McCarran International Airport

"Las Vegas Airport" redirects here. For the airport in Las Vegas, New Mexico, see Las Vegas Municipal Airport.
McCarran International Airport
IATA: LASICAO: KLASFAA LID: LAS
WMO: 72386
Summary
Airport type Public
Owner Clark County
Operator Clark County Department of Aviation
Serves Las Vegas Valley
Location Paradise, Nevada
Focus city for
Elevation AMSL 2,181 ft / 665 m
Coordinates 36°04′48″N 115°09′08″W / 36.08000°N 115.15222°W / 36.08000; -115.15222Coordinates: 36°04′48″N 115°09′08″W / 36.08000°N 115.15222°W / 36.08000; -115.15222
Website mccarran.com
Maps

FAA diagram
LAS

Location in Las Vegas

Runways
Direction Length Surface
ft m
1L/19R 8,988 2,740 Concrete
1R/19L 9,771 2,978 Concrete
7L/25R 14,512 4,423 Asphalt
7R/25L 10,525 3,208 Concrete
Statistics (2014)
Aircraft operations 527,739
Passengers 42,869,517
Based aircraft 130
Sources: ACI[1] and FAA[2]

McCarran International Airport (IATA: LAS, ICAO: KLAS, FAA LID: LAS) is the main commercial airport for the Las Vegas Valley and Clark County, Nevada, United States. It is about 5 miles (8.0 km) south of downtown Las Vegas, in the unincorporated area of Paradise in Clark County. It covers roughly 2,800 acres (1,100 ha), with four runways and two terminals. McCarran is owned by Clark County and operated by the Clark County Department of Aviation (DOA).[2] The airport is named after former Nevada senator Pat McCarran (1876–1954).[3]

The airport is a focus city and the largest operating base for Allegiant Air and Southwest Airlines.[4] In February 2012, McCarran also became a crew and maintenance base for Spirit Airlines.[5]

McCarran is the 24th busiest airport by passenger traffic in the world, with 41,856,787 passengers passing through the airport in 2013.[1] In terms of aircraft movements, the airport ranks 8th in the world with 527,739 takeoffs and landings.[6]

Between November 2014 and October 2015, the busiest scheduled airlines flying out of McCarran were Southwest Airlines (44%), United Airlines (9%), Delta Air Lines (9%), American Airlines (9%), and Spirit Airlines (7%).[7] Canadian airline WestJet is McCarran’s largest international carrier, transporting roughly 1.1 million passengers in 2014 and connecting Las Vegas with 12 cities in Canada.[8]

History

Early years

Senator Pat McCarran handing mail bag to Pony Express rider at dedication ceremony

In the beginning, Rockwell Field was the airport serving Las Vegas. Western Air Express Airlines brought scheduled flights to the airport in 1926.[3] Rockwell Field closed in 1930 and was replaced by a new airport northwest of town, later named McCarran Airport. The United States Army Air Corps, who had been surveying the Las Vegas area since the 1930s, became interested in the new airport. During World War II, they established a gunnery training school there, which closed at the end of the war.[3] However, the Air Force wanted to reopen the base in 1947, provided commercial air traffic was transferred to a different airport. (The reopened base would become Nellis AFB.) County officials selected Alamo Field as the new commercial airport.[3] American aviator George Crockett, who established the field in 1942, agreed to sell Alamo Field to Clark County. On December 19, 1948, the airport was renamed McCarran Field after then senator Pat McCarran, a longtime Nevada politician who authored the Civil Aeronautics Act and played a major role in developing aviation nationwide.[3]

In its first full year McCarran Field was used by more than 35,000 passengers. Traffic increased as Las Vegas’ casino/resort industry expanded during the 1950s; 959,603 passengers passed through the airport in 1959.[3] The April 1949 Official Airline Guide shows 12 departures a day; 33 weekday departures in April 1957 and 41 in May 1959. Nonstops to Chicago started about 1954 and to New York in 1963; jet flights (United 720s) began in Aug-Sept 1960.

The increase in air traffic necessitated a new terminal, which opened on Paradise Rd on March 15, 1963.[3][9] The terminal, designed by Welton Becket and Associates and John Replogle, was inspired by the TWA terminal at JFK.[9] Four years after the airport was officially renamed McCarran International Airport, the A and B gates were constructed to meet the constant need for growth.[3]

In 1978 Senator Howard Cannon pushed the Airline Deregulation Act through Congress. Airlines no longer had to obtain the federal government's permission to fly to a city, but instead dealt directly with airports. After deregulation, the number of airlines at McCarran doubled from seven to fourteen.[3]

An expansion plan, McCarran 2000, was adopted in 1978 and funded by a $300 million bond issue in 1982. The three-phase plan included a new central terminal; a nine-level parking facility; runway additions and expansions; additional gates; upgraded passenger assistance facilities; and a new tunnel and revamped roadways to the airport. The first phase of McCarran 2000 opened in 1985 and was completed by 1987, with the opening of the C-Gates satellite concourse.[3]

A second terminal opened in 1986, but did not have much use until 1991. It had eight gates and served all charter and international airlines at McCarran.[10]

Development since the 1990s

In June 2000 Virgin Atlantic began the first nonstop flights from Las Vegas to the United Kingdom.[11]

In 1997 McCarran became the first U.S. airport to implement Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE). This common set of computer hardware eliminates the need for each airline to have their own equipment, and it allows the airport to reassign gates and counters without having to address individual airlines' computer systems. McCarran is also among the only major airports in the United States that entirely uses CUTE.[12][13]

In 1998 the D-Gate concourse's southeast and southwest wings opened, adding 28 gates. They were designed by Leo A Daly and Tate & Snyder.[14] The D Gates project is a modification to the original McCarran 2000 plan.

On October 16, 2003 the airport installed SpeedCheck kiosks which allow customers to obtain a boarding pass without having to go to a specific airline kiosk or counter. McCarran was the first airport in the US to provide this service and the first in the world to provide the service to all airlines from a single kiosk.[15][16][17] At the same time, six kiosks were activated at the Las Vegas Convention Center allowing convention attendees to get boarding passes on their way to the airport.[15] This system was enhanced to add printing of baggage tags in 2005.

In 2003 the airport announced it was implementing a baggage-tracking system that will use Radio-frequency identification (RFID) bag tags from Matrics Inc. to improve air safety. The decision to implement the tracking system makes McCarran one of the first airports to use the RFID technology airport-wide.[18]

On January 4, 2005 the airport started offering wireless internet service at no charge. The signal is available in the boarding areas and most other public areas. While not the first airport to offer free WiFi throughout the entire facility,[19] the airport was perhaps the first major airport with free WiFi throughout.[20] At the time, this was the largest (2 million square feet (180,000 m²)) free wireless Internet installation in the world.[21]

The finished Concourse D in 2009, with Terminal 3 under construction in the background.

In 2005, the northeast wing of the D-Gates concourse opened with eleven gates. A 160-foot (49 m) ramp control tower was also added to the concourse.[22]

On April 4, 2007, the consolidated rental car facility opened, which is located 3 miles (5 km) from the terminals (see Transportation section). The distance from the airport (including a segment of US Interstate 215) requires the facility to be permanently linked via bus to the airport.[23]

In 2008, the northwest wing of the D-Gates concourse opened with another nine gates. It cost $179 million to build. With the concourse now completed, there are a total of 44 parking positions at the D-Gates for aircraft.[24]

Due to cost-cutting moves at US Airways as a result of the 2008 night-flight hub closure, the US Airways Club was closed on September 13, 2009, and was subsequently replaced by a USO office.[25] The United Club in Concourse D, which opened earlier that year, replaced a Delta Air Lines Crown Room Club that was previously closed in 2001.

The US Airways night-flight hub operation, established in 1986 by predecessor America West Airlines, made the carrier McCarran's second busiest airline. Due to the 2008 energy crisis, the night-flight hub was closed in September 2008. US Airways closed its crew base on January 31, 2010.[26] On August 31, 2011, US Airways announced that it will keep shrinking its operations by cutting 40% of its flights out of Las Vegas. The airline eliminated nonstop service to Boston, Dallas/Fort Worth, Fresno, Los Angeles, and San Francisco on November 29, 2011, leaving the airline with only flights from Las Vegas to its hubs in Charlotte, Philadelphia, Phoenix, and its focus city at Washington Reagan National Airport.[27] Due to the merger with American Airlines, flights to Los Angeles and Dallas/Fort Worth were eventually restored.

Latest developments

Terminal 3 under construction in 2009.

Since the early 2000s, international traffic to Las Vegas has increased significantly. McCarran experienced a 92% increase in the amount of foreign passengers it received between 2003 and 2011.[28]

New international routes have facilitated the flow of foreign passengers to the airport. In October 2009, British Airways began nonstop flights to London–Heathrow, opening McCarran to connections from Africa, the Middle East, and beyond.[29]

To accommodate this increase in traffic, Terminal 3 was opened on June 27, 2012. It was designed by PGAL Architecture, Robert A. Fielden, Inc., and Welles Puglsey Architect.[30] The terminal covers 1.9 million square feet (176,500 square meters) and cost $2.4 billion to build, making it the largest public works project in Nevada. It increased the total number of gates at McCarran to 110. Adjacent to the terminal is a multistory parking garage with nearly 6,000 spaces.

On October 29, 2014, runway 7L/25R, McCarran's longest runway that is often used by widebody aircraft, closed for resurfacing, in which the asphalt will be replaced by more durable concrete.[31] The $65 million project will take twelve months, split over two years. The fully resurfaced runway will open on May 1, 2016.[32]

In August 2015 the airport announced plans to convert 7 gates in Concourse D to international gates, connected by tram to Customs in Terminal 3. Construction of the underground tram link will cost $51 million, beginning in November and ending in early 2017.[33]

Terminals

Baggage claim in Terminal 1
Welcome sign at the D-Gates.
Landside corridor of Terminal 3.

Terminal 1

Terminal 1 is spread across four concourses: Concourse A (gates A3, A5, A7, A8, A10–12, A14, A15, A17–23), Concourse B (gates B1–B2, B6, B9–B12, B14, B15, B17, B19–B25), Concourse C (gates C1–C5, C7–C9, C11, C12, C14, C16, C19, C21–C25), and Concourse D (gates D1, D3–D12, D14, D16–D26, D31–D43, D50–D58). Ticketing and baggage claim facilities are located in a central area, connected to concourses A and B via walking pathways and to concourses C and D via a people mover system.

The terminal houses four lounges. Near the security checkpoint for concourses A and B is a USO lounge for American service members; Concourse D has a United Club (operated as a Crown Room Club for Delta Airlines between 1998 and 2001), The Club at LAS, and the American Express Centurion Lounge.

Concourse D

Concourse D is a satellite terminal, which opened in three stages between 1998 and 2009. While considered part of Terminal 1, the concourse also handles flights for Air Canada rouge, Air Transat, Frontier Airlines, Hawaiian Airlines, Sun Country Airlines, and United Airlines, whose ticketing and baggage claim facilities are located in Terminal 3. These facilities are connected to Concourse D via a separate line of the people mover system.

Terminal 3

Terminal 3, opened in June 2012, is used for all international flights and the domestic flights of Alaska Airlines, JetBlue Airways, and Virgin America. It contains 14 gates, the westernmost 7 (E1–E7) used for the domestic flights and the easternmost 7 (E8–E12, E14–E15) used for the international flights. Four of the latter gates are equipped with two jetways, making them capable of handling widebody aircraft.

Former Terminal 2

Terminal 2, which softly opened in 1986, officially opened on December 18, 1991, as The Charter International Terminal, and was used for all international as well as most charter flights into Las Vegas. It contained eight gates (T2-1 through T2-8), four of which were equipped with facilities for international flights, and a VIP lounge for full-fare, first class passengers. Terminal 2 closed on June 28, 2012, with the opening of Terminal 3.[34] Demolition of the terminal had commenced by February 2016.[35]

Airlines and destinations

Passenger

McCarran is a focus city for Allegiant Air.
Korean Air operates the only nonstop service between McCarran and Asia, flying from Seoul–Incheon with a Boeing 777-300ER
Volaris and Aeroméxico aircraft at Terminal 3
A Norwegian Air Shuttle Boeing 787-8 arriving from Stockholm.
AirlinesDestinationsTerminal-Concourse
Aeroméxico Mexico City, Monterrey 3-E
Air Canada Rouge Calgary, Montréal–Trudeau, Toronto–Pearson, Vancouver 3-D
Air Transat Seasonal: Toronto–Pearson 3-D
Alaska Airlines Portland (OR), Seattle/Tacoma
Seasonal: Anchorage, Bellingham
3-E
Alaska Airlines
operated by Horizon Air
Salt Lake City 3-E
Allegiant Air Appleton, Austin, Belleville/St. Louis, Bellingham, Billings, Bismarck, Boise, Bozeman, Casper, Cedar Rapids/Iowa City, Chicago/Rockford, Cincinnati, Colorado Springs, Des Moines, El Paso (begins May 6, 2016),[36] Eugene, Fargo, Fayetteville/Bentonville, Fresno, Grand Forks, Grand Island, Grand Junction, Grand Rapids, Great Falls, Honolulu, Idaho Falls, Indianapolis, Kalispell, Knoxville (resumes May 13, 2016),[36] Laredo, McAllen (TX), Medford, Memphis, Minot, Missoula, Monterey, Moline/Quad Cities, Oklahoma City, Peoria, Phoenix/Mesa, Rapid City, Reno/Tahoe, San Antonio, Santa Maria (CA), Shreveport, Sioux Falls, South Bend, Springfield/Branson, Stockton, Tri-Cities (WA), Tulsa, Wichita
Seasonal: Montrose
1-A
American Airlines Charlotte, Chicago–O'Hare, Dallas/Fort Worth, Los Angeles, Miami, New York–JFK, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Washington–National 1-D
Boyd Vacations Hawaii
operated by Omni Air International
Charter: Honolulu 1-A
British Airways London–Gatwick (ends April 25, 2016),[37] London–Heathrow 3-E
Condor Frankfurt 3-E
Copa Airlines Panama City 3-E
Delta Air Lines Atlanta, Cincinnati, Detroit, Los Angeles, Minneapolis/St. Paul, New York–JFK, Orlando, Salt Lake City, Seattle/Tacoma 1-D
Delta Connection Los Angeles, Salt Lake City, San Jose (CA), Seattle/Tacoma 1-D
Edelweiss Air Seasonal: Zürich 3-E
Eurowings
operated by SunExpress Deutschland
Cologne/Bonn (begins June 1, 2016)[38] 3-E
Frontier Airlines Atlanta, Austin, Chicago–O'Hare, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Colorado Springs (begins April 14, 2016),[39] Columbus (OH) (begins June 1, 2016),[39] Denver, Houston–Intercontinental, Milwaukee, Miami, Orlando, Pittsburgh (begins June 17, 2016),[39] San Antonio (begins May 15, 2016),[39] San Francisco, St. Louis, Washington–Dulles 3-D
Hawaiian Airlines Honolulu 3-D
Interjet Monterrey, Toluca/Mexico City 3-E
JetBlue Airways Boston, Fort Lauderdale, Long Beach, New York–JFK, San Francisco 3-E
Korean Air Seoul–Incheon 3-E
Magnicharters Charter: Monterrey 3-E
Norwegian Air Shuttle
operated by Norwegian Long Haul
Copenhagen, Stockholm–Arlanda 3-E
Southwest Airlines Akron/Canton (ends April 12, 2016),[40] Albany, Albuquerque, Amarillo, Atlanta, Austin, Baltimore, Birmingham (AL), Boise, Buffalo, Burbank, Chicago–Midway, Cleveland, Columbus (OH), Dallas–Love, Denver, Des Moines, Detroit, El Paso, Flint (ends April 11, 2016),[41] Fort Lauderdale, Hartford, Houston–Hobby, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Little Rock, Los Angeles, Louisville, Lubbock, Midland/Odessa, Milwaukee, Nashville, New Orleans, Newark (begins April 12, 2016),[42] Oakland, Oklahoma City, Omaha, Ontario, Orange County, Orlando, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Pittsburgh, Portland (OR), Raleigh/Durham, Reno/Tahoe, Sacramento, St. Louis, Salt Lake City, San Antonio, San Diego, San Francisco, San Jose (CA), Seattle/Tacoma, Spokane, Tampa, Tucson, Tulsa, Washington–Dulles, Wichita
Seasonal: Manchester (NH), Jacksonville (FL), Norfolk/Virginia Beach, Providence
1-B, 1-C
Spirit Airlines Atlanta, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago–O'Hare, Cleveland, Dallas/Fort Worth, Denver, Detroit, Houston–Intercontinental, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Minneapolis/St. Paul, New Orleans, Oakland, Philadelphia, Portland (OR), San Diego, Seattle/Tacoma (begins April 14, 2016)[43]
Seasonal: Fort Lauderdale
1-B
Sun Country Airlines Minneapolis/St. Paul 3-D
Sunwing Airlines Toronto–Pearson 3-E
Thomas Cook Airlines Manchester (UK)
Seasonal: Glasgow–International, London–Stansted
3-E
United Airlines Chicago–O'Hare, Cleveland (ends May 4, 2016),[44] Denver, Houston–Intercontinental, Los Angeles, Newark, San Francisco, Washington–Dulles 3-D
United Express Denver, Los Angeles, San Francisco 3-D
Virgin America Dallas–Love, Los Angeles, New York–JFK, San Francisco
Seasonal: Boston
3-E
Virgin Atlantic London–Gatwick
Seasonal: Glasgow–International, Manchester (UK)
3-E
Volaris Guadalajara, Mexico City 3-E
WestJet Abbotsford, Calgary, Edmonton, Montréal–Trudeau, Regina, Saskatoon, Toronto–Pearson, Vancouver, Victoria, Winnipeg
Seasonal: Kelowna, Ottawa
3-E

Cargo

In October 2010, the Marnell Air Cargo Center was opened, replacing a smaller facility that existed in the Terminal 3 construction site.[45] Located just east of Terminal 3, the center cost $29 million to build and occupies 200,928 sq ft (18,666.8 m2).[46] Tenants include UPS, Allegiant Air, Worldwide Flight Services, Airport Terminal Services, Southwest Airlines, and FedEx.[47]

In 2015, the center handled 218,209,135 pounds (98,977,999 kg) of cargo.[48]

AirlinesDestinations
Aloha Air CargoHonolulu
FedEx ExpressMemphis, Oakland, Reno/Tahoe
UPS AirlinesLouisville, Ontario

Other terminal operations

An arriving Janet Boeing 737-600

Statistics

Domestic destinations served nonstop from McCarran, as of September 2013.
Countries served nonstop from McCarran as of February 2016.

Top domestic destinations

Busiest domestic routes from LAS (Dec 2014 – Nov 2015)[7]
Rank City Passengers Carriers
1 Los Angeles, California 1,253,000 American, Delta, Southwest, Spirit, United, Virgin America
2 San Francisco, California 1,051,000 Frontier, JetBlue, Southwest, United, Virgin America
3 Denver, Colorado 847,000 Frontier, Southwest, Spirit, United
4 Atlanta, Georgia 696,000 Delta, Frontier, Spirit, Southwest
5 Seattle/Tacoma, Washington 685,000 Alaska, Delta, Southwest
6 Phoenix, Arizona 671,000 American, Southwest, US Airways
7 Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas 669,000 American, Spirit
8 Chicago–O'Hare, Illinois 664,000 American, Frontier, Spirit, United
9 New York–JFK, New York 555,000 American, Delta, JetBlue, Virgin America
10 Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota 513,000 Delta, Spirit, Sun Country

Top international carriers

Busiest international carriers from LAS
Rank Airline Passengers (2013)[8] Passengers (2014)[51] Passengers (2015)[52] Destinations
1 WestJet 1,019,942 1,104,994 1,067,217 Abbotsford, Calgary, Edmonton, Montréal–Trudeau, Regina, Saskatoon, Toronto–Pearson, Vancouver, Victoria, Winnipeg
Seasonal: Kelowna, Ottawa
2 Air Canada/
Air Canada Rouge
508,340 631,620 715,340 Calgary, Montréal–Trudeau, Toronto–Pearson, Vancouver
3 Virgin Atlantic Airways 312,544 299,720 301,701 London–Gatwick
Seasonal: Glasgow–International, Manchester (UK)
4 Aeroméxico 206,784 272,235 297,740 Mexico City, Monterrey
5 British Airways 293,353 292,837 295,137 London–Gatwick, London–Heathrow
6 Volaris 207,601 225,940 245,892 Guadalajara, Mexico City
7 Copa Airlines 93,944 147,581 117,134 Panama City
8 Thomas Cook Airlines 33,382 51,458 86,175 Manchester (UK)
Seasonal: Glasgow–International, London–Stansted
9 Korean Air 75,326 70,365 83,356 Seoul–Incheon
10 Condor 75,459 74,262 77,254 Frankfurt

Annual traffic

Annual passenger traffic (enplaned + deplaned) at LAS, 1996 through 2015[53]
Year Passengers Year Passengers
201545,389,074200441,441,531
201442,869,517200336,265,932
201341,857,059200235,009,011
201241,667,596200135,179,960
201141,481,204200036,865,893
201039,757,359199933,715,129
200940,469,012199830,227,287
200844,074,941199730,315,094
200747,729,527199630,459,965
200646,193,329
200544,267,368

Howard W. Cannon Aviation Museum

The Howard W. Cannon Aviation Museum is located on the Esplanade, Level 2, above the baggage claim area. The museum concentrates on Las Vegas’ airline history, and contains exhibits such as a copy of the first emergency vehicle that was used on the airfield. A small branch of the museum is located at the D gates, and some of the other concourses and check-in areas also have small displays. The current curator of the museum is Mark Hall-Patton, a 20th-century historian and administrator of the Clark County Museum, who has frequently appeared as an appraisal expert on the reality television series, Pawn Stars.[54][55]

Airport public art

Wall tiles at the D-Gates tram station

Some of the public art displays in McCarran Airport includes:

Ground transportation

McCarran Airport is reached from Tropicana Avenue (State Route 593) to the north or the Las Vegas Beltway (Interstate 215) to the south. Vehicles enter the airport via the McCarran Airport Connector, which includes Paradise Road/Swenson Street and the airport tunnel.

The airport is served by various taxicab firms and by RTC Transit, the public bus service of the Las Vegas valley. RTC Transit services (Route 108, Route 109, Westcliff Airport Express, Centennial Express, indirectly the Strip and Downtown Express) provide transportation from downtown, the Strip, and other locations throughout the valley. Routes 108, 109 stop at Terminal 1 outside the Zero Level, the Centennial Express stops at terminal 3 and the Westcliff Airport Express stops at both. The Strip and Downtown Express goes to the South Strip Transfer Terminal and a short ride on the 109 gets you to the airport. To transport passengers between terminals, a courtesy shuttle service is provided.[57]

A consolidated rental car facility opened in April 2007, located about 3 miles (4.8 km) from the airport. The facility, which sits on 68 acres (28 ha) of land, houses 11 rental car companies with 5,000 parking spaces on multiple levels. A fleet of 40 buses provides free transportation from the terminals to the facility.[23]

For parking, there are multistory parking garages located just off Terminals 1 and 3. There are also economy parking lots for the two terminals, which offer cheaper rates. Complementary shuttles transport passengers between the terminals and economy lots.[58]

Accidents and incidents

Future plans

In 2007 airport officials estimated the maximum capacity for the airport at 53 million passengers and 625,000 aircraft movements per year. As McCarran was predicted to reach this capacity around 2017, Ivanpah Airport near Primm was planned as a relief airport in the late 1990s.[60] However, due to a downturn in traffic, the passenger count dropped to 39.8 million in 2010. Also, recently the FAA began making progress on the Next Generation Air Transportation System to allow more flights per hour essentially increasing capacity beyond 53 million passengers per year.[61] As of June 2011, the Ivanpah Airport is completing environmental assessments but is officially on hold while the Department of Aviation has asked airport planners to study adding additional gates to the former Terminal 2 site once Terminal 3 opens for additional capacity.[62]

Las Vegas Monorail connection

A plan to extend the Las Vegas Monorail to McCarran has been under consideration since the mid 2000s. This proposed extension will add underground stations at Terminal 1 and at Terminal 3.[63] The part of the extension north of the airport will be elevated. This expansion is opposed by taxi and limousine services who garner significant revenues shuttling the public to and from the airport.[64]

The monorail extension was not a favoured option in the first draft of the 2015 Transportation Investment Business Plan, which instead recommended a new underground light rail system operating from McCarran to the Strip. Also recommended in the report is a multimodal interchange based at McCarran which would also house a station for a high-speed rail line to Los Angeles.[65][66]

See also

References

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  4. citation needed
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