Hispanic and Latino Americans

Not to be confused with Latin Americans or the inhabitants of Hispanic America.
Hispanic and Latino Americans
Total population
(Increase55,387,539[1]
17.37% of total U.S. population, 2014[2])
Regions with significant populations
All areas of the United States, particularly in Major Cities and in states on the Southern border.
Languages
Spanish, English, Portuguese
Religion
Predominantly Roman Catholic;[3]
minority of Protestants.[3]
Minorities in numerous other religions.[3][4]
Related ethnic groups
Latin Americans, Spaniards, White Latin Americans, Criollos, Afro-Latin Americans, Asian Latin Americans, Mestizos, Mulattoes, Pardos, Castizos, Tejanos, Chicanos, Nuyoricans, Portuguese Americans.[5]
Percent of Hispanic and Latino population by state in 2012.

Hispanic Americans and Latino Americans (Spanish: hispanos [isˈpanos], latinos) are United States citizens, descending from the peoples of the countries of Latin America and Iberia.[6][7][8] More generally, it includes all persons in the United States who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino, whether of full or partial ancestry.[9][10][11][12] For the US census in 2010, American Community Survey, people counted as "Hispanic" or "Latino" are those who identify as one of the specific Hispanic or Latino categories listed on the census or ACS questionnaire ("Mexican," "Puerto Rican," or "Cuban") as well as those who indicate that they are "other Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino." The countries or people who are in the Hispanic or Latino American groups as classified by the Census Bureau are the following: Spain, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela. It is important to note that the Census office of the U.S. excludes Brazilian Americans from the Hispanic and Latino American population (Brazil is part of Latin America, but has a Portuguese language culture rather than a Spanish language culture).[1][13]

Origin can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the person's parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race.[14][15][16][17] As the only specifically designated category of ethnicity in the United States (other than non-Hispanic/Latino), Hispanics form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic ethnic groups Hispanic Americans are predominantly of Mexican origin, and in smaller numbers, of Nuevomexicano, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, and Colombian origin.[15][18][19][20][21]

Hispanic Americans are the second fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States after Asian Americans.[22] As of 2014, Hispanics constitute 17.37% of the United States population, or 55.3 million people.[23] The United States has the second-largest community of people of Hispanic origin other than Mexico, having surpassed Argentina, Colombia, and Spain within the last decade. This figure includes 38 million Spanish-speaking Americans.[24] Hispanic/Latinos overall are the second-largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic Whites (a group which, like Hispanics and Latinos, is composed of dozens of sub-groups of differing national origin).[25]

Hispanics have occupied territory of the present-day United States continuously[26][27][28][29] since the sixteenth-century founding by the Spanish of Saint Augustine, Florida. After Native Americans, Hispanics are the oldest ethnic group to inhabit what is today the United States. Many have Native American ancestry.[30][31][32][33] Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, including present-day California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas, all of which were under the Republic of Mexico after its independence in the 19th century and until the end of the Mexican–American War.

Terminology

The terms Hispanic and Latino refer to an ethnicity; people in this group may be of any race and often have mixed-race ancestry. Members of the Hispanic ethnicity may share a common language, culture, history, and heritage. According to the Smithsonian Institution, the term Latino includes peoples of Portuguese roots, such as Brazil, as well as those of Spanish-language origin.[34][35] A Hispanic or Latino can be of any race. In the United States, most Hispanics and Latinos are mestizos (of mixed race European and Native American ancestry). They may also be of predominately white or American Indian ancestry. Many Hispanics and Latinos from the Caribbean and Latin American countries where slavery was widespread may also have at least some African ancestry.[34][36]

The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is confusing to some. The U.S. government defines Hispanic as anyone from Spain and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas. The term Latino has developed more varied definitions. One definition of Latino is "a Latin male in the United States".[37] This is the oldest definition used in the United States, first used in 1946. This definition encompassed both Spanish speakers from Europe and the Americas. Under this definition, immigrants from Spain and immigrants from Latin America are both Latino.

This definition is consistent with the 21st-century usage by the U.S. Census Bureau and OMB, as the two agencies use both terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably. A later definition of Latino is that it possibly could be a condensed form of the term "Latino-Americano," the Spanish word for Latin-American, or someone who comes from Latin America. Under this definition a Mexican American or Cuban American, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino. A Brazilian American is also a Latino, under this definition, which would include those of Portuguese-speaking origin from Latin America. An immigrant from Spain would be classified as Hispanic but not Latino by this definition.[38][39][40][41][42][43] Filipinos and Guamanians are not considered "Hispanic", although some may speak Spanish, because Spanish is not the official language of either of their countries. The Philippines and Guam were colonies of Spain for hundreds of years, but there were not as many colonists in these areas as in the Americas. After the Spanish–American War and United States rule for decades in the Philippines, English became one of the predominant official languages in the country.

But, according to definitions of the U.S. Census Bureau, Brazilians are considered Portuguese speakers and are not included in the "Hispanic or Latino" population surveys. The U.S. government census classifies individuals as Hispanic/Latino if they come from a Spanish-speaking country. Blog discussions about identity note that a significant number of Brazilians have Spanish ancestry mostly due to 20th century immigration but also the colonial history and movement of peoples on the continent, as well as African ancestry from numerous peoples due to the slavery times.[44][45] Brazil's culture has also been affected by other immigrants, including slaves from Africa, and later immigrants from Italy, Germany, Japan, China, Lebanon, Poland, Lithuania, France, Netherlands, Ukraine, Norway, Russia and Korea. With the European diasporas including Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews.[46] However, most people consider Brazilian Americans to be Latino because they come from Latin America.

Preference of use between the terms among Hispanics and Latinos in the United States often depends on where persons reside. Those in the Eastern United States tend to prefer the term Hispanic, whereas those in the West tend to prefer Latino.[14] Both terms refer to ethnicity, as a person of Latino or Hispanic origin can be of any race.[15][47]

In Spanish, Latina is used for persons of feminine gender; Latino is used for those of masculine gender, or by default. For example, a group of mixed or unknown gender would be referred to as Latinos. The neologisms Latinx and Latin@[48] were coined as a gender-neutral alternative to this traditional usage.[49] The X functions as a variable, encompassing those who identify as male, female, or non-binary. It has not been widely adopted.

History

Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, 16th-century Spanish admiral who founded the first European settlement in North America (Saint Augustine, Florida).
Historical population
Census Pop. %±
1850116,943—
1880393,555—
1900503,189—
1910797,99458.6%
19201,286,15461.2%
19301,653,98728.6%
19402,021,82022.2%
19503,231,40959.8%
19605,814,78479.9%
19708,920,94053.4%
198014,608,67363.8%
199022,354,05953.0%
200035,305,81857.9%
201050,477,59443.0%
Est. 201455,387,5399.7%
Sources:
Castillo de San Marcos in Saint Augustine, Florida. Built in 1672 by the Spanish, it is the oldest masonry fort in the United States.

16th and 17th centuries

Hispanic/Latinos have been settled continuously in the territory of the United States since the 16th century,[26][27][28][29] earlier than any other colonial group of European origin. Spanish explorers were pioneers in the territory of the present-day United States. The first confirmed European landing in the continental U.S. was by Juan Ponce de León, who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened La Florida.

Within three decades of Ponce de León's landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast, penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine, and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon. From 1528 to 1536, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and three fellows (including an African named Estevanico), from a Spanish expedition that foundered, journeyed from Florida to the Gulf of California, 267 years before the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

In 1540 Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present U.S. That same year Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led 2,000 Spaniards and Mexican Indians across today's Arizona–Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States. Other Spanish explorers of the US territory include, among others: Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Pánfilo de Narváez, Sebastián Vizcaíno, Gaspar de Portolà, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Tristán de Luna y Arellano and Juan de Oñate, and non-Spanish explorers working for the Spanish Crown, such as Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo. In all, Spaniards probed half of today's lower 48 states before the first English colonization effort in 1585 at Roanoke Island off the East Coast.

In 1565 the Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida. Santa Fe, New Mexico was founded before Jamestown, Virginia (founded in 1607) and the New England Plymouth Colony (1620, of Mayflower and Pilgrims fame). Spanish missionaries and colonists founded settlements in El Paso, San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco, to name a few.

18th and 19th centuries

As late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War (a conflict in which Spain aided and fought alongside the rebels), Spain held claim to roughly half the territory of today's continental United States. From 1819 to 1848, the United States (through treaties, purchase, diplomacy, and the Mexican–American War) increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring three of what are today's four most populous states—California, Texas and Florida.

20th century

The Hispanic and Latino role in the history and present of the United States is addressed in more detail below (See Notables and their contributions). During the 20th and 21st centuries, Hispanic and Latino immigration to the US increased markedly following changes to the immigration law in 1965. To recognize their current and historic contributions, on September 17, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid-September as National Hispanic Heritage Week, with Congress's authorization. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan extended the observance to a month, designated Hispanic Heritage Month.[51]

Demographics


Population by national origin (2010)
(self-identified ethnicity, not by birthplace)[52]
Population|% of Hispanics
Mexico Mexican 30,798,258 63.0
Puerto Rico Puerto Rican 4,623,716 9.2
Cuba Cuban 2,013,155 3.5
Colombia Colombian 2,039,923 4.8
El Salvador Salvadoran 1,674,870 3.3
Dominican Republic Dominican 1,414,703 2.8
Guatemala Guatemalan 1,044,209 2.1
Spain Spanish 635,253 1.3
Honduras Honduran 633,401 1.3
Ecuador Ecuadorian 564,631 1.1
Peru Peruvian 531,358 1.1
Nicaragua Nicaraguan 348,202 0.7
Argentina Argentine 224,952 0.4
Venezuela Venezuelan 215,023 0.4
Panama Panamanian 165,456 0.3
Chile Chilean 126,810 0.3
Costa Rica Costa Rican 126,418 0.3
Bolivia Bolivian 99,210 0.2
Uruguay Uruguayan 56,884 0.1
Paraguay Paraguayan 20,023 -
All other 3,505,838 6.9
Total 50,477,594 100

As of 2011, Hispanics accounted for 16.7% of the national population, or around 52 million people.[23] The Hispanic growth rate over the April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007 period was 28.7%—about four times the rate of the nation's total population (at 7.2%).[53] The growth rate from July 1, 2005 to July 1, 2006 alone was 3.4%[54]—about three and a half times the rate of the nation's total population (at 1.0%).[53] Based on the 2010 census, Hispanics are now the largest minority group in 191 out of 366 metropolitan areas in the US.[55] The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050 is 132.8 million people, or 30.2% of the nation's total projected population on that date.[56]

Geographic distribution

The percentage of Hispanic or Latino residents by county.
Rank Metropolitan area Hispanic population Percent Hispanic
1 Los Angeles, California 5,804,000 45%
2 New York, New York 4,317,000 24%
3 San Juan, Puerto Rico 2,617,089 99%
4 Houston, Texas 2,105,000 37%
5 Riverside, California 2,062,000 48%
6 Chicago, Illinois 1,971,000 22%
7 Dallas, Texas 1,809,000 28%
8 Miami, Florida 1,627,000 65%
9 Phoenix, Arizona 1,163,000 30%
10 San Francisco, California 1,114,000 23%
11 San Antonio, Texas 1,112,000 56%
12 San Diego, California 1,021,000 33%
Rank State Percent Hispanic
1 Puerto Rico 99.0%
2 New Mexico 47.3%
3 California 38.4%
4 Texas 38.4%
5 Arizona 30.3%
6 Nevada 27.5%
7 Florida 23.6%
8 Colorado 21.0%
9 New Jersey 18.9%
10 New York 18.4%
11 Illinois 16.5%

Of the nation's total Hispanic or Latino population, 49% (21.5 million) live in California or Texas.[57]

Over half of the Hispanic/Latino population is concentrated in the Southwest region, mostly composed of Mexican Americans. California and Texas have some of the largest populations of Mexicans and Central American Latinos in the United States. The Northeast region is dominated by Puerto Ricans and Dominican Americans, having the highest concentrations of both in the country. In the Mid Atlantic region, centered on the DC Metro Area, Salvadoran Americans are the largest of Hispanic groups. Florida is dominated by Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans. In both the Great Lakes States and the South Atlantic States, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans dominate. Mexicans dominate in the rest of the country including, the Western United States, South Central United States and Great Plains states.

National origin

The Chicano Movement (Chicanismo) of the 1960s helped increase cultural awareness, and social empowerment of Mexican Americans (Chicanos) in the United States.

As of 2007, some 64% of the nation's Hispanic population are of Mexican origin (see table). Another 9% are of Puerto Rican origin, with about 3% each of Cuban, Salvadoran and Dominican origins. The remainder are of other Central American or South American origin, or of origin directly from Spain. 60.2% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans were born in the United States.[58]

There are few recent immigrants directly from Spain. In the 2000 Census, 299,948 Americans, of whom 83% were native-born,[59] specifically reported their ancestry as Spaniard.[60] Additionally, in the 2000 Census some 2,187,144 Americans reported "Spanish" as their ancestry.

In northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, there is a large portion of Hispanics who trace their ancestry to Spanish settlers of the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self-identify as "Hispanos", "Spanish", or "Hispanic". Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Amerindians, creating a Mestizo population.[61] Likewise, southern Louisiana is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry.

Race

Hispanic and Latino Americans by race (2010)[62]
Population|% of all Hispanic
and Latino Americans
White 26,735,713 53.0
Some other race
(mestizo, mulatto, etc.)		 18,503,103 36.7
Two or more races 3,042,592 6.0
Black 1,243,471 2.5
American Indian and Alaska Native 685,150 1.4
Asian 209,128 0.4
Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander 58,437 0.1
Total 50,477,594 100.0

Hispanic or Latino origin is independent of race and is termed "ethnicity" by the United States Census Bureau. According to the 2007 American Community Survey, 42% of Hispanic and Latinos were White. The largest numbers of White Hispanics come from within the Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban and Colombian, communities.[63][64] The largest numbers of Black Hispanics are from the Spanish Caribbean islands, including the Cuban, Dominican, Panamanian, and Puerto Rican, communities.

Actress Alexis Bledel is a White Hispanic of Argentine and Mexican heritage. Bledel grew up in a Spanish speaking household and did not learn English until she began school.[65][66]
White Hispanics by National Origin, 2010[67]
Hispanic National Origin Self-Identified White population Percentage of total Hispanic population Inside its own population
Mexican16,794,11163.0%52.8%
Puerto Rican2,455,5349.2%53.1%
Cuban1,525,5213.5%85.4%
Salvadoran663,2243.3%40.2%
Dominican419,0162.8%29.6%
Guatemalan401,7632.1%38.5%
South American4,825,4685.5%65.9%
All other Hispanics2,018,3976.8%49.4%
Total population26,735,713100%53.0%

A significant portion of the Hispanic and Latino population self-identifies as Mestizo, particularly the Mexican and Central American community. Mestizo is not a racial category in the U.S. Census, but signifies someone who has both European and American Indian Ancestry. According to the 2010 United States Census, 36.7% of Hispanic/Latino Americans identify as "some other race" as these Hispanic/Latinos may feel the U.S. census does not describe their European or American Indian ancestry as they understand it to be.[62]

Half of the Hispanic/Latino population in the United States self-identifies as white. Most of the multi-racial population in the Mexican, Salvadoran, and Guatemalan communities are of European and Native American ancestry (Mestizo), while most of the multiracial population in the Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Cuban communities are of European and African ancestry (Mulatto).

Costa Rican-American actor Harry Shum, Jr. was born in Limón, Costa Rica to Chinese immigrants. His first language was Spanish, before learning Cantonese and English.

Hispanic and Latinos are racially diverse, although different "races" are usually the majority of each Hispanic group. For example, of major US Hispanic groups with populations of over 1 million, in northern Mexico, most people are White or bi-racial having White/Native American Ancestry, while in southern Mexico, the majority are Native American or of Native American and European Ancestry. In Guatemala, Native American and bi-racial people of Native American and European descent make the majority, while in El Salvador, whites and Bi-racial people of Native American/European descent are the majority. In the Dominican Republic the population are largely made up of people with inter-mixed ancestries, in which there are even levels of African and European ancestry, with smaller numbers of Whites and Blacks as well. In Puerto Rico, people with European ancestry are the majority. There are also populations of predominantly of African descent as well as populations of American Indian descent as well as those with inter-mixed ancestries. Cubans are mostly of White Latin American ancestry, however there are also populations of Blacks and multi-racials as well.[68][69][69][70] The race and culture of each Hispanic/Latino country and their United States diaspora differs by history and geography. Mexicans represent the bulk of the US Hispanic/Latino population, and most Mexican Americans that migrate to the United States are of Native American and White descent, which causes many non-Hispanics to equate being Hispanic with being of mestizo or Native American ancestry. Official sources report the racial makeup of these Hispanic subgroups as follows, Argentina,[71] Uruguay,[71] Puerto Rico,[71] Cuba,[71] and Chile,[71] having the highest percentage of Hispanics self-identifying as white in their respective countries (this can include some multi-racials identifying as "white", especially in Puerto Rico and Cuba), usually of Spanish descent. As a result of their racial diversity, Hispanics form an ethnicity sharing a language (Spanish) and cultural heritage, rather than a race.The phenomenon of bi-racial people who are predominantly of European descent identifying as white is not limited to Hispanics or Spanish speakers but is also common among English speakers as well. researchers found that most White Americans with less than 28 percent African-American ancestry say they are White. Above that threshold, people tended to describe themselves as African-American.[72]

Chicanos, Nuevomexicanos, Tejanos, and Nuyoricans

Chicanos, Californios, Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are Americans of Spanish and or Mexican descent. Chicanos live in the Southwest, Nuevomexicanos in New Mexico, and Tejanos in Texas. Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are distinct cultures with their own cuisines, dialects and musical traditions.The term "Chicano" became popular amongst Chicanos in the 1960s during the Chicano nationalism and Chicano Movement, and is today seen as an ethnic and cultural identity by some. Political activist César Chávez and novelist José Antonio Villarreal are famous Chicanos.

Nuyoricans are Americans of Puerto Rican descent from the New York City area. There are close to two million Nuyoricans in the US. Famous Nuyoricans include US Supreme Court Judge Sonia Sotomayor and singer Jennifer Lopez.

Notable contributions

Hispanic and Latino Americans have made distinguished contributions to the United States in all major fields, such as politics, the military, music, literature, philosophy, sports, business and economy, and science.[73]

Arts and entertainment

In 1995, the American Latino Media Arts Award, or ALMA Award was created. It's a distinction given to Latino performers (actors, film and television directors, and musicians) by the National Council of La Raza.

Music

Pitbull, Cuban American musician

There are many Hispanic American musicians that have achieved international fame, such as Mariah Carey, Jennifer López, Joan Baez, Linda Ronstadt, Carmen Miranda, Zack de la Rocha, Fergie, Gloria Estefan, Celia Cruz, Tito Puente, Kat DeLuna, Selena, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony, Carlos Santana, Christina Aguilera, Pitbull, Selena Gomez, Los Lonely Boys, Frankie J, Jerry García, Demi Lovato, Pierce the Veil, Robert Trujillo, Aventura and Tom Araya.

Among the Hispanic American musicians who were pioneers in the early stages of rock and roll were Ritchie Valens, who scored several hits, most notably "La Bamba" and Herman Santiago wrote the lyrics to the iconic rock and roll song "Why Do Fools Fall in Love". Another song that became popular in the United States and is heard during the Holiday/Christmas season is "Feliz Navidad" by José Feliciano.

In 1986, Billboard magazine introduced the Hot Latin Songs chart which ranks the best-performing songs on Spanish-language radio stations in the United States. Seven years later, Billboard initiated the Top Latin Albums which ranks top-selling Latin albums in the United States.[74] Similarly, the Recording Industry Association of America incorporated "Los Premios de Oro y Platino" (The Gold and Platinum Awards) to certify Latin recordings which contains at least 50% of its content recorded in Spanish.[75]

In 1989, Univision established the Lo Nuestro Awards which became the first award ceremony to recognize the most talented performers of Spanish-language music and was considered to be the "Hispanic Grammys".[76][77] In 2000, the Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences (LARAS) established the Latin Grammy Awards to recognize musicians who perform in Spanish or Portuguese.[78] Unlike The Recording Academy, LARAS extends its membership internationally to Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking communities worldwide in Latin America, Spain, and Portugal.[79]

Film, radio, television, and theatre

Myrtle González, Mexican American actress famous for her silent films in the 1910s, is considered the first female Latin star in Hollywood.[80]

Hispanics and Latinos have also contributed some prominent actors and others in the film industry, a few of whom includes actors José Ferrer, the first Hispanic actor to win an Academy Award for his role in Cyrano de Bergerac, Anthony Quinn, Cameron Diaz, Martin Sheen, Rodrigo Santoro, Fernanda Montenegro, Daniel de Oliveira, Wagner Moura, Cheech Marín, Salma Hayek, Dolores del Río, Anita Page, Rita Hayworth, Antonio Banderas, Raquel Welch, Benicio del Toro, Eva Mendes, Zoe Saldana, Edward James Olmos, Maria Montez, Ramón Novarro, Ricardo Montalbán, Cesar Romero, Rosie Perez, Katy Jurado, Rita Moreno, Lupe Vélez, Esai Morales, Andy García, Rosario Dawson, John Leguizamo, and, behind the camera, directors Robert Rodriguez, Guillermo del Toro, Alfonso Cuarón and Brett Ratner (also producers and cinematographers) and Luis Valdez.

In standup comedy, Paul Rodríguez, Greg Giraldo, Cheech Marin, George Lopez, Freddie Prinze, Jade Esteban Estrada, Carlos Mencia, John Mendoza, and others are prominent.

Some of the Hispanic or Latino actors who achieved notable success in U.S. television include Desi Arnaz, Lynda Carter, Jimmy Smits, Selena Gomez, Carlos Pena, Jr., Eva Longoria, Sofía Vergara, Benjamin Bratt, Ricardo Montalbán, America Ferrera, Erik Estrada, Cote de Pablo, Freddie Prinze, Lauren Vélez, and Charlie Sheen. Kenny Ortega is an Emmy Award-winning producer, director, and choreographer who has choreographed many major television events such as Super Bowl XXX, the 72nd Academy Awards, and Michael Jackson's memorial service.

Hispanics and Latinos are underrepresented in U.S. television, radio, and film. This is combatted by organizations such as the Hispanic Organization of Latin Actors (HOLA), founded in 1975; and National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC), founded in 1986.[81] Together with numerous Latino civil rights organizations, the NHMC led a "brownout" of the national television networks in 1999, after discovering that there were no Latinos in any of their new prime time shows that year.[82] This resulted in the signing of historic diversity agreements with ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC that have since increased the hiring of Hispanic and Latino talent and other staff in all of the networks.

Latino Public Broadcasting (LPB) funds programs of educational and cultural significance to Hispanic Americans. These programs are distributed to various public television stations throughout the United States.

  1. ^ "THE TOP GROSSING LATINA CELEBRITIES IN HOLLYWOOD!". Latina Magazine. Retrieved 23 November 2015. 

Business and finance

See also: Hispanic 500
U.S. Century Bank is one of the largest Hispanic-owned banks in the United States.[83]

The total number of Hispanic-owned businesses in 2002 was 1.6 million, having grown at triple the national rate for the preceding five years.[51]

Hispanic and Latino business leaders include Cuban immigrant Roberto Goizueta, who rose to head of The Coca-Cola Company.[84] Advertising Mexican-American magnate Arte Moreno became the first Hispanic to own a major league team in the United States when he purchased the Los Angeles Angels baseball club.[85] Also a major sports team owner is Mexican-American Linda G. Alvarado, president and CEO of Alvarado Construction, Inc and co-owner of the Colorado Rockies baseball team.

The largest Hispanic-owned food company in the US is Goya Foods, because of World War II hero Joseph A. Unanue, the son of the company's founders.[86] Angel Ramos was the founder of Telemundo, Puerto Rico's first television station[87] and now the second largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with an average viewership over one million in primetime. Samuel A. Ramirez, Sr. made Wall Street history by becoming the first Hispanic to launch a successful investment banking firm, Ramirez & Co.[88][89] Nina Tassler is president of CBS Entertainment since September 2004. She is the highest-profile Latina in network television and one of the few executives who has the power to approve the airing or renewal of series.

Fashion

In the world of fashion, notable Hispanic and Latino designers include Oscar de la Renta, Carolina Herrera, and Narciso Rodríguez among others. Christy Turlington, Gisele Bündchen and Lea T achieved international fame as models.

Government and politics

Sonia Sotomayor, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States

As of 2007 there were more than five thousand elected officeholders in the United States who were of Latino origin.[90]

In the House of Representatives, Hispanic and Latino representatives have included Ladislas Lazaro, Antonio M. Fernández, Henry B. Gonzalez, Kika de la Garza, Herman Badillo, Romualdo Pacheco, and Manuel Lujan, Jr., out of almost two dozen former Representatives. Current Representatives include Luis Gutiérrez, Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Nydia Velázquez, Joe Baca, Loretta Sanchez, Silvestre Reyes, Rubén Hinojosa, Linda Sánchez, and John Salazar—in all, they number twenty-three. Former senators are Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Mel Martinez, Dennis Chavez, Joseph Montoya, and Ken Salazar. As of January 2011, the U.S. Senate includes Hispanic members Bob Menendez, a Democrat, and Republicans Ted Cruz and Marco Rubio, all Cuban Americans.[91]

Governor and former Congressman, Cabinet member, Ambassador, and U.S. Presidential candidate Bill Richardson

Numerous Hispanics and Latinos hold elective and appointed office in state and local government throughout the United States.[92] Current Hispanic Governors include Republican Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval and Republican New Mexico Governor Susana Martinez; upon taking office in 2011, Martinez became the first Latina governor in the history of the United States.[93] Former Hispanic governors include Democrats Jerry Apodaca, Raul Hector Castro, and Bill Richardson, as well as Republicans Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Romualdo Pacheco, and Bob Martinez.

Since 1988,[94] when Ronald Reagan appointed Lauro Cavazos the Secretary of Education, the first Hispanic United States Cabinet member, Hispanic Americans have had an increasing presence in presidential administrations. Hispanics serving in subsequent cabinets include Ken Salazar, current Secretary of the Interior; Hilda Solis, current United States Secretary of Labor; Alberto Gonzales, former United States Attorney General; Carlos Gutierrez, Secretary of Commerce; Federico Peña, former Secretary of Energy; Henry Cisneros, former Secretary of Housing and Urban Development; Manuel Lujan, Jr., former Secretary of the Interior; and Bill Richardson, former Secretary of Energy and Ambassador to the United Nations. Rosa Rios is the current US Treasurer, including the latest three, were Hispanic women.

In 2009, Sonia Sotomayor became the first Supreme Court Associate Justice of Hispanic or Latino origin.

The Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC), founded in December 1976, and the Congressional Hispanic Conference (CHC), founded on March 19, 2003, are two organizations that promote policy of importance to Americans of Hispanic descent. They are divided into the two major American political parties: The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is composed entirely of Democratic representatives, whereas the Congressional Hispanic Conference is composed entirely of Republican representatives.

Literature and journalism

See also: Category:Hispanic and Latino American writers and National Association of Hispanic Journalists
Jorge Ramos has won eight Emmy Awards and the Maria Moors Cabot Award for excellence in journalism. In 2015, Ramos was one of 5 people selected to be on this year's cover of Time Magazine's The World's Most Influential People.

Among the distinguished Hispanic and Latino authors and their works may be noted:

Military

Admiral David G Farragut, first Hispanic Admiral
Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano the first Hispanic submarine commander.
Major General Luis R. Esteves, the first Hispanic to graduate from the United States Military Academy ("West Point").
Antonia Novello is the first woman and first Hispanic to serve as Surgeon General.
Four Star Gen. Richard E. Cavazos became the U.S. Army's first Hispanic Four Star General
Rear Admiral Ronald J. Rábago, the first Hispanic to be promoted to Rear Admiral (lower half) in the United States Coast Guard

Hispanics and Latinos have participated in the military of the United States and in every major military conflict from the American Revolution onward.[96] 11% to 13% military personnel now are Latinos and they have been deployed in the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War, and U.S. military missions and bases elsewhere.[97] Hispanics and Latinos have not only distinguished themselves in the battlefields but also reached the high echelons of the military, serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign posts. Up to now, 43 Hispanics and Latinos have been awarded the nation's highest military distinction, the Medal of Honor (also known as the Congressional Medal of Honor). The following is a list of some notable Hispanics/Latinos in the military:

American Revolution
American Civil War
World War I
World War II
Korean War
Cuban Missile Crisis
Vietnam War
Post-Vietnam

Medal of Honor

The following 43 Hispanics were awarded the Medal of Honor:

Philip Bazaar, Joseph H. De Castro, John Ortega, France Silva, David B. Barkley, Lucian Adams, Rudolph B. Davila, Marcario Garcia, Harold Gonsalves, David M. Gonzales, Silvestre S. Herrera, Jose M. Lopez, Joe P. Martinez, Manuel Perez Jr., Cleto L. Rodriguez, Alejandro R. Ruiz, Jose F. Valdez, Ysmael R. Villegas, Fernando Luis García, Edward Gomez, Ambrosio Guillen, Rodolfo P. Hernandez, Baldomero Lopez, Benito Martinez, Eugene Arnold Obregon, Joseph C. Rodriguez, John P. Baca, Roy P. Benavidez, Emilio A. De La Garza, Ralph E. Dias, Daniel Fernandez, Alfredo Cantu "Freddy" Gonzalez, Jose Francisco Jimenez, Miguel Keith, Carlos James Lozada, Alfred V. Rascon, Louis R. Rocco, Euripides Rubio, Hector Santiago-Colon, Elmelindo Rodrigues Smith, Jay R. Vargas, Humbert Roque Versace, and Maximo Yabes.

National intelligence

Science and technology

Luis Walter Álvarez, experimental physicist, inventor, and professor. Awarded the Nobel Prize of Physics in 1968.
Laser physicist and author Francisco Javier Duarte

Among Hispanic Americans who have excelled in science are Luis Walter Álvarez, Nobel Prize–winning physicist, and his son Walter Alvarez, a geologist. They first proposed that an asteroid impact on the Yucatán Peninsula caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Mario J. Molina won the Nobel Prize in chemistry and currently works in the chemistry department at the University of California, San Diego. Dr. Victor Manuel Blanco is an astronomer who in 1959 discovered "Blanco 1", a galactic cluster.[117] F. J. Duarte is a laser physicist and author; he received the Engineering Excellence Award from the prestigious Optical Society of America for the invention of the N-slit laser interferometer.[118] Alfredo Quiñones-Hinojosa is the Director of the Pituitary Surgery Program at Johns Hopkins Hospital and the Director of the Brain Tumor Stem Cell Laboratory at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Physicist Albert Baez made important contributions to the early development of X-ray microscopes and later X-ray telescopes. His nephew John Carlos Baez is also a noted mathematical physicist. Francisco J. Ayala is a biologist and philosopher, former president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and has been awarded the National Medal of Science and the Templeton Prize. Peruvian-American biophysicist Carlos Bustamante has been named a Searle Scholar and Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellow. Luis von Ahn is one of the pioneers of crowdsourcing and the founder of the companies reCAPTCHA and Duolingo. Colombian-American Ana Maria Rey received a MacArthur Fellowship for her work in atomic physics in 2013.

Dr. Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas discovered the bacteria that cause dental cavity. Dr. Gualberto Ruaño is a biotechnology pioneer in the field of personalized medicine and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, Coupled Amplification and Sequencing (CAS) System, used worldwide for the management of viral diseases.[119] Fermín Tangüis was an agriculturist and scientist who developed the Tangüis Cotton in Peru and saved that nation's cotton industry.[120] Severo Ochoa, born in Spain, was a co-winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Dr. Sarah Stewart, a Mexican-American Microbiologist, is credited with the discovery of the Polyomavirus and successfully demonstrating that cancer causing viruses could be transmitted from animal to animal. Mexican-American psychiatrist Dr. Nora Volkow, whose brain imaging studies helped characterize the mechanisms of drug addiction, is the current director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Dr. Helen Rodríguez Trías, an early advocate for women's reproductive rights, helped drive and draft U.S. federal sterilization guidelines in 1979. She was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton, and was the first Latina president of the American Public Health Association.

Joseph Acaba, Puerto Rican-American NASA astronaut.
Mexican American Astronaut Ellen Ochoa became the first Hispanic woman in the world to go into space.

Some Hispanics and Latinos have made their names in astronautics, including several NASA astronauts:[121] Franklin Chang-Diaz, the first Latin American NASA astronaut, is co-recordholder for the most flights in outer space, and is the leading researcher on the plasma engine for rockets; France A. Córdova, former NASA chief scientist; Juan R. Cruz, NASA aerospace engineer; Lieutenant Carlos I. Noriega, NASA mission specialist and computer scientist; Dr. Orlando Figueroa, mechanical engineer and Director of Mars Exploration in NASA; Amri Hernández-Pellerano, engineer who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

Olga D. González-Sanabria won an R&D 100 Award for her role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries" which help enable the International Space Station power system. Mercedes Reaves, research engineer and scientist who is responsible for the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail at NASA Langley Research Center. Dr. Pedro Rodríguez, inventor and mechanical engineer who is the director of a test laboratory at NASA and of a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis. Dr. Felix Soto Toro, electrical engineer and astronaut applicant who developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system); Ellen Ochoa, a pioneer of spacecraft technology and astronaut; Joseph Acaba, Fernando Caldeiro, Sidney Gutierrez, Jose Hernández, Michael López-Alegría, John Olivas, and George Zamka, who are current or former astronauts.

Sports

Baseball

The large number of Hispanic and Latino American stars in Major League Baseball (MLB) includes players like Ted Williams (considered by many to be the greatest hitter of all time), Miguel Cabrera, Alex Rios, Lefty Gómez, Iván Rodríguez, Carlos González, Roberto Clemente, Adrian Gonzalez, David Ortiz, Fernando Valenzuela, Nomar Garciaparra, Albert Pujols, Omar Vizquel, managers Al López, Ozzie Guillén, and Felipe Alou, and General Manager Omar Minaya.

Basketball and football

Tony Romo, Mexican American quaterback for the Dallas Cowboys.

There have been far fewer football and basketball players, let alone star players, but Tom Flores was the first Hispanic head coach and the first Hispanic quarterback in American professional football, and won Super Bowls as a player, as assistant coach and as head coach for the Oakland Raiders. Anthony Múñoz is enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, ranked #17 on Sporting News's 1999 list of the 100 greatest football players, and was the highest-ranked offensive lineman. Jim Plunkett won the Heisman Trophy and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, and Joe Kapp is inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame and College Football Hall of Fame. Steve Van Buren, Martin Gramatica, Victor Cruz, Tony Gonzalez, Marc Bulger, Tony Romo and Mark Sanchez can also be cited among successful Hispanics and Latinos in the National Football League (NFL).

Puerto Rican NBA Allstar Carmelo Anthony

Trevor Ariza, Mark Aguirre, Carmelo Anthony, Manu Ginobili, Carlos Arroyo, Gilbert Arenas, Rolando Blackman, Pau Gasol, Jose Calderon, José Juan Barea and Charlie Villanueva can be cited in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Dick Versace made history when he became the first person of Hispanic heritage to coach an NBA team. Rebecca Lobo was a major star and champion of collegiate (National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)) and Olympic basketball and played professionally in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). Diana Taurasi became just the seventh player ever to win an NCAA title, a WNBA title, and as well an Olympic gold medal. Orlando Antigua became in 1995 the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.

Tennis

Tennis players includes legend Pancho Gonzales and Olympic tennis champions and professional players Mary Joe Fernández and Gigi Fernández.

Football (Soccer)

Hispanics are present in all major American sports and leagues, but have particularly influenced the growth in popularity of soccer in the United States. Soccer is the most popular sport across Latin America and Spain, and Hispanics brought the heritage of soccer playing to the US. Major League Soccer teams such as Chivas USA, LA Galaxy, and the Houston Dynamo, for example, have a fanbase composed primarily of Mexican Americans.[122][123][124] Association football players in the Major League Soccer (MLS) includes several like Tab Ramos, Claudio Reyna, Omar Gonzalez, Marcelo Balboa and Carlos Bocanegra.

Other sports

Boxing's first Hispanic world champion was Panama Al Brown. Some other champions include Julio César Chávez, Oscar De La Hoya, Miguel Cotto, Bobby Chacon, Joel Casamayor, Michael Carbajal, John Ruiz, and Carlos Ortiz.

Ricco Rodriguez, Tito Ortiz, Diego Sanchez, Nick Diaz, Nathan Diaz' Dominick Cruz, Frank Shamrock, Gilbert Melendez, Roger Huerta, Carlos Condit, Kelvin Gastelum, and UFC Heavy Weight Champion Cain Velasquez have been competitors in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) of mixed martial arts.

In 1991 Bill Guerin whose mother is Nicaraguan became the first Hispanic player in the National Hockey League (NHL). He was also selected to four NHL All-Star Games. In 1999 Scott Gomez won the NHL Rookie of the Year Award.[125]

Figure skater Rudy Galindo; golfers Chi Chi Rodríguez, Nancy López, and Lee Trevino; softball player Lisa Fernández; and Paul Rodríguez Jr., X Games professional skateboarder, are all Hispanic or Latino Americans who have distinguished themselves in their sports.

In sports entertainment we find the professional wrestlers Alberto Del Rio, Rey Mysterio, Eddie Guerrero, Tyler Black and Melina Pérez, and executive Vickie Guerrero.

Socioeconomics

Education

Latino K-12 Education

With the increasing Hispanic population in the United States, Latinos have had a considerable impact on the K-12 system. In 2011-12, Latina/os comprised 24% of all enrollments in the United States, including 52% and 51% of enrollment in California and Texas, respectively.[126] Further research shows the Latinos will continue to grow in the United States, implicating that more Latinos will populate U.S schools.

The state of Latina/o education shows some promise. First, Hispanic students attending pre-K or kindergarten were more likely to attend full-day programs.[126] Second, Latinos in elementary education were the second largest group represented in gifted and talented programs.[126] Third, Hispanic’s average NAEP math and reading scores have consistently increased over the last 10 years.[126] Finally, Latina/os were more likely than other groups, including whites, to go to college.[126]

However, their academic achievement in early childhood, elementary, and secondary education lag behind other groups.[126] For instance, their average math and reading NAEP scores were lower than every other group, except African Americans, and have the highest dropout rate of any group, 13% despite decreasing from 24%.[126]

To explain these disparities, some scholars have suggested there is a Latino "Education Crisis" due to failed school and social policies.[127] To this end, scholars have further offered several potential reasons including language barriers, poverty, and immigrant/nativity status resulting in Latinos not performing well academically.[128]

English Language Learners

Currently, 80% of Hispanic students in the U.S. are English Language Learners.[129] In 2008-9, 5.3 million students were classified as English Language Learners (ELLs) in pre-K to 12th grade.[130] This is a result of many students entering the education system at different points of their life course, although the majority of ELLs are not foreign born.[130] In order to provide English instruction for Latinos students there have been a multitude of English Language programs. However, the great majority of these programs are English Immersion that undermine the students’ culture and knowledge of their primary language.[131] As such, there continues to be great debate within schools as to which program can address these language disparities.

Poverty

Poverty affects many underrepresented students as racial/ethnic minorities tend stay isolated with pockets of low-income communities. This results in several inequalities, such as "school offerings, teacher quality, curriculum, counseling and all manner of things that both keep students engaged in school and prepare them to graduate."[132] In the case of Latinos the poverty rate for Hispanic Children in 2004 was 28.6 percent.[129] Moreover, with these lack of resources, schools reproduce these inequalities for generations to come. In order to assuage poverty, many Hispanic families can turn to social and community services as resources.

Immigration Status

Immigrants have not always had access to compulsory education in the United States. However, due to the Landmark Supreme Court Plyler v. Doe in 1982, immigrants are allowed access to K-12 education. This significantly impacted all immigrant groups, including Latina/os. However, their academic achievement is dependent upon several factors including, but not limited to time of arrival and schooling in country of origin.[133] Moreover, Latinos immigration/nativity status plays a major role regarding their academic achievement. For instance, first- and second- generation Latinos outperform their later generational counterparts.[134] Additionally, their aspirations appear to decrease as well.[135] This has major implications on their postsecondary futures.

Latino Higher Education

University of Texas at El Paso is the number one graduate engineering school for Latinos.

Those with a bachelor's degree or higher ranges from 50% of Venezuelans compared to 18% for Ecuadorians 25 years and older. Amongst the largest Hispanic groups, those with a bachelors or higher was 25% for Cuban Americans, 16% of Puerto Ricans, 15% of Dominicans, and 11% for Mexican Americans. Over 21% of all second-generation Dominican Americans have college degrees, slightly below the national average (28%) but significantly higher than U.S.-born Mexican Americans (13%) and U.S.-born Puerto Rican Americans (12%).[136]

Hispanic and Latinos make up the second or third largest ethnic group in Ivy League universities, considered to be the most prestigious in the United States. Hispanic and Latino enrollment at Ivy League universities has gradually increased over the years. Today, Hispanics make up between 8% of students at Yale University to 15% at Columbia University.[137] For example, 18% of students in the Harvard University Class of 2018 are Hispanic.[138]

Hispanics have significant enrollment in many other top universities such as University of Texas at El Paso (70% of students), Florida International University (63%), University of Miami (27%), and MIT, UCLA, & UC-Berkeley at 15% each. At Stanford University, Hispanics are the third largest ethnic group behind non-Hispanic Whites and Asians, at 18% of the student population.[139]

Hispanic university enrollments

Universities with the largest Hispanic undergraduate enrollment (2013)[140]
Rank University Hispanic enrollment % of student body
1 Florida International University 24,105 67%
2 University of Texas at El Paso 15,459 81%
3 University of Texas Pan American 15,009 91%
4 University of Texas at San Antonio 11,932 47%
5 California State University at Northridge 11,774 38%
6 California State University at Fullerton 11,472 36%
7 Arizona State University 11,465 19%
8 California State University at Long Beach 10,836 35%
9 California State University at Los Angeles 10,392 58%
10 University of Central Florida 10,255 20%
 Universities with the largest Hispanic graduate enrollment (2013)
Rank University Hispanic enrollment % of student body
1 Nova Southeastern University 4,281 20%
2 Florida International University 3,612 42%
3 University of Southern California 2,358 11%
4 University of Texas Pan American 2,120 78%
5 University of Texas at El Paso 2,083 59%
6 CUNY Graduate Center 1,656 30%
7 University of New Mexico 1,608 26%
8 University of Texas at San Antonio 1,561 35%
9 University of Florida 1,483 9%
10 Arizona State University 1,400 10%
Hispanic student enrollment in university and college systems (2012-2013)
Rank University system Hispanic enrollment % of student body
1 California Community College System[141] 642,045 41%
2 California State University[142] 149,137 33%
3 Florida College System[143] 118,821 26%
4 University of Texas System[144] 84,086 39%
5 State University System of Florida[145] 79,931 24%
6 City University of New York[146] 77,341 30%
7 State University of New York[147] 43,514 9%
8 University of California 42,604 18%
9 Texas A&M University System[148][149] 27,165 25%
10 Nevada System of Higher Education [150] 21,467 21%
- Ivy League [137] 11,562 10%

Health

Hispanic and Latino Americans are the longest-living Americans, according to official data. Their life expectancy is more than two years longer than for non-Hispanic whites and almost eight years longer than for African Americans.[151]

Workforce and average income

Median Household Income (2011)
Ethnicity or nationality Income
Argentinean $55,000
Peruvian $50,000
Venezuelan $50,000
Ecuadorian $48,600
Colombian $48,000
Nicaraguan $46,700
Salvadoran $40,000
Cuban $38,600
Mexican $38,000
Guatemalan $36,400
Puerto Rican $36,000
Dominicans $32,300
Hondurans $31,000
Sources:[152]

In 2011, the average individual income among Hispanic and Latino Americans was highest for Argentinian Americans ($55,000), and lowest for Honduran Americans ($31,000). For other large Hispanic groups the incomes were as follows: Salvadoran Americans ($40,000), Cuban Americans (38,600), Mexican Americans ($38,00), Guatemalan Americans ($36,400), Puerto Ricans ($36,000) and Dominican Americans ($32,300).[153]

Among Hispanics, Cuban Americans (28.5 percent) had the highest percentage in professional–managerial occupations. The percentage for Mexican Americans was 20.7, Central and South Americans' was 8.8 percent, and Puerto Ricans was 7.2 percent. All these are lower than the average for non-Hispanics (36.2 percent).

Poverty

According to the U.S. Census, the poverty rate among the six largest Hispanic groups during the period of 2007-2011 was: Dominican Americans (26.3 percent), Puerto Ricans (25.6), Guatemalan Americans (25.1), Mexican Americans (24.9 percent), Salvadoran Americans (18.9) and Cuban Americans (16.2).[153] In comparison, the average poverty rates for non-Hispanic White Americans (10.8 percent)[153] and Asian Americans (11.3 percent) were lower than those of any Hispanic group. African Americans (25.8 percent) had a higher poverty rate than Cuban Americans, Salvadoran Americans, Mexican Americans, Guatemalan Americans and Puerto Ricans, but had a lower poverty rate than Dominican Americans.[153]

Cultural influence

The geographic, political, social, economic, and racial diversity of Hispanic and Latino Americans makes all Hispanics very different depending on their family heritage and/or national origin. Yet several features tend to unite Hispanics from these diverse backgrounds.

Spanish speakers in the United States
Year Number of Spanish speakers Percent of
US population
1980 11 million 5%
1990 17.3 million 7%
2000 28.1 million 10%
2010 37 million 13%
2012 38.3 million 13%
2020 (projected) 40 million 14%
Sources:[154][155][156][157]

Language

Hispanics have revived the use of Spanish in the United States, originally brought to North America during the Spanish colonial period in the 16th century. Today, there are almost 40 million Spanish speakers in the United States. Spanish is also the most popular language taught in the United States.[158][159]

Spanish

Spanish colonial architecture in Los Angeles' Plaza Historic District. The Spanish language in the Southwestern United States spans many centuries.

As one of the most important uniting factors of Hispanic Americans, Spanish is an important part of Hispanic culture. Teaching Spanish to children is often one of the most valued skills taught amongst Hispanic families. Spanish is not only closely tied with the person's family, heritage, and overall culture, but valued for increased opportunities in business and one's future professional career. A 2013 Pew Research survey showed that 95% of Hispanic adults said "it's important that future generations of Hispanics speak Spanish."[154][160] Given the United States proximity to other Spanish-speaking countries, Spanish is being passed on to future American generations. Amongst second-generation Hispanics, 80% speak fluent Spanish, and amongst third-generation Hispanics, 40% speak fluent Spanish.[161]

Hispanics have revived the Spanish language in the United States. First brought to North America by the Spanish during the Spanish colonial period in the 16th century, Spanish was the first European language spoken in the Americas. Spanish is the oldest European language in the United States, spoken uninterruptedly for four and a half centuries, since the founding of Saint Augustine, Florida in 1565.[26][27][28][29] Today, 90% of all Hispanic and Latinos speak English, and at least 89% speak fluent Spanish.[162] Additionally, 2.8 million non-Hispanic Americans also speak Spanish at home.[163]

With 40% of Hispanic and Latino Americans being immigrants,[164] and with many of the 60% who are U.S.-born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large. At home, at least 69% of all Hispanics over the age of five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English-speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish speakers. Another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.[162]

American Spanish dialects

The Spanish dialects spoken in the United States differ depending on the country of origin of the person or the person's family heritage. Generally, however, Spanish spoken in the Southwest is Mexican Spanish (or Chicano Spanish). An old, colonial variety of Spanish is spoken by descendants of the early Spanish colonists in New Mexico and Colorado, which is New Mexican Spanish. One of the major distinctions of New Mexican Spanish is its heavy use of colonial vocabulary and verb tenses that make New Mexican Spanish uniquely American amongst Spanish dialects. The Spanish spoken in Florida and in the Northeast is Caribbean Spanish and is heavily influenced by the Spanish of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Canarian Spanish is the historic Spanish dialect spoken by the descendants of the earliest Spanish colonists beginning in the 18th century in Louisiana. Spanish spoken elsewhere throughout the country varies, although is generally Mexican Spanish.[163][165]

Spanglish and English dialects

Hispanics have influenced the way Americans speak with the introduction of many Spanish words into the English language. Amongst younger generations of Hispanics, Spanglish, or a mix of Spanish and English, may be a common way of speaking. Although they are fluent in both languages, speakers will switch between Spanish and English throughout the conversation. Spanglish is particularly common in Hispanic-majority cities and communities such as Miami, Hialeah, San Antonio, Los Angeles, and New York City.[166]

Hispanics have also influenced the way English is spoken in the United States. In Miami, for example, the Miami dialect has evolved as the most common form of English spoken and heard in Miami today. This is a native dialect of English, and was developed amongst second and third generations of Cuban Americans in Miami. Today, it is commonly heard everywhere throughout the city. Gloria Estefan and Enrique Iglesias are examples of people who speak with the Miami dialect. Another major English dialect, is spoken by Chicanos and Tejanos in the Southwestern United States, called Chicano English. George Lopez and Selena are examples of speakers of Chicano English.[167] An English dialect spoken by Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups is called New York Latino English.

Religion

José Horacio Gómez, Archbishop of Los Angeles. Hispanics are overwhelmingly Roman Catholic.

The most methodologically rigorous study of Hispanic or Latino religious affiliation to date was the Hispanic Churches in American Public Life (HCAPL) National Survey, conducted between August and October 2000. This survey found that 70% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans are Catholic, 20% are Protestant, 3% are "alternative Christians" (such as Mormon or Jehovah's Witnesses), 1% identify with a non-Christian religion (including Muslims, Jewish, Buddhist...[168]), and 6% have no religious preference (with only 0.37% claiming to be atheist or agnostic). This suggests that Hispanics/Latinos are not only a highly religious, but also a highly Christian constituency.

It also suggests that Hispanic/Latino Protestants are a more sizable minority than sometimes realized. Catholic affiliation is much higher among first-generation than second- or third-generation Hispanic or Latino immigrants, who exhibit a fairly high rate of defection to Protestantism.[169] Also Hispanics and Latinos in the Bible Belt, which is mostly located in the South, are more likely to shift to Protestantism than those in other regions, as it is all around them. Protestant denominations that have attracted Hispanic/Latino converts are Pentecostalism[170][171] and the Episcopal Church.[172][173] According to Andrew Greeley, as many as 600,000 American Latinos leave Catholicism for Protestant churches every year.[174] Hispanic or Latino Catholics are developing youth and social programs to retain members, as well as the spread of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal.[175]

Media

Univisión is the country's largest Spanish language network, followed by Telemundo. It is the country's fourth-largest network overall.[176]
El Rey Network (Spanish for The King) is an English language American television channel targeting Latino audiences.

The United States is home to thousands of Spanish-language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial and some non-commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low-power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting U.S. Hispanic consumers. Some of the outlets are online versions of their printed counterparts and some online exclusively.

Among the most notable Hispanic/Latino-oriented media outlets are:

Cuisine

Mexican food has become part of the mainstream American market just as Italian food did so decades before.

Latino food, particularly Mexican has influenced American cuisine and eating habits. Mexican cuisine has become mainstream in American culture that many no longer see it as an ethnic food. Across the US, making tortillas and salsa more common as fast food than hamburger buns and ketchup. Tortilla chips have surpassed potato chips in annual sales, and plantain chips popular in Caribbean cuisines, have continued to increase sales.[177] Tropical fruit, such as mango, guava, and passion fruit (maracuyá), have become more popular and are now common flavors in desserts, candies, and food dishes in the US.

Due to the large Mexican-American population in the Southwestern United States, and its proximity to Mexico, Mexican food there is believed to be some of the best in the US. Cubans brought Cuban cuisine to Miami, and today, cortaditos, pastelitos de guayaba, and empanadas are common mid-day snacks in the city. Cuban culture has changed Miami's coffee drinking habits, and today a café con leche or a cortadito is commonly had, often with a pastelito (pastry), at one of the city's numerous coffee shops.[178] The Cuban sandwich developed in Miami, and is now a staple and icon of the city's cuisine and culture.[179]

Family life and values

A Quinceañera after a Catholic Mass, celebrating a daughter's 15th birthday, common amongst Hispanic families.

Hispanic and Latino culture places a strong value on family, and is commonly taught to Hispanic children as one of the most important values in life. Statistically, Hispanic families tend to have larger and closer knit families than the American average. Hispanic families tend to prefer to live near other family members. This may mean that three or sometimes four generations may be living in the same household or near each other, although four generations is uncommon in the US. The role of grandparents is believed to be very important in the upbringing of children.[180]

Hispanics tend to be very group-oriented, and an emphasis is placed on the well-being of the family above the individual. The extended family plays an important part of many Hispanic families, and frequent social, family gatherings are common. Traditional rights of passages, particularly Roman Catholic sacraments: such as baptisms, birthdays, First Holy Communions, quinceañeras, Confirmations, graduations, and weddings are all popular moments of family gatherings and celebrations in Hispanic families.[181][182]

Education is another important priority for Hispanic families. Education is seen as the key towards continued upward mobility in the US among Hispanic families. A 2010 study by the Associated Press showed that Hispanics place a higher emphasis on education than the average American. Hispanics expect their children to graduate university.[183][184]

Latin American youth today stay at home with their parents longer than before. This is due to more years spent studying and the difficulty of finding a paid job that meets their aspirations.[185]

Intermarriage

Hispanic Americans, like immigrant groups before them, are out-marrying at high rates. Out-marriages comprised 17.4% of all existing Hispanic marriages in 2008.[186] The rate was higher for newlyweds (which excludes immigrants who are already married): Among all newlyweds in 2010, 25.7% of all Hispanics married a non-Hispanic (this compares to out-marriage rates of 9.4% of whites, 17.1% of blacks, and 27.7% of Asians). The rate was larger for native-born Hispanics, with 36.2% of native-born Hispanics (both men and women) out-marrying compared to 14.2% of foreign-born Hispanics.[187] The difference is attributed to recent immigrants tending to marry within their immediate immigrant community due to commonality of language, proximity, familial connections, and familiarity.[186]

In 2008, 81% of Hispanics who married out married non-Hispanic Whites, 9% married non-Hispanic Blacks, 5% non-Hispanic Asians, and the remainder married non-Hispanic, multi-racial partners.[186]

Of the 275,500 new intermarried pairings in 2010, 43.3% were White-Hispanic (compared to White-Asian at 14.4%, White-Black at 11.9%, and Other Combinations at 30.4%; other combinations consists of pairings between different minority groups, multi-racial people, and American Indians).[187] Unlike those for marriage to Blacks and Asians, intermarriage rates of Hispanics to Whites do not vary by gender. The combined median earnings of White/Hispanic couples are lower than those of White/White couples but higher than those of Hispanic/Hispanic couples. 23% of Hispanic men who married White women have a college degree compared to only 10% of Hispanic men who married a Hispanic woman. 33% of Hispanic women who married a White husband are college-educated compared to 13% of Hispanic women who married a Hispanic man.[187]

Attitudes among non-Hispanics toward intermarriage with Hispanics are mostly favorable, with 81% of Whites, 76% of Asians, and 73% of Blacks "being fine" with a member of their family marrying a Hispanic and an additional 13% of Whites, 19% of Asians, and 16% of Blacks "being bothered but accepting of the marriage." Only 2% of Whites, 4% of Asians, and 5% of Blacks would not accept a marriage of their family member to a Hispanic.[186]

Hispanic attitudes toward intermarriage with non-Hispanics are likewise favorable, with 71% "being fine" with marriages to Whites and 81% "being fine" with marriages to Blacks. A further 22% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a White and 16% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a Black. Only 3% of Hispanics objected outright marriage of a family member to a non-Hispanic Black and 3% to a non-Hispanic White.[186]

Unlike intermarriage with other racial groups, intermarriage with non-Hispanic Blacks varies by nationality of origin. Puerto Ricans and Dominicans have by far the highest rates of intermarriage with blacks, of all major Hispanic national groups.[183][188][189][190][191][192][193][194][195][196] Cubans have the highest rate of intermarriage with non-Hispanic Whites, of all major Hispanic national groups, and are the most assimilated into White American culture.[197][198] Mexican Americans, who are the majority of the US Hispanic population, are most likely to intermarry with Whites and Asians when marrying out.[199][200][201]

Politics

Current Hispanics and Latinos in United States government
Political party State Term Ancestry
Supreme Court
Sonia Sotomayor N/A N/A 2009–Present Puerto Rican
State Governors
Brian Sandoval Republican Nevada 2011–Present Mexican
Susana Martínez Republican New Mexico 2011–Present Mexican
US Senate
Bob Menéndez Democrat New Jersey 2006–Present Cuban
Marco Rubio Republican Florida 2011–Present Cuban
Ted Cruz Republican Texas 2013–Present Cuban
US House of Representatives
Charles B. Rangel Democrat New York 1971–Present Puerto Rican
Ileana Ros-Lehtinen Republican Florida 1989–Present Cuban
José E. Serrano Democrat New York 1990–Present Puerto Rican
Ed Pastor Democrat Arizona 1991–Present Mexican
Xavier Becerra Democrat California 1993–Present Mexican
Luis Gutiérrez Democrat Illinois 1993–Present Puerto Rican
Lucille Roybal-Allard Democrat California 1993–Present Mexican
Nydia Velázquez Democrat New York 1993–Present Puerto Rican
Rubén Hinojosa Democrat Texas 1997–Present Mexican
Loretta Sánchez Democrat California 1997–Present Mexican
Grace Napolitano Democrat California 1999–Present Mexican
Mario Díaz-Balart Republican Florida 2003–Present Cuban
Raúl Grijalva Democrat Arizona 2003–Present Mexican
Linda Sánchez Democrat California 2003–Present Mexican
Henry Roberto Cuellar Democrat Texas 2005–Present Mexican
Albio Sires Democrat New Jersey 2006–Present Cuban
Ben Ray Luján Democrat New Mexico 2009–Present Mexican
Bill Flores Republican Texas 2011–Present Mexican
Jaime Herrera Republican Washington 2011–Present Mexican
Raúl Labrador Republican Idaho 2011–Present Puerto Rican
Tony Cárdenas Democrat California 2013–Present Mexican
Joaquín Castro Democrat Texas 2013–Present Mexican
Pete Gallego Democrat Texas 2013–Present Mexican
José Antonio García Democrat Florida 2013–Present Cuban
Michelle Lujan Grisham Democrat New Mexico 2013–Present Mexican
Gloria Negrete McLeod Democrat California 2013–Present Mexican
Raúl Ruiz Democrat California 2013–Present Mexican
Ron DeSantis Republican Florida 2013–Present
Juan Vargas Democrat California 2013–Present Mexican
Filemon Vela, Jr. Democrat Texas 2013–Present Mexican

Political affiliations

The Congressional Hispanic Caucus, circa 1984

Hispanics and Latinos differ on their political views depending on their location and backgroun. The majority (57%)[202] either identify as or support the Democrats, and 23% identify as Republicans.[202] This 34-point gap as of December 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier.

Cuban Americans and Colombian Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans. Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans tend to favor liberal views and support the Democrats. However, because the latter groups are far more numerous—as, again, Mexican Americans alone are 64% of Hispanics and Latinos—the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position with the ethnic group overall.

Election results

The presidency of George W. Bush had a significant influence on the political leanings of Hispanics and Latinos, as he attracted new supporters. As a former Governor of Texas, Bush regarded this growing community as a potential source of growth for the conservative movement and the Republican Party. He made some gains for the Republicans among the group.

Elections of 1996-2006

President Bill Clinton and his Hispanic appointees in 1998

In the 1996 presidential election, 72% of Hispanics and Latinos backed President Bill Clinton. In 2000 the Democratic total fell to 62%, and went down again in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 58–40 against Bush.[203] Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Latinos voted 63–32 for Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Latinos by a smaller 56–43 margin. Texas Latinos were split nearly evenly, favoring Kerry 50–49 over their favorite son candidate, and Florida Latinos (who are mostly Cuban American) backed Bush, by a 54–45 margin.

In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal Hispanic immigration, and Republican-related Congressional scandals, Hispanics and Latinos went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed the group voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69–30 margin, with Florida Latinos for the first time split evenly.

The runoff election in Texas' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Latino politics. Democrat Ciro Rodriguez's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Latino voters; majority-Latino counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez, and majority European-American counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla.

2008 election

Hispanic Vote in US Presidential Elections since 1980[204]
Election
year		 Candidate of the plurality Political party % of
Hispanic
vote		 Result
1980 Jimmy Carter Democratic 56% Lost
1984 Walter Mondale Democratic 61% Lost
1988 Michael Dukakis Democratic 69% Lost
1992 Bill Clinton Democratic 61% Won
1996 Bill Clinton Democratic 72% Won
2000 Al Gore Democratic 62% Lost
2004 John Kerry Democratic 58% Lost
2008 Barack Obama Democratic 67% Won
2012 Barack Obama Democratic 71% Won

In the 2008 Presidential election's Democratic primary Hispanics and Latinos participated in larger numbers than before, with Hillary Clinton receiving most of the group's support.[205] Pundits discussed whether a large percentage of Hispanics and Latinos would vote for an African-American candidate, in this case Barack Obama, Clinton's opponent.[206] Hispanics/Latinos voted 2 to 1 for Mrs. Clinton, even among the younger demographic. In other groups, younger voters went overwhelmingly for Obama.[207] Among Hispanics, 28% said race was involved in their decision, as opposed to 13% for (non-Hispanic) whites.[207]

Obama defeated Clinton. In the matchup between Obama and Republican candidate John McCain for the presidency, Hispanics and Latinos supported Obama with 59% to McCain's 29% in the Gallup tracking poll as of June 30, 2008.[208] This surprised some analysts, since a higher than expected percentage of Latinos and Hispanics favored Obama over McCain, who had been a leader of the comprehensive immigration reform effort.[209] However, McCain had retreated during the Republican primary, saying that he would not support the bill if it came up again. Some analysts believed that this shift damaged his standing among Hispanics and Latinos.[210] Obama took advantage of the situation by running ads in Spanish to appeal to this ethnic group, in which he mentioned McCain's about-face.[211]

In the general election, 67% of Hispanics and Latinos voted for Obama[212] and 31% voted for McCain,[213] with a relatively stronger turnout than in previous elections in states such as Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, and Virginia, helping Obama carry those formerly Republican states. Obama won 70% of non-Cuban Hispanics and 35% of the traditionally Republican Cuban Americans who have a strong presence in Florida. The changing state demographics, in which the non-Cuban Hispanic community is increasing in number, also contributed to his carrying Florida's Latinos with 57% of the vote.[212][214] Hispanics and Latinos also offset Republican gains in traditional red states; for example, Obama carried 63% of Texas Latinos, when the overall vote of the state was for McCain by 55%.[215]

Although during 2008 the economy and employment were top concerns for Hispanics and Latinos, immigration was "never far from their minds": almost 90% of Latino voters rated immigration as "somewhat important" or "very important" in a poll taken after the election.[216] There is "abundant evidence" that the heated Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 has done significant damage to the party's appeal to Hispanics and Latinos in the years to come, especially in the swing states such as Florida, Nevada, and New Mexico.[216] In a Gallup poll of 4,604 registered Hispanic voters taken in the final days of June 2008, only 18% of participants identified as Republicans.[208]

Some political organizations associated with Hispanic and Latino Americans are League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), the National Council of La Raza (NCLR), the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation, and the National Institute for Latino Policy.

2012 election

Hispanic and Latinos voted even more heavily for Democrats in the 2012 election with the Democratic incumbent Barack Obama receiving 71% and the Republican challenger Mitt Romney receiving about 27% of the vote.[217][218]

Cultural issues

Hispanophobia

Hispanophobia has existed in various degrees throughout U.S. history, based largely on ethnicity, race, culture, Anti-Catholicism, economic and social conditions in Latin America, and use of the Spanish language.[219][220][221][222] In 2006, Time Magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33 percent since 2000, primarily due to anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment.[223] According to Federal Bureau of Investigation statistics, the number of anti-Latino hate crimes increased by 35 percent since 2003 (albeit from a low level). In California, the state with the largest Latino population, the number of hate crimes against Latinos almost doubled.[224]

For the year 2009, the FBI reported that 483 of the 6,604 hate crimes committed in the United States were anti-Hispanic comprising 7.3% of all hate crimes. This compares to 34.6% of hate crimes being anti-Black, 17.9% being anti-Homosexual, 14.1% being anti-Jewish, and 8.3% being anti-White.[225]

Relations with other minority groups

As a result of the rapid growth of the Hispanic population, there has been some tension with other minority populations,[226] especially the African American population, as Hispanics have increasingly moved into once exclusively Black areas.[227][228][229][230][231][232][233][234][235][236][237][238] There has also been increasing cooperation between minority groups to work together to attain political influence.[239][240][241][242][243]

See also

Places of settlement in United States:

Diaspora:

Individuals:

Other Hispanic and Latino Americans topics:

General:

Footnotes

  1. 1 2 US Census Bureau 2014 American Community Survey B03001 1-Year Estimates HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY SPECIFIC ORIGIN retrieved October 18, 2015. Number of people of Hispanic and Latino Origin by specific origin(except people of Brazilian origin).
  2. ↑ "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin for the United States, States, and Counties: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014". U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. Retrieved January 10, 2016.
  3. 1 2 3 Gallup, Inc. "U.S. Catholic Hispanic Population Less Religious, Shrinking". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  4. ↑ "Growing number of Latinos have no religious affiliation". NBC Latino. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  5. ↑ "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. March 2011. Retrieved January 9, 2016.
  6. ↑ Luis Fraga; John A. Garcia (2010). Latino Lives in America: Making It Home. Temple University Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-4399-0050-5.
  7. ↑ Nancy L. Fisher (1996). Cultural and Ethnic Diversity: A Guide for Genetics Professionals. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-8018-5346-3.
  8. ↑ Robert H. Holden; Rina Villars (2012). Contemporary Latin America: 1970 to the Present. John Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-118-27487-3.
  9. ↑ "49 CFR Part 26". Retrieved 2012-10-22. 'Hispanic Americans,' which includes persons of Mexican-, Puerto Rican-, Cuban, Dominican-, Central or South American, or other Spanish, culture or origin, regardless of race;
  10. ↑ "US Small Business Administration 8(a) Program Standard Operating Procedure" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-10-22. SBA has defined 'Hispanic American' as an individual whose ancestry and culture are rooted in South America, Central America, Mexico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, or the Iberian Peninsula, including Spain and Portugal.
  11. ↑ Humes, Karen R.; Jones first3=Roberto R., Nicholas A.; Ramirez. "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2011-03-28. "Hispanic or Latino" refers to a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish or Portuguese culture or origin regardless of race.
  12. ↑ "American FactFinder Help: Hispanic or Latino origin". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
  13. ↑ "PEOPLE REPORTING ANCESTRY Universe: Total population, 2014 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 14 October 2015. This page of the US Census bureau is about the reported ethnicities of United States in 2014. The page indicates the number of American people (or residents in United States) identifying as of different national origins. The page included the people from Brazil but excluded the people who indicated origins classified by the Census Bureau as "Hispanic or Latino".
  14. 1 2 Office of Management and Budget. "Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity. Federal Register Notice October 30, 1997". Retrieved 2012-06-01.
  15. 1 2 3 Grieco, Elizabeth M.; Rachel C. Cassidy. "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2000" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  16. ↑ "B03001. Hispanic or Latino origin by specific origin". 2009 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2010-10-17.
  17. ↑ "CIA – The World Factbook – Field Listing :: Ethnic groups". Retrieved 2010-11-18.
  18. ↑ "T4-2007. Hispanic or Latino By Race [15]". 2007 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2010-09-10.
  19. ↑ "B03002. Hispanic or Latino origin by race". 2007 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2010-09-02.
  20. ↑ Tafoya, Sonya (2004-12-06). "Shades of Belonging" (PDF). Pew Hispanic Center. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
  21. ↑ The Contested Homeland - A Chicano History of New Mexico
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  26. 1 2 3 Small, Lawrence M (2002-08-01). "Latino Legacies". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-04-28. There was a Hispanic presence on the continent for more than 200 years before 13 colonies on the eastern coast declared their independence from England.... By 1607, when the British established their first successful settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, writes historian Bernard Bailyn, "Spain's American dominion extended nearly 8,000 miles, from Southern California to the Straits of Magellan...
  27. 1 2 3 "A Brief History of St. Augustine". City of St. Augustine. Retrieved 2008-04-28. Founded in 1565, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the United States. Forty-two years before the English colonized Jamestown and fifty-five years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, the Spanish established at St. Augustine this nation's first enduring settlement.
  28. 1 2 3 "A Spanish Expedition Established St. Augustine in Florida". America's Library. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on May 24, 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-28. On September 8, 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés landed on the shore of what is now called Matanzas Bay and began the founding of the Presidio of San Agustin. Later the settlement would be called St. Augustine, Florida. Built on the site of an ancient Native American village, and near the place where Ponce de León, the European discoverer of Florida, landed in 1513 in search of the legendary Fountain of Youth, it has been continually inhabited since its founding.
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  222. ↑ Digital History
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  224. ↑ Democracy Now! | FBI Statistics Show Anti-Latino Hate Crimes on the Rise December 5, 2007
  225. ↑ "Table 1". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  226. ↑ New York Times: "Survey Points to Tensions Among Chief Minorities" by JULIA PRESTON December 13, 2007
  227. ↑ Christian Science Monitor: "Rising black-Latino clash on jobs" May 25, 2006
  228. ↑ New York Times: "In Obama’s Pursuit of Latinos, Race Plays Role" January 15, 2008
  229. ↑ Los Angeles Times: "Roots of anger Longtime prejudices, not economic rivalry, fuel Latino-black tensions" January 07, 2007
  230. ↑ The Economist:"Where black and brown collide: The struggle for political dominance" August 2, 2007
  231. ↑ The Daily Press: "Hispanic Influx Causes Tensions with Blacks" February 27, 2011
  232. ↑ FoxNews: "Alleged Bias Attacks Inflame Tensions in New York City" August 16, 2010
  233. ↑ Washington Post: "Jail Riots Illustrate Racial Divide in California" February 21, 2006
  234. ↑ National Public Radio: "Racial Tension at Los Angeles High School" May 16, 2005.
  235. ↑ USA Today: "Blacks, Latinos in the South: Cooperation or confrontation?" November 4, 2006
  236. ↑ Los Angeles Times: "Attack on family in Compton latest incident in wave of anti-black violence - A Latino gang is intimidating blacks into leaving the city that was once an African American enclave. It's part of a violent trend seen in other parts of the L.A. area" By Sam Quinones, Richard Winton and Joe Mozingo January 25, 2013
  237. ↑ Los Angeles Times: "A Southern accent on day laborers Stereotypes, language skills and the lowest price come into play as black Americans and Latino immigrants compete on an Atlanta street" By Richard Fausset December 28, 2007
  238. ↑ City Journal: "The Rainbow Coalition Evaporates - Black anger grows as illegal immigrants transform urban neighborhoods" by Steven Malanga Winter 2008
  239. ↑ New York Times: "A Black-Latino Coalition Emerges in Los Angeles" by JOHN M. BRODER April 24, 2005
  240. ↑ Southern Regional Council: "Building Black - Brown Coalitions in the Southeast: Four Case Studies of African American-Latino Collaborations" by Joel Alvarado and Charles Jaret 2009
  241. ↑ Carnegie reporter: "Blacks and Latinos in the U.S" by Roberto Suro Spring 2009
  242. ↑ Nagourney, Adam; Jennifer Steinhauer (January 15, 2008). "In Obama’s Pursuit of Latinos, Race Plays Role". New York Times.
  243. ↑ Southern Poverty Law Center Intelligence Report: "Latino Gang Members in Southern California are Terrorizing and Killing Blacks" Winter 2006, Issue Number: 124
  244. ↑ New York Times: "Survey Points to Tensions Among Chief Minorities" December 13, 2007
  245. ↑ UCLA Center for Communications & Community December 13, 2007
  246. ↑ Pew Research Center: "Attitudes Toward Immigration: In Black and White" April 26, 2006
  247. ↑ University of Berkeley Law School: Research Brief "Labor arrangement corresponds with the growth in the Latino immigrant population" July 2008
  248. 1 2 Gallup: "Whites May Exaggerate Black-Hispanic Tensions" by Lydia Saad July 17, 2008
  249. ↑ Los Angeles Times: "Hate crimes in L.A. County down overall, but anti-Jewish vandalism rises" December 21, 2010

Further reading

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