, called the Kurgan culture by Marija Gimbutas in the 1950s. She included several cultures in this "Kurgan Culture", including the Samara culture and the Yamna culture, although the Yamna culture (36th–23rd centuries BCE), also called "Pit Grave Culture", may more aptly be called the "nucleus" of the proto-Indo-European language.^[11] From this area, which already included various subcultures, Indo-European languages spread west, south and east starting around 4,000 BCE.^[12] These languages may have been carried by small groups of males, with patron-client systems which allowed for the inclusion of other groups into their cultural system.^[11]

Eastward emerged the Sintashta culture (2100–1800 BCE), from which developed the Andronovo culture (1800–1400 BCE). This culture interacted with the Bactria-Margiana Culture (2300–1700 BCE); out of this interaction developed the Indo-Iranians, which split around 1800 BCE into the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians.^[9] The Indo-Aryans migrated to the Levant, northern India, and possibly south Asia.^[13] The migration into northern India was not a large-scale immigration, but may have consisted of small groups^{[14][note 2]} which were genetically diverse. Their culture and language spread by the same mechanisms of acculturalisation, and the absorption of other groups into their patron-client system.^[11]

Anthropology: elite recruitment and language change

Small groups can change a larger cultural area,^[16][11] and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.^[17][18][19]

David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis"^[20] notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations," but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people,^{[21][note 3]} a process which he calls "elite recruitment".^[22]

Genetics

A 2011 study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics indicates that Indian ancestral components are the result of a more complex demographic history than was previously thought. According to the researchers, South Asia harbours two major ancestral components. One which is more restricted to South Asia and the other component shared at comparable frequency and genetic diversity with the populations of Central Asia, West Asia and the Europe. However, rather than ruling out the possibility of Indo-Aryan migration, these findings suggest that the genetic affinities of both Indian ancestral components are the result of multiple gene flows over the course of thousands of years. ^[23]

Development of the Aryan Migration theory

Similarities between Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Persian, Celtic and German

When the British started to colonize India in the 18th century, they had to impose a legal system on both the British merchants and the Indians. The Indians already had a legal system, which was unknown to the British colonizers. To integrate these systems, the British had to learn Sanskrit, a task which was given to Sir William Jones. He learned Sanskrit, and studied Sanskrit texts, at the ancient Hindu university at Nadiya. He noted the similarities of Sanskrit with Persian, English, Latin, Greek and Gothic. After three years of studies, in an announcement to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, he made the famous statement:

The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family, if this were the place for discussing any question concerning the antiquities of Persia.^{[24][web 1]}

Jones concluded that all these languages originated from the same source.^[24]

Race science

As an exponent of race science, colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley (1851 – 1911) used the ratio of the width of a nose to its height to divide Indian people into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes.^[25][26]

Homeland

Most scholars assumed a homeland either in Europe or in Western Asia, and Sanskrit must in this case have reached India by a language transfer from west to east.^[27][28]

Some scholars favoured an Indian "homeland". In 19th century Indo-European studies, the language of the Rigveda was the most archaic Indo-European language known to scholars, indeed the only records of Indo-European that could reasonably claim to date to the Bronze Age. This primacy of Sanskrit inspired some scholars, such as Friedrich Schlegel, to assume that the locus of the Proto-Indo-European Urheimat (primary homeland) had been in India, with the other dialects spread to the west by historical migration. This was however never a mainstream position even in the 19th century.^[27][28]

"Aryan invasion"

With the 20th-century discovery of Bronze-Age attestations of Indo-European (Anatolian, Mycenaean Greek), Vedic Sanskrit lost its special status as the most archaic Indo-European language known.^[27][28] The excavation of the Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Lothal sites of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) in the 1920,^[29] showed that northern India already had an advanced culture when the Indo-Aryans migrated into the area. The theory changed from a migration of advanced Aryans towards a primitive aboriginal population to a migration of nomadic people into an advanced urban civilization, comparable to the Germanic migrations during the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, or the Kassite invasion of Babylonia.^[30]

This possibility was for a short time seen as a hostile invasion into northern India. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation at precisely the period in history in which the Indo-Aryan migrations probably took place, seemed to provide independent support of such an invasion. This argument was proposed by the mid-20th century archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler, who interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-daro as the victims of conquest wars, and who famously stated that the god "Indra stands accused" of the destruction of the Civilisation.^[30] This position was soon left by the scholarly community, noticing that no evidence was found, and that the skeletons were found to be hasty interments, not massacred victims.^[30] Wheeler himself also nuanced this interpretation in later publications, stating "This is a possibility, but it can't be proven, and it may not be correct."^[31] Wheeler further notes that the unburied corpses may indicate an event in the final phase of human occupation of Mohenjo-Daro, and that there-after the place was uninhabited, but that the decay of Mohenjo-Daro has to be ascribed to structural causes such as salinisation.^[32]

Nevertheless, although "no informed Western scholar speaks of 'invasions' anymore," critics of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory continue to present the theory as an "Aryan Invasion Theory",^{[2][33][note 4]} presenting it as a racist and colonialist discourse:

The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population.^[2]

Aryan migration

In the later 20th century, ideas were refined along with data accrual, and migration and acculturation were seen as the methods whereby Indo-Aryans and their language and culture spread into northwest India around 1500 BC. The term "invasion" is only being used nowadays by opponents of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory.^[2][33] Michael Witzel:

...it has been supplanted by much more sophisticated models over the past few decades [...] philologists first, and archaeologists somewhat later, noticed certain inconsistencies in the older theory and tried to find new explanations, a new version of the immigration theories.^{[2][note 5]}

These changes were thought to be in line with changes in thinking about language transfer in general, such as the migration of the Greeks into Greece (between 2100 and 1600 BC) and their adoption of a syllabic script, Linear B, from the pre-existing Linear A, with the purpose of writing Mycenaean Greek, or the Indo-Europeanization of Western Europe (in stages between 2200 and 1300 BC).

Future directions

Mallory notes that with the development and the growing sophistication of the knowledge on the Indo-European migrations and their purported homeland, new questions arise, and that "it is evident that we still have a very long way to go."^[34] One of those questions is the origin of the shared agricultural vocabulary, and the earliest dates for agriculturalism in areas settled by the Indo-Europeans. Those dates seem to be too late too account for the shared vocabulary, and raise the question what their origin is.^[35]

Stages of migrations

Indo-European migration The Yamna culture 3500-2000 BC. Scheme of Indo-European migrations from ca. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the Kurgan hypothesis. The magenta area corresponds to the assumed Urheimat (Samara culture, Sredny Stog culture). The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 2500 BCE; the orange area to 1000 BCE. (Christopher I. Beckwith (2009), Empires of the Silk Road, Oxford University Press, p.30) Historical spread of the chariot. Dates given in image are approximate BC years. Indo-European isoglosses, including the centum and satem languages (blue and red, respectively), augment, PIE *-tt- > -ss-, *-tt- > -st-, and m-endings. Frequency distribution of R1a1a, also known as R-M17 and R-M198, adapted from Underhill et al. (2009).

Spread of IE-languages Indo-European languages ca. 3500 BC Indo-European languages ca. 2500 BC Indo-European languages ca. 1500 BC Indo-European languages ca. 500 BC Indo-European languages ca. 500 AD

About 6,000 years ago the Indo-Europeans started to spread-out from their proto-Indo-European homeland in Central Eurasia, between the southern Ural Mountains, the North Caucasus, and the Black Sea.^[12] About 4,000 years ago Indo-European speaking peoples started to migrate out of the Eurasian steppes.^{[36][note 6]}

Diffusion from the "Urheimat"

Most scholars regard the middle Volga, which was the location of the Samara culture (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), and the Yamna culture, to be the "Urheimat" of the Indo-Europeans, as described by the Kurgan hypothesis. From this "Urheimat", Indo-European languages spread throughout the Eurasian steppes between ca. 4,500 and 2,500 BCE, forming the Yamna culture.

Three stages of Indo-European migrations out of the Eurasian steppes

The migration out of Central Eurasia proper took place in three distinct stages.^[1]

The first stage occurred at the end of the third millennium.^[1] Indo-European speakers spread to the Caucasus and the Black Sea regions, which were already inhabited by non-Indo-European speaking peoples.^[38] Other groups moved out of Central Eurasia, and are the ancestors of the Tokharians and the Anatolians.^[38]

New dialects arose in Central Eurasia, among them proto-Indo-Iranian.^[38] The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the Andronovo culture,^[8] that flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in an area of the Eurasian steppe. Proto-Indo-Iranian was influenced linguistically by a non-Indo-European people, from whom the Indo-Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices.^[38] This interaction took place in the area of the Bactria-Margiana Culture, south of the Andronovo-culture, in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan.^[38] When the Proto-Indo-Iranian dialect had formed, the speakers of the Greek, Italic, Germanic and Armenian dialects, which would subsequently migrate west, and some speakers of the Indo-Iranian dialect, were in turn influenced by another non-Indo-European language.^[5] In time, the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians were split not only by language, but also became enemies.^[5]

The second stage occurred around the 17th century BCE, with migrations both to western Europe, and to the Middle East and India.^[39] Indo-European speaking people established themselves in part of Europe, the Near East, India, and China.^[1] The Indo-Aryans split-off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians,^[9] where-after they were defeated and split into two groups by the Iranians,^[40] who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone^[5] and "chased [the Indo-Aryans] to the extremities of Central Eurasia,"^[5] to the Levant and India.^[41][42]

The third stage occurred late in the second millennium, or beginning of the first millennium BCE.^[1] It consisted of the Celtic, Slavic, Albanian, and Iranian peoples.^[43]

Formation of Indo-Iranians

Indo-Iranian peoples are a grouping of ethnic groups consisting of the Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Dardic and Nuristani peoples; that is, speakers of Indo-Iranian languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family.

The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the Andronovo culture,^[8] that flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in an area of the Eurasian steppe that borders the Ural River on the west, the Tian Shan on the east. The older Sintashta culture (2100–1800), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon.

The Indo-Aryan migration was part of the Indo-Iranian migrations from the Andronovo culture into Anatolia, Iran and South-Asia.^[38]

Sintashta-Petrovka culture

The Sintashta culture, also known as the Sintashta-Petrovka culture^[44] or Sintashta-Arkaim culture,^[45] is a Bronze Age archaeological culture of the northern Eurasian steppe on the borders of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, dated to the period 2100–1800 BCE.^[46] The Sintashta culture is probably the archaeological manifestation of the Indo-Iranian language group.^[7]

The Sintashta culture emerged from the interaction of two antecedent cultures. Its immediate predecessor in the Ural-Tobol steppe was the Poltavka culture, an offshoot of the cattle-herding Yamnaya horizon that moved east into the region between 2800 and 2600 BCE.^[47] Several Sintashta towns were built over older Poltovka settlements or close to Poltovka cemeteries, and Poltovka motifs are common on Sintashta pottery. Sintashta material culture also shows the influence of the late Abashevo culture, a collection of Corded Ware settlements in the forest steppe zone north of the Sintashta region that were also predominantly pastoralist.^[48] Allentoft et al. (2015) also found close autosomal genetic relationship between peoples of Corded Ware culture and Sintashta culture.^[49]

The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the Old World and played an important role in ancient warfare.^[50] Sintashta settlements are also remarkable for the intensity of copper mining and bronze metallurgy carried out there, which is unusual for a steppe culture.^[51]

Because of the difficulty of identifying the remains of Sintashta sites beneath those of later settlements, the culture was only recently distinguished from the Andronovo culture.^[45] It is now recognised as a separate entity forming part of the 'Andronovo horizon'.^[44]

Andronovo culture

The Andronovo culture is a collection of similar local Bronze Age Indo-Iranian cultures that flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in western Siberia and the west Asiatic steppe. It is probably better termed an archaeological complex or archaeological horizon. The name derives from the village of Andronovo (55°53′N 55°42′E / 55.883°N 55.700°E / 55.883; 55.700), where in 1914, several graves were discovered, with skeletons in crouched positions, buried with richly decorated pottery. The older Sintashta culture (2100–1800), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon.

Sub-cultures have been distinguished:

• Alakul (1800–1400 BCE)
• Fedorovo (1700–1300 BCE)
• Alekseyevka (1200–1000 BCE)

The geographical extent of the culture is vast and difficult to delineate exactly. On its western fringes, it overlaps with the approximately contemporaneous, but distinct, Srubna culture in the Volga-Ural interfluvial. To the east, it reaches into the Minusinsk depression, with some sites as far west as the southern Ural Mountains,^[52] overlapping with the area of the earlier Afanasevo culture.^[53] Additional sites are scattered as far south as the Koppet Dag (Turkmenistan), the Pamir (Tajikistan) and the Tian Shan (Kyrgyzstan). The northern boundary vaguely corresponds to the beginning of the Taiga.^[52] In the Volga basin, interaction with the Srubna culture was the most intense and prolonged, and Federovo style pottery is found as far west as Volgograd.

Towards the middle of the 2nd millennium, the Andronovo cultures begin to move intensively eastwards. They mined deposits of copper ore in the Altai Mountains and lived in villages of as many as ten sunken log cabin houses measuring up to 30m by 60m in size. Burials were made in stone cists or stone enclosures with buried timber chambers.

In other respects, the economy was pastoral, based on cattle, horses, sheep, and goats.^[52] While agricultural use has been posited, no clear evidence has been presented.

Most researchers associate the Andronovo horizon with early Indo-Iranian languages, though it may have overlapped the early Uralic-speaking area at its northern fringe, including the Turkic-speaking area at its northeastern fringe.^[54][55]

Bactria-Margiana Culture

The Bactria-Margiana Culture, also called "Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex", was a non-Indo-European culture which influenced the Indo-European groups of the second stage of the Indo-European migrations.^[38] It was centered in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan.^[38] Proto-Indo-Iranian arose due to this influence.^[38]

The Indo-Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices from this culture.^[38] According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.^[56] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",^[56] which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"^[38] from the Bactria–Margiana Culture.^[38] At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.^[57]

Two waves of Indo-Aryan migration

The Indo-Iranian migrations took place in two waves,^[58][59] belonging to the second and the third stage of the Indo-European migrations.^[60] The first wave consisted of the Indo-Aryan migration into the Levant, founding the Mitanni kingdom in northern Syria^[41] (ca.1500-1300 BCE), and the migration south-eastward of the Vedic people, over the Hindu Kush into northern India.^[42] Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the Wusun, an Indo-European Europoid people of Inner Asia in antiquity, were also of Indo-Aryan origin.^[61] The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave.^[62]

First wave - Indo-Aryan migrations

Mittani

Mitanni (Hittite cuneiformKUR^URUMi-ta-an-ni), also Mittani (Mi-it-ta-ni) or Hanigalbat (Assyrian Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform Ḫa-ni-gal-bat) or Naharin in ancient Egyptian texts was an Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria and south-east Anatolia from ca. 1500 BC–1300 BC.

Founded by an Indo-Aryan ruling class governing a predominately Hurrian population, Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of Amorite^[63] Babylon and a series of ineffectual Assyrian kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia. At the beginning of its history, Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under the Thutmosids. However, with the ascent of the Hittite empire, Mitanni and Egypt made an alliance to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination.

At the height of its power, during the 14th century BC, Mitanni had outposts centered on its capital, Washukanni, whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the Khabur River. Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the Levant of a distinct pottery type. Eventually, Mitanni succumbed to Hittite and later Assyrian attacks, and was reduced to the status of a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire.

The earliest written evidence for an Indo-Aryan language is found not in Northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom.^[64] The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and used Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.^[64] The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom.^[64] And Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.^[65][66][67]

North-India - Vedic culture

Spread of Vedic culture
Early Vedic Period. Painted Grey Ware culture (1200-600 BCE) Kingdoms, tribes and theological schools of the Late Vedic Period. Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE) Northern Black Polished Ware Culture (700-200 BCE) Language families in the Indian subcontinent.

Migration into northern India

The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into India is that Indo-Aryan migrants went over the Hindu Kush, forming the Gandhara grave culture or Swat culture, in present-day Swat valley, either into the headwaters of the Indus or the Ganges (probably both). The Gandhara grave culture, which emerged c. 1600 BC, and flourished from c. 1500 BCE to 500 BCE in Gandhara, modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, is thus the most likely locus of the earliest bearers of Rigvedic culture.

Based on this Parpola postulates a first wave of immigration from as early as 1900 BC, corresponding to the Cemetery H culture, and an immigration to the Punjab ca. 1700-1400 BCE.^{[68][note 7]}

According to Kochhar there were three waves of Indo-Aryan immigration that occurred after the mature Harappan phase:^[69]

1. the "Murghamu" (Bactria-Margiana Culture) related people who entered Baluchistan at Pirak, Mehrgarh south cemetery, and other places, and later merged with the post-urban Harappans during the late Harappans Jhukar phase (2000-1800 BCE);
2. the Swat IV that co-founded the Harappan Cemetery H phase in Punjab (2000-1800 BCE);
3. and the Rigvedic Indo-Aryans of Swat V that later absorbed the Cemetery H people and gave rise to the Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) (to 1400 BCE).

Other scholars have argued for a continuity between the Indus Valley Civilisation and later regional cultures. The Cemetery H culture "shows clear biological affinities" with the earlier population of Harappa.^[70] The archaeologist Kenoyer noted that this culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past.".^[71] Recent excavations in 2008 at Alamgirpur, Meerut District, appeared to show an overlap between the Harappan and PGW pottery^[72] indicating cultural continuity.

Among proponents of Indo-Aryan origin outside of the Indian Subcontinent, there is varying opinion on whether the migrants originated Indic literature such as the Rig Veda,^[73] cultural and social constructs such as caste,^[74] and technology such as chariots^[75] and weaponry.

Spread of Vedic-Brahmanic culture

During the Early Vedic Period (ca.1500-800 BCE^{[web 2]}) the Vedic culture was centered in the northern Punjab, or Sapta Sindhu.^{[web 2]} During the Later Vedic Period (ca.800-500 BCE^{[web 3]}) the Vedic culture started to extend into the western Ganges Plain,^{[web 3]} centering on Kuru and Panchala,^[76] and had some influence^[77] at the central Ganges Plain after 500 BCE.^{[web 4]} Sixteen Mahajanapada developed at the Ganges Plain, of which the Kuru and Panchala became the most notable developed centers of Vedic culture, at the western Ganges Plain^{[web 3][76]}

The Central Ganges Plain, were Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Mauryan Empire, was a distinct cultural area,^[78] with new states arising after 500 BCE^{[web 4]} during the socalled "Second urbanisation".^{[79][note 8]} It was influenced by the Vedic culture,^[77] but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.^[78] It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".^[80] In this region the Shramanic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.^{[76][note 9]}

Inner Asia - Wusun

Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the Wusun, an Indo-European Europoid people of Inner Asia in antiquity, were of Indo-Aryan origin.^[81] From the Chinese term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the Old Chinese *âswin, which he compares to the Old Indic aśvin "the horsemen," the name of the Rigvedic twin equestrian gods.^[81] Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the Indo-Aryans, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremities of the Eurasian Steppe by the Iranian peoples in the 2nd millennium bc.^[82]

The Wusun are first mentioned by Chinese sources as vassals in the Tarim Basin of the Yuezhi,^[83] an Indo-European Europoid people of possible Tocharian stock.^[84][85] Around 175 bc, the Yuezhi were utterly defeated by the Xiongnu, also former vassals of the Yuezhi.^[85][86] The Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun and killed their king (Kunmo Chinese: 昆彌 or Kunmi Chinese: 昆莫) Nandoumi (Chinese: 難兜靡), capturing the Ili Valley from the Saka (Scythians) shortly afterwards.^[86] In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu.^[86][87] The son of Nandoumi was adopted by the Xiongnu king and made leader of the Wusun.^[87] Around 130 bc he attacked and utterly defeated the Yuezhi, settling the Wusun in the Ili Valley.^[87] Soon afterwards they became independent of the Xiongnu, becoming trusted vassals of the Han Dynasty and powerful force in the region for centuries.^[87] With the emerging steppe federations of the Rouran, the Wusun migrated into the Pamir Mountains in the 5th century ad.^[86] They are last mentioned in 938 ad when a Wusun chieftain paid tribute to the Liao dynasty.^[86]

Second wave - Iranians

The first Iranians to reach the Black Sea may have been the Cimmerians in the 8th century BC, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, whom would dominate the area, at their height, from the Carpathian Mountains in the west, to the eastern-most fringes of Central Asia in the east. For most of their existence, they were based in what is modern-day Ukraine and southern European Russia. Sarmatian tribes, of whom the best known are the Roxolani (Rhoxolani), Iazyges (Jazyges) and the Alani (Alans), followed the Scythians westwards into Europe in the late centuries BCE and the 1st and 2nd centuries of the Common Era (The Age of Migrations). The populous Sarmatian tribe of the Massagetae, dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the early rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. In the east, the Saka occupied several areas in Xinjiang, from Khotan to Tumshuq.

The Medes, Parthians and Persians begin to appear on the western Iranian plateau from c. 800 BC, after which they remained under Assyrian rule for several centuries, as it was with the rest of the peoples in the Near East. The Achaemenids replaced Median rule from 559 BC. Around the first millennium of the Common Era (AD), the Kambojas, the Pashtuns and the Baloch began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern and western Pakistan, displacing the earlier Indo-Aryans from the area.

In Central Asia, the Turkic languages have marginalized Iranian languages as a result of the Turkic expansion of the early centuries AD. In Eastern Europe, Slavic and Germanic peoples assimilated and absorbed the native Iranian languages (Scythian and Sarmatian) of the region. Extant major Iranian languages are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi, besides numerous smaller ones.

Linguistics

Accumulated linguistic evidence points to the Indo-Aryan languages as intrusive into South Asia, some time in the 2nd millennium BC. The language of the Rigveda, the earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, is assigned to about 1500–1200 BC.^[88]

Language

Diversity

According to the linguistic center of gravity principle, the most likely point of origin of a language family is in the area of its greatest diversity.^[89] By this criterion, Northern India, home to only a single branch of the Indo-European language family (i. e., Indo-Aryan), is an exceedingly unlikely candidate for the Indo-European homeland, compared to Central-Eastern Europe, for example, which is home to the Italic, Venetic, Illyrian, Albanian, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Thracian and Greek branches of Indo-European.^[90]

Both mainstream Urheimat solutions locate the Proto-Indo-European homeland in the vicinity of the Black Sea.^[91]

Dialectical variation

It has been recognized since the mid-19th century, beginning with Schmidt and Schuchardt, that a binary tree model cannot capture all linguistic alignments; certain areal features cut across language groups and are better explained through a model treating linguistic change like waves rippling out through a pond. This is true of the Indo-European languages as well. Various features originated and spread while Proto-Indo-European was still a dialect continuum.^[92] These features sometimes cut across sub-families: for instance, the instrumental, dative and ablative plurals in Germanic and Balto-Slavic feature endings beginning with -m-, rather than the usual -*bh-, e.g. Old Church Slavonic instrumental plural synъ-mi 'with sons',^[93] despite the fact that the Germanic languages are centum, while Balto-Slavic languages are satem.

The strong correspondence between the dialectical relationships of the Indo-European languages and their actual geographical arrangement in their earliest attested forms makes an Indian origin, as suggested by the Out of India Theory, unlikely.^[94]

Substrate influence

Dravidian and other South Asian languages share with Indo-Aryan a number of syntactical and morphological features that are alien to other Indo-European languages, including even its closest relative, Old Iranian. Phonologically, there is the introduction of retroflexes, which alternate with dentals in Indo-Aryan; morphologically there are the gerunds; and syntactically there is the use of a quotative marker (iti).^{[note 10]} These are taken as evidence of substratum influence.

It has been argued that Dravidian influenced Indic through "shift", whereby native Dravidian speakers learned and adopted Indic languages. The presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is thus plausibly explained, that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned.^[95] Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once – it becomes a question of explanatory parsimony; moreover, early Dravidian influence accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed.^[96]

A pre-Indo-European linguistic substratum in South Asia would be a good reason to exclude India as a potential Indo-European homeland.^[97] However, several linguists, all of whom accept the external origin of the Aryan languages on other grounds, are still open to considering the evidence as internal developments rather than the result of substrate influences,^[98] or as adstratum effects.^[99]

Textual references

Mitanni

The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, is found not in India, but in northern Syria in Hittite records regarding one of their neighbors, the Hurrian-speaking Mitanni. In a treaty with the Hittites, the king of Mitanni, after swearing by a series of Hurrian gods, swears by the gods Mitrašil, Uruvanaššil, Indara, and Našatianna, who correspond to the Vedic gods Mitra, Varuṇa, Indra, and Nāsatya (Aśvin). Contemporary equestrian terminology, as recorded in a horse-training manual whose author is identified as "Kikkuli the Mitannian," contains Indo-Aryan loanwords. The personal names and gods of the Mitanni aristocracy also bear significant traces of Indo-Aryan. Because of the association of Indo-Aryan with horsemanship and the Mitanni aristocracy, it is presumed that, after superimposing themselves as rulers on a native Hurrian-speaking population about the 15th-16th centuries BC, Indo-Aryan charioteers were absorbed into the local population and adopted the Hurrian language.^[100]

Brentjes argues that there is not a single cultural element of central Asian, eastern European, or Caucasian origin in the Mitannian area; he also associates with an Indo-Aryan presence the peacock motif found in the Middle East from before 1600 BC and quite likely from before 2100 BC.^[101]

Most scholars reject the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of Mitanni came from the Indian subcontinent as well as the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of the Indian subcontinent came from the territory of Mitanni, leaving migration from the north the only likely scenario.^{[note 11]} The presence of some Bactria-Margiana loan words in Mitanni, Old Iranian and Vedic further strengthens this scenario.^[103]

Rigveda

Bryant suggests that Indo-Aryans when they arrived in South Asia were a pastoral or nomadic, mobile culture,^[73] but adopted sedentary agricultural practices over time. The Rigveda does not mention rice and other crops, which has led to the hypothesis that these crops may have been unknown to the Rigvedic culture. However, states Bryant, Rigveda is not an agricultural manual, nor historiographical nor ethnographical, and any information about the way of life or the habitat of their authors is incidental and philologically extrapolated from the context.^{[note 12]} Nevertheless, Rigvedic data must be used, cautiously, as they are the earliest available textual evidence from India.

Views on Rigvedic reference to migration

Just as the Avesta does not mention an external homeland of the Zoroastrians, the Rigveda does not explicitly refer to an external homeland^[104] or to a migration.^{[105][note 13]} Later Hindu texts, such as the Brahmanas, Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Puranas, are centered in the Ganges region (rather than Haryana and the Punjab) and mention regions still further to the south and east, suggesting a later movement or expansion of the Vedic religion and culture to the east. There are also references in later literature to tribes moving to the north and west. Talageri speculates that some of the tribes that fought against king Sudas and his army on the banks of the Parusni River during the Dasarajna battle have migrated to western countries in later times,^[106] as they are connected with what he assumes are Iranian peoples (e.g. the Pakthas, Bhalanas).^[107] However, there is no clear indication of general movement in either direction in the Rigveda itself; searching for indirect references in the text, or by correlating geographic references with the proposed order of composition of its hymns, has not led to any consensus on the issue.

Rigvedic Rivers and Reference of Samudra

The geography of the Rigveda seems to be centered on the land of the seven rivers. While the geography of the Rigvedic rivers is unclear in some of the early books of the Rigveda, the Nadistuti hymn is an important source for the geography of late Rigvedic society.

The Sarasvati River is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers. The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later texts like the Brahmanas and Mahabharata mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.^[108]

Most scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River,^[109] while the Afghan river Haraxvaiti/Harauvati Helmand is sometimes quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river.^[110] Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra is a matter of dispute. Identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati with the Ghaggar-Hakra before its assumed drying up early in the second millennium would place the Rigveda BC,^{[web 5]} well outside the range commonly assumed by Indo-Aryan migration theory.

A non-Indo-Aryan substratum in the river-names and place-names of the Rigvedic homeland would support an external origin of the Indo-Aryans. However, most place-names in the Rigveda and the vast majority of the river-names in the north-west of South Asia are Indo-Aryan.^[111] Non-Indo-Aryan names are, however, frequent in the Ghaggar and Kabul River areas,^[112] the first being a post-Harappan stronghold of Indus populations.

Srauta Sutra of Baudhayana

According to Romila Thapar, the Srauta Sutra of Baudhayana...

... refers to the Parasus and the arattas who stayed behind and others who moved eastwards to the middle Ganges valley and the places equivalent such as the Kasi, the Videhas and the Kuru Pancalas, and so on. In fact, when one looks for them, there are evidence for migration.^{[web 6]}

Kalpasutra notes that Pururavas had two sons by Urvasi, named Ayus and Amavasu, Ayus went to east and Amavasu went to west.^{[web 6]}

Iranian Avesta

The religious practices depicted in the Rgveda and those depicted in the Avesta, the central religious text of Zoroastrianism—the ancient Iranian faith founded by the prophet Zarathustra—have in common the deity Mitra, priests called hotṛ in the Rgveda and zaotar in the Avesta, and the use of a ritual substance that the Rgveda calls soma and the Avesta haoma. However, the Indo-Aryan deva 'god' is cognate with the Iranian daēva 'demon'. Similarly, the Indo-Aryan asura 'name of a particular group of gods' (later on, 'demon') is cognate with the Iranian ahura 'lord, god,' which 19th and early 20th century authors such as Burrow explained as a reflection of religious rivalry between Indo-Aryans and Iranians.^[113]

Most linguists such as Burrow argue that the strong similarity between the Avestan language of the Gāthās—the oldest part of the Avesta—and the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rgveda pushes the dating of Zarathustra or at least the Gathas closer to the conventional Rgveda dating of 1500–1200 BC, i.e. 1100 BC, possibly earlier. Boyce concurs with a lower date of 1100 BC and tentatively proposes an upper date of 1500 BC. Gnoli dates the Gathas to around 1000 BC, as does Mallory (1989), with the caveat of a 400-year leeway on either side, i.e. between 1400 and 600 BC. Therefore, the date of the Avesta could also indicate the date of the Rigveda.^[114]

There is mention in the Avesta of Airyan Vaejah, one of the '16 the lands of the Aryans'.^[115] Gnoli's interpretation of geographic references in the Avesta situates the Airyanem Vaejah in the Hindu Kush. For similar reasons, Boyce excludes places north of the Syr Darya and western Iranian places. With some reservations, Skjaervo concurs that the evidence of the Avestan texts makes it impossible to avoid the conclusion that they were composed somewhere in northeastern Iran. Witzel points to the central Afghan highlands. Humbach derives Vaējah from cognates of the Vedic root "vij," suggesting the region of fast-flowing rivers. Gnoli considers Choresmia (Xvairizem), the lower Oxus region, south of the Aral Sea to be an outlying area in the Avestan world. However, according to Mallory & Mair (2000), the probable homeland of Avestan is, in fact, the area south of the Aral Sea.^[116]

Later Vedic and Hindu texts

Texts like the Puranas and Mahabharata belong to a much later period than the Rigveda, making their evidence less than sufficient to be used for or against the Indo-Aryan migration theory.

Vedic

Later Vedic texts show a shift of location from the Panjab to the East: according to the Yajur Veda, Yajnavalkya (a Vedic ritualist and philosopher) lived in the eastern region of Mithila.^[117] Aitareya Brahmana 33.6.1. records that Vishvamitra's sons migrated to the north, and in Shatapatha Brahmana 1:2:4:10 the Asuras were driven to the north.^[118] In much later texts, Manu was said to be a king from Dravida.^[119] In the legend of the flood he stranded with his ship in Northwestern India or the Himalayas.^[120] The Vedic lands (e.g. Aryavarta, Brahmavarta) are located in Northern India or at the Sarasvati and Drsadvati River.^[121] However, in a post-Vedic text the Mahabharata Udyoga Parva (108), the East is described as the homeland of the Vedic culture, where "the divine Creator of the universe first sang the Vedas."^[122] The legends of Ikshvaku, Sumati and other Hindu legends may have their origin in South-East Asia.^[123]

Puranas

The Puranas record that Yayati left Prayag (confluence of the Ganges & Yamuna) and conquered the region of Sapta Sindhu.^[124][125] His five sons Yadu, Druhyu, Puru, Anu and Turvashu correspond to the main tribes of the Rigveda.

The Puranas also record that the Druhyus were driven out of the land of the seven rivers by Mandhatr and that their next king Gandhara settled in a north-western region which became known as Gandhara. The sons of the later Druhyu king Pracetas are supposed by some to have 'migrated' to the region north of Afghanistan though the Puranic texts only speak of an "adjacent" settlement.^[126][127]

Archaeology

Attempts have been made to supplement the linguistic evidence with archaeological data.^[128] Erdosy notes that

... combining the discoveries of archaeology and linguistics has been complicated by mutual ignorance of the aims, complexity and limitations of the respective disciplines.^[129]

The two disciplines focus on two different problems: linguistics tries to explain the linguistic map of south Asia, while archaeology tries to understand the transition between the Indus Valley Civilisation and the Gangetic Civilisations.^[130] Archaeological artifacts may not prove or disprove migrations as such,^{[note 14]} and it may not be possible to identify language within material culture,^[131] but archaeological remains can reflect cultural and societal change,^[131] which may correspond to changes in the population:

Evidence in material culture for systems collapse, abandonement of old beliefs and large-scale, if localised, population shifts in response to ecological catastrophe in the 2nd millennium B.C. must all now be related to the spread of Indo-Aryan languages.^[131]

According to Erdosy, the postulated movements within Central Asia can be placed within a processional framework, replacing simplistic concepts of "diffusion", "migrations" and "invasions".^[132]

Population movements

Erdosy, testing hypotheses derived from linguistic evidence against hypotheses derived from archaeological data,^[129] states that there is no evidence of "invasions by a barbaric race enjoying technological and military superiority",^[133] but

...some support was found in the archaeological record for small-scale migrations from Central to South Asia in the late 3rd/early 2nd millennia BC."^[128]

Jim Shaffer and Lichtenstein contend that in the second millennium BCE considerable "location processes" took place. In the eastern Punjab 79,9% and in Gujarat 96% of sites changed settlement status. According to Shaffer & Lichtenstein,

It is evident that a major geographic population shift accompanied this 2nd millennium BCE localisation process. This shift by Harappan and, perhaps, other Indus Valley cultural mosaic groups, is the only archaeologically documented west-to-east movement of human populations in South Asia before the first half of the first millennium B.C.^[134]

Associated cultures

The Andronovo, Bactria-Margiana and Yaz cultures have been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations, with separation of Indo-Aryans proper from Proto-Indo-Iranians dated to roughly 2000–1800 BC. The Gandhara Grave, Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and Painted Grey Ware cultures are candidates for subsequent cultures associated with Indo-Aryan movements, their arrival in the Indian subcontinent being dated to the Late Harappan period.

It is believed that Indo-Aryans reached Assyria in the west and the Punjab in the east before 1500 BC: the Hurrite speaking Mitanni rulers, influenced by Indo-Aryan, appear from 1500 in northern Mesopotamia, and the Gandhara grave culture emerges from 1600. This suggests that Indo-Aryan tribes would have had to be present in the area of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (southern Turkmenistan/northern Afghanistan) from 1700 BC at the latest (incidentally corresponding with the decline of that culture).

Andronovo

The conventional identification of the Andronovo culture as Indo-Iranian is disputed by those who point to the absence south of the Oxus River of the characteristic timber graves of the steppe.^[135]

Based on its use by Indo-Aryans in Mitanni and Vedic India, its prior absence in the Near East and Harappan India, and its 19-20th century BC attestation at the Andronovo site of Sintashta, Kuzmina (1994) argues that the chariot corroborates the identification of Andronovo as Indo-Iranian. Klejn (1974) and Brentjes (1981) find the Andronovo culture much too late for an Indo-Iranian identification since chariot-wielding Aryans appear in Mitanni by the 15th to 16th century BC. However, Anthony & Vinogradov (1995) dated a chariot burial at Krivoye Lake to about 2000 BC and a Bactria-Margiana burial that also contains a foal has recently been found, indicating further links with the steppes.^[75]

Mallory (as cited in Bryant 2001:216) admits the extraordinary difficulty of making a case for expansions from Andronovo to northern India, and that attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures "only gets the Indo-Iranian to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the Medes, Persians or Indo-Aryans". However he has also developed the "kulturkugel" model that has the Indo-Iranians taking over Bactria-Margiana cultural traits but preserving their language and religion while moving into Iran and India.

Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex

Some scholars have suggested that the characteristically Bactria-Margiana artifacts found at burials in Mehrgarh and Baluchistan are explained by a movement of peoples from Central Asia to the south.^[136]

Jarrige and Hassan argue instead that the Bactria-Margiana artifacts are explained "within the framework of fruitful intercourse" by "a wide distribution of common beliefs and ritual practices" and "the economic dynamism of the area extending from South-Central Asia to the Indus Valley."^[137]

According to Bryant, the exclusively Central Asian Bactria-Margiana material inventory of the Mehrgarh and Baluchistan burials is "evidence of an archaeological intrusion into the subcontinent from Central Asia during the commonly accepted time frame for the arrival of the Indo-Aryans".^{[138][note 15]}

Gandhara grave culture

About 1800 BC, there is a major cultural change in the Swat Valley with the emergence of the Gandhara grave culture. With its introduction of new ceramics, new burial rites, and the horse, the Gandhara grave culture is a major candidate for early Indo-Aryan presence. The two new burial rites—flexed inhumation in a pit and cremation burial in an urn—were, according to early Vedic literature, both practiced in early Indo-Aryan society. Horse-trappings indicate the importance of the horse to the economy of the Gandharan grave culture. Two horse burials indicate the importance of the horse in other respects. Horse burial is a custom that Gandharan grave culture has in common with Andronovo, though not within the distinctive timber-frame graves of the steppe.^[139]

Indus Valley Civilization

Indo-Aryan migration into the northern Punjab is approximately contemporaneous to the final phase of the decline of the Indus-Valley civilization (IVC).

Continuity

According to Erdosy, the ancient Harappans were not markedly different from modern populations in Northwestern India and present-day Pakistan. Craniometric data showed similarity with prehistoric peoples of the Iranian plateau and Western Asia,^{[note 16]} although Mohenjodaro was distinct from the other areas of the Indus Valley.^{[note 17] [note 18]}

Many scholars have argued that the historical Vedic culture is the result of an amalgamation of the immigrating Indo-Aryans with the remnants of the indigenous civilization, such as the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture. Such remnants of IVC culture are not prominent in the Rigveda, with its focus on chariot warfare and nomadic pastoralism in stark contrast with an urban civilization.

Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation

The decline of the IVC from about 1900 BC is not universally accepted to be connected with Indo-Aryan immigration. A regional cultural discontinuity occurred during the second millennium BC and many Indus Valley cities were abandoned during this period, while many new settlements began to appear in Gujarat and East Punjab and other settlements such as in the western Bahawalpur region increased in size.

Kenoyer notes that the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation is not explained by Aryan migrations,^{[142][note 19]} which took place after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

According to Kennedy, there is no evidence of "demographic disruptions" after the decline of the Harappa culture.^{[143][note 20]} Kenoyer notes that no biological evidence can be found for major new populations in post-Harappan communities.^{[144][note 21]} Hemphill notes that "patterns of phonetic affinity" between Bactria and the Indus Valley Civilisation are best explained by "a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional mutual exchange."^{[note 22]}

Anthropology: elite recruitment and language change

Small groups can change a larger cultural area.^[16][11] Several authors note that elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.^[17][18][19]

Basu et al. refer to Renfrew, who described four models for "linguistic replacement":^[17][145]

1. The demographic-subsistence model, exemplified by the process of agricultural dispersal, in which the incoming group has exploitive technologies which makes them dominant. It may lead to significant gene flow, and significant genetical changes in the population. But it may also lead to acculturalisation, in which case the technologies are taken over, but there is less change in the genetic composition of the population;
2. The existence of extended trading systems which lead to the development of a lingua franca, in which case some gene flow is to be expected;
3. The elite dominance model, in which "a relatively small but well-organized group [...] take[s] over the system."^[146] Given the small size of the elite, its genetic influence may also be small, though "preferential access to marriage partners" may result in a relatively strong influence on the gene pool. Sexual asymmetry may also be of influence: incoming elites often consist mostly of males, who have no influence on the mitochondrial DNA of the gene pool, but may influence the Y chromosomes of the gene pool;
4. System collapse, in which territorial boundaries are changed, and elite dominance may appear for a while.

Michael Witzel refers to Ehret’s model^{[note 23]} "which stresses the osmosis, or a "billiard ball," or Mallory’s Kulturkugel, effect of cultural transmission."^[16] According to Ehret, ethnicity and language can shift with relatively easy in small societies, due to the cultural, economic and military choices made by the local population in question. The group bringing new traits may initially be small, contributing features that can be fewer in number than those of the already local culture. The emerging combined group may then initiate a recurrent, expansionist process of ethnic and language shift.^[16]

David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis"^[20] notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations," but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which are emulated by large groups of people.^{[21][note 3][note 24]} Anthony gives the example of the Luo-speaking Acholi in northern Uganda in the 17th and 18th century, whose language spread rapidly in the 19th century.^[18] Anthony notes that "Indo-European languages probably spread in a similar way among the tribal societies of prehistoric Europe," carried forward by "Indo-European chiefs" and their "ideology of political clientage."^[22] Anthony notes that "elite recruitment" may be a suitable term for this system.^{[22][note 25]}

Witzel notes that "arya/ārya does not mean a particular "people" or even a particular 'racial' group but all those who had joined the tribes speaking Vedic Sanskrit and adhering to their cultural norms (such as ritual, poetry, etc.)."^[149] According to Witzel, "there must have been a long period of acculturation between the local population and the "original" immigrants speaking Indo-Aryan."^[150] Witzel also notes that the speakers of Indo-Aryan and the local population must have been bilingual, speaking each other's languages and interacting with each other, before the Rg Veda was composed in the Punjab.^[151]

Genetics

India has one of the genetical most diverse populations in the world. The history of this genetic diversity is the topic of continued research and debate. A recent series of research papers, by Reich et al. (2009), Metspalu et al. (2011), and Moorjani et al. (2013), make clear that India was peopled by two distinct groups ca. 50,000 years ago, which form the basis for the present population of India.^{[web 8][23]} These two groups mixed between 4,200 to 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE-100 CE), whereafter a shift to endogamy took place.^[152] Several studies show significant differences between northern and southern India, and higher and lower castes, with northern India and the higher castes showing stronger relatedness to West Eurasian DNA.^{[web 9][web 10][web 11]} Several studies rule out the possibility of a large-scale "invasion" by Indo-Aryans,^[153] but do show traces of later influxes of genetic material,^{[154][web 12]} while others have argued for the possibility of genetic influx by Aryan migrations.^[155] Genetic studies also show that language shift is possible without a change in genetics.^[156]

"Ancestral North Indians" and "Ancestral South Indians"

Genetical studies reveal that broadly two genetic groups can be discerned in India, namely "Ancestral North Indians" and "Ancestral South Indians."^{[23][web 8][note 26][152][note 27][web 13][web 10]} These two distinct groups peopled India ca. 50,000 years ago, and formed the basis for the present population of India.^{[web 14]}

Reich et al. (2009) discerned

... two ancient populations, genetically divergent, that are ancestral to most Indians today. One, the “Ancestral North Indians” (ANI), is genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans, while the other, the “Ancestral South Indians” (ASI), is as distinct from ANI and East Asians as they are from each other.^{[web 15]}

Based on this research, Lalji Singh, a co-author of Reich, concludes that these findings show that "[t]here is no genetic evidence that Indo-Aryans invaded or migrated to India".^{[web 16][web 17][web 18]}

Metspalu et al. (2011) concluded that the Indian populations are characterized by two major ancestry components, one of which is spread at comparable frequency and haplotype diversity in populations of South and West Asia and the Caucasus. The second component is more restricted to South Asia and accounts for more than 50% of the ancestry in Indian populations. Haplotype diversity associated with these South Asian ancestry components is significantly higher than that of the components dominating the West Eurasian ancestry palette.^{[web 9]}

According to Moorjani et al. (2013), the two groups mixed between 1,900 to 4,200 years ago (2200 BCE-100 CE), where-after "mixture even between closely related groups became rare because of a shift to endogamy."^{[152][note 28]}

Differences and commonalities

A 2011 genetic study by Metspalu et al.

...confirmed the existence of a general principal component cline stretching from Europe to south India.^{[web 9]}

One group is more common in the south, and amongst lower castes, and the other more common amongst upper caste Indians, Indians speaking Indo-European languages, and also Indians living in the northwest.^{[web 10]}

This northwest component is shared with populations from the Middle East, Europe and Central Asia, and is thought to represent at least one ancient influx of people from the northwest.^{[web 10]}

According to Saraswathy et al. (2010), there is "a major genetic contribution from Eurasia to North Indian upper castes" and a "greater genetic inflow among North Indian caste populations than is observed among South Indian caste and tribal populations."^{[web 11]}

According to Basu et al. (2003) and Saraswathy et al. (2010) certain sample populations of upper caste North Indians show a stronger affinity to Central Asian caucasians, whereas southern Indian Brahmins show a less stronger affinity.^{[web 11][web 19]}

Research by Reich et al. indicates that there has been a low influx of female genetic material since 50,000 years ago, but a "male gene flow from groups with more ANI relatedness into ones with less."^{[web 8][note 29]}

Pre-Indo-Aryan origins

According to Kivisild and Metspalu, these groups predate the Indo-Aryan migration.^{[154][web 9]} Kivisild and Metspalu, but also Sharma and Sahoo, based on a series of researches, have concluded that these commonalities of the ANI with European genes cannot be explained by the influx of Indo-Aryans at ca. 3,500 YBP:^{[157][158][159][160]}

Indian tribal and caste populations share a common late Pleistocene maternal ancestry in India."^{[159][note 30]}

Based on these researches, Lalji Singh, a co-author of Reich, concludes that these findings show that "[t]here is no genetic evidence that Indo-Aryans invaded or migrated to India".^{[web 20][web 21][web 22]}

Later migrations

Later migrations had less impact on the gene-pool of South Asia, but traces are discerneable, though not in all cases of documented historical events.

Kivisild et al. (1999) note that "a small fraction of the 'Caucasoid-specific' mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture."^[154] Kivisild et al. (2000) note that "the sum of any recent (the last 15,000 years) western mtDNA gene flow to India comprises, in average, less than 10 per cent of the contemporary Indian mtDNA lineages."^{[web 12]}

Zerjal et al. (2002) argue that "multiple recent events" may have reshaped "this genetic landscape."^{[web 23]}

Bamshad et al. (2001),^[162] Wells et al. (2002) and Basu et al. (2003),^[163] writing before the Metspalu et al. (2011) and Moorjani (2013) publications, argue for an influx of Indo-European migrants into the Indian subcontinent, but not necessarily an "invasion of any kind".^{[web 24]} Bamshad et al. (2001) notice that the correlation between caste-status and West Eurasian DNA may be explained by subsequent male immigration into the Indian subcontinent.^[162] Basu et al. argue that the Indian subcontinent was subjected to a series of Indo-European migrations about 1500 BC.^[163]

Klyosov and Rozhanskii argue that the R1a1 haplotype, which is typical for Indo-Europeans, arose in Central Asia around 20,000 years before present, and spread westwards to Europe and South Asia.^[155] They argue that the haplotype entered India two times, being present already at 12,000 years before present.^[155] According to Klyosov and Rozhanskii, it entered the Russian Plain around 4800–4600 years before present, and from there "migrated (or moved as military expeditions) to the south (Anatolia, Mitanni and the Arabian Peninsula), east (South Ural and then North India), and south-east (the Iranian Plateau) as the historic legendary Aryans."^[155]

Despite centuries of Greek rule in Northwest India, no trace of either the I-M170 or the E-M35 Y DNA paternal haplogroups associated with Greek and Macedonian males lines have been found.^[164] Evidence of E-M35 and J-M12, a supposed Greek or Balkan marker, has been found in three Pakistani populations – the Burusho, Kalash and Pashtun – who claim descent from Greek soldiers.^[165]

Language shift

Elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.^{[17][18][19][note 31]} According to Chaubey et al. (2008), language shift is possible without a change in genetics.^[156]

Controversy

The debate about the origin of Indo-Aryan peoples is controversial in the Indian subcontinent, relating to the indigenous origin of peoples and culture, thus inflaming political and religious sentiments.

"Indigenous Aryans"

Opponents of the Indo-Aryan migration theory question it and instead promote the notion of Indigenous Aryans, which claims that speakers of Indo-Iranian languages (sometimes called Aryan languages) are "indigenous" to the Indian subcontinent.^[166] Within India, several such alternative ideas of the origins of the Indo-Iranian languages and cultures have been developed that purport to show indigenous origins.^[6] They are rejected by mainstream scholars, who point out that they neglect linguistic research,^[6] and are contradicted by a broad range of research on Indo-European migration.^[11]

The proposed "Indigenous Aryans" scenario is based on specific interpretations of archaeological, genetic, and linguistic data and on literary interpretations of the Rigveda.^[167] Standard arguments supporting the "Indigenous Aryans" theory or opposing the mainstream Indo-Aryan migration theory include the following:

• Questioning the Indo-Aryan migration theory:

• Presenting the Indo-Aryan migration theory as an "Indo-Aryan invasion theory";^{[2][note 32]}
• Questioning the methodology of linguistics;^[168][169]
• Reinterpretation of the linguistic data, arguing for the ancient, indigenous origins of Sanskrit;^[170][168]
• Pointing to the supposed lack of genetic and archaeological evidence to support such an "invasion" into North West India;^{[168][note 33]} Shaffer contends:

There were no invasions from central or western South Asia. Rather there were several internal cultural adjustments reflecting altered ecological, social and economic conditions affecting northwestern and north-central South Asia.^[173]

• Lal notes that at Kalibangan (at the Ghaggar river) the remains of what some writers claim to be fire altars have been unearthed that are claimed to have been used for Vedic sacrifices, although the presence of animal bones does not seem consistent with Vedic rites. In addition, the remains of a bathing place (suggestive of ceremonial bathing) have been found near the altars in Kalibangan.^[174] S.R. Rao found similar "fire altars" in Lothal which he thinks could have served no other purpose than Vedic ritual.^[175] The sites in Kalibangan are dated back to pre-Harappan times i.e. 3500 BC, well before any likely date for the Indo-Aryan migrations, so this may suggest that Vedic rites are indigenous to India and not brought in from outside.^[176]</ref>^{[note 14]} Archaeological continuity can be supported for every Indo-European-speaking region of Eurasia, not just India.^{[subnote 3][subnote 4]} Several historically documented migrations, such as those of the Helvetii to Switzerland, the Huns into Europe, or Gaelic-speakers into Scotland are not attested in the archaeological record.^{[subnote 5]}> As ^[182] sums up, "archaeology can verify the occurrence of migration only in exceptional cases".</ref>

• Contesting the possibility that small groups can change culture and languages in a major way;^[183]

• Redating India's chronology, re-establishing the Vedic-Puranic chronology:

• Dating the Rg Veda and the Vedic people to the 3rd millennium BCE or earlier;^[184]
• Identifying the Sarasvati River with the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which dried-up at ca. 2000 BCE;^[185]
• Identifying the Vedic people with the Harappan Civilisation;^[186]
• Equating the Harappan Civilisation, Vedic Culture and the Vedic-Puranic chronology.^[187]

These ideas have been answered and rejected in mainstream scholarship.^{[188][10][189]}

Hindu nationalism

Nationalistic movements in India oppose the idea that Hinduism has partly endogenous origins.^{[6][190][191][note 34]} For the founders of the contemporary Hindutva movement, the Aryan migration theory presented a problem.^[192] The Hindutva-notion that the Hindu-culture originated in India was threatened by the notion that the Aryans originated outside India.^[192] Later Indian writers regarded the Aryan migration theory to be a product of colonialism, aimed to denigrate Hindus.^[193] According to them, Hindus had existed in India from times immemorial, as expressed by M. S. Golwalkar:^[193]

Undoubtedly ... we Hindus have been in undisputed and undisturbed possession of this land for over 8 or even 10 thousand years before the land was invaded by any foreign race. (Golwakar [1939] 1944)^{[193][note 35][note 36][note 9]} Hinduism itself is "a fusion of Arian and Dravidian cultures".^[196] Among its roots are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India,^{[web 26]} but also the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation,^{[197][198][199][200]} the Shramana^[201] or renouncer traditions^[202] of north-east India,^[201] and "popular or local traditions".^[202] The "Hindu synthesis" emerged around the beginning of the Common Era.^[203][204]</ref>

Racism

The debate inflames issues around racism and the idea of race, as the origin of the theory was intertwined with the desire of many in the Western world to find the origin of a pure Aryan race, the division of castes by racial basis, and the idea of an Indo-Aryan and Dravidian relating to language families rather than race.^[205][206]

Dalit response

The Dalit and Self-Respect Movement bases much of its identity on the idea of the indigenous origin of Dalits as opposed to transgressing Indo-Aryans.^{[207][208][209][210][211]}

See also

Notes

Subnotes

References

Sources

Published sources

Web-sources

Further reading

• Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press 
• Beckwith, Christopher I. (2006), Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 1400829941 
• Heggarty, Paul. (2013) "Europe and western Asia: Indo‐European linguistic history." in Immanuel Ness and Peter Bellwood, eds., The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration (2013) ch 19
• Mallory, J.P.; Adams, D.Q. (1997), Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Taylor & Francis 
• Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-513777-9 
• Bryant, Edwin F.; Patton, Laurie L., eds. (2005), The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian history (PDF), London: Routledge, ISBN 0-7007-1463-4 
• Harvey, David Allen. "The Lost Caucasian Civilization: Jean-Sylvain Bailly and the Roots of the Aryan Myth." Modern Intellectual History 11#2 (2014): 279-306. on the 18th century origins of the theory
• Jha, Murari Kumar (2014). "Migration, Settlement, and State Formation in the Ganga Plain: A Historical Geographic Perspective". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 57 (4): 587–627. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341359. 
• Pereltsvaig, Asya; Lewis, Martin W. (2015), The Indo-European Controversy, Cambridge University Press 

External links

Overview

• Hindu students council, North Carolina state university, Aryan Invasion/Migration Theory
• Archaeology Online, The Aryan Invasion: theories, counter-theories and historical significance
• Thapar, Romila: The Aryan question revisited (1999)
• Francesco Brighenti, Selected Internet Resources on the Aryan Migration Theory (AMT) Debate
• FOSA, 'Aryan Invasion/Migration

Linguistics

• The Home of the Aryans by Michael Witzel (pdf)
• Agarwal, Vishal: Is There Vedic Evidence for the Indo-Aryan Immigration to India? (pdf)

Archaeology

• Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India
• Lal, B.B.: The Homeland of Indo-European Languages and Culture: Some Thoughts By Archaeologist B.B. Lal
• Danino, Michel: The Indus-Sarasvati Civilization and its Bearing on the Aryan Question Article by Michel Danino
• Agrawal, D.P.: The Indus Civilization = Aryans equation: Is it really a Problem? By D.P. Agrawal (pdf)

Genetics

• FOSA, Recent Findings in Archeogenetics and the Aryan Migration Theory - Abstracts of Key Studies
• Genetic Evidence on the origins of Indian Caste Population, Genome Research, 2001
• A prehistory of Indian Y chromosomes: Evaluating demic diffusion scenarios, PNAS paper, 2006
• Peopling of South Asia: investigating the caste-tribe continuum in India, 2006

Critics

• Elst, Koenraad: Update on the Aryan Invasion Theory - K. Elst's Online book, Articles, Book reviews
• Kazanas, Nicholas homepage Articles by Nicholas Kazanas
• The Myth of the Aryan Invasion by David Frawley mirror

Ancient South Asia and Central Asia Archaeology and prehistory Proto-Indo-Iranians Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) Indo-Aryan migration Swat culture Kamboja migration Genetics and archaeogenetics History of the horse Historical peoples and clans Saka Indo-Scythians Yuezhi Kambojas Sakaldwipiya Parsi States Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Indo-Greek Kingdom Indo-Parthian Kingdom Kushan Empire Kamboja Kingdom Mythology and literature Shakdvipa Aryavarta Indo-Scythians in Indian literature Kambojas in Indian literature Uttaramadra Uttarakuru

India topics   History Overviews Timeline Years Astronomy Economics Linguistics Maritime Mathematics Metallurgy Military Postal Science and technology Pre-colonial Stone Age Indus Valley Civilization Vedic period Mahajanapadas Mauryas Middle kingdoms Hoysala Chola Pala Kakatiya Delhi Sultanate Vijayanagara Mughals Marathas European trade Colonial Princely East India Company Plassey 1857 rebellion British Raj Railways Economy Army Zamindari Bengali renaissance Political reforms Princely states Partition of Bengal Independence movement 1943 famine World War II Partition Republic Integration Non-Aligned Movement Five-Year Plans Sino-Indian War Indo-Pakistani wars Green Revolution White Revolution Naxal Insurgency Smiling Buddha Space programme The Emergency Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) Economic liberalisation Pokhran-II   Geography Environment Biosphere reserves Climate Climatic regions Earthquakes Ecoregions Environmental issues Fauna Flora Geology National parks Protected areas Wildlife sanctuaries Landforms Beaches Desert Extreme points Glaciers Islands Lakes Mountains Plains Indo-Gangetic Eastern coastal Western coastal Rivers Valleys Volcanoes Waterfalls Regions East North Northeast South West Subdivisions Autonomous administrative divisions Cities Districts Municipalities States and territories   Politics Government Agencies Cabinet Energy policy Foreign relations Parliament President Vice President Prime Minister Deputy Prime Minister State governments Law Chief Justice Constitution District Courts Fundamental rights, principles and duties High Courts Human rights Supreme Court Enforcement Federal Border Security Force (BSF) Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) National Security Guard (NSG) Railway Protection Force (RPF) Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) Special Protection Group (SPG) Intelligence Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D) Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) Intelligence Bureau (IB) Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) National Investigation Agency (NIA) Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW) Military Army Navy Air Force Coast Guard Politics Censorship Elections Nationalism Parliament Lok Sabha Rajya Sabha Political parties INC BJP BSP CPI CPM NCP Reservations Scandals Scheduled groups Secularism   Economy Agriculture Animal husbandry Companies Economic development Energy nuclear wind solar Fishing Forestry Income International rankings Labour Reserve Bank Retailing in India Supermarket chains in India Indian fast food Rupee (currency) Stock exchanges Bombay (BSE) National (NSE) Telecommunications Tourism Transport Aviation   Society Culture Society Caste system Corruption Demographics Education Universities in India Medical colleges in India Law schools in India Ethnic relations Healthcare Hospitals in India Languages Literacy Poverty Prisons Religion Socio-economic issues Standard of living Water supply and sanitation Culture Arts and entertainment Architecture Cinema Cuisine wine Dance Dress Folklore Festivals Literature Media television Martial arts Music Public holidays Sport Bibliography Book Category Commons Portal WikiProject