Heligoland

Heligoland Helgoland
Flag Coat of arms
Heligoland
Location of Heligoland within Pinneberg district
Coordinates: 54°10′57″N 7°53′07″E / 54.18250°N 7.88528°E / 54.18250; 7.88528Coordinates: 54°10′57″N 7°53′07″E / 54.18250°N 7.88528°E / 54.18250; 7.88528
Country	Germany
State	Schleswig-Holstein
District	Pinneberg
Government
• Mayor	Jörg Singer (Ind.)
Area
• Total	1.7 km2 (0.7 sq mi)
Population (2013-12-31)[1]
• Total	1,356
• Density	800/km2 (2,100/sq mi)
Time zone	CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2)
Postal codes	27498
Dialling codes	04725
Vehicle registration	PI, AG
Website	www.helgoland.de

Heligoland (German: Helgoland; Heligolandic Frisian: deät Lun ["the Land"]) is a small German archipelago in the North Sea.

Formerly Danish and British possessions, the islands (population 1,127) are located in the Heligoland Bight (part of the German Bight) in the southeastern corner of the North Sea.

These islands are the only German islands not in the immediate vicinity of the mainland and are approximately three hours sailing time from Cuxhaven at the mouth of the River Elbe.

In addition to German, the local population, who are ethnic Frisians, speak the Heligolandic dialect of the North Frisian language called Halunder. Heligoland was formerly called Heyligeland, or "holy land", possibly due to the island's long association with the god Forseti.

Geography

Heligoland is located 46 kilometres (29 mi) off the German coastline and consists of two islands: the populated triangular 1 km² (0.4 sq mi) main island (Hauptinsel) to the west, and the Düne ("dune", Heligolandic: de Halem) to the east. The former is what the place name "Heligoland" is normally used to refer to. Düne is somewhat smaller at 0.7 km² (0.27 sq mi), lower, and surrounded by sand beaches. It is not permanently inhabited, but is today the location of Heligoland's airport.

The main island is commonly divided into the Unterland ("Lower Land", Heligolandic: deät Deelerlun) at sea level (to the right on the photograph, where the harbour is located), the Oberland ("Upper Land", Heligolandic: deät Boperlun) consisting of the plateau visible in the photographs and the Mittelland ("Middle Land") between them on one side of the island. The Mittelland came into being in 1947 as a result of explosions detonated by the British Royal Navy (the so-called "Big Bang"; see below).

The main island also features small beaches in the north and the south and drops to the sea 50 metres (160 ft) high in the north, west and southwest. In the latter, the ground continues to drop underwater to a depth of 56 metres (184 ft) below sea level. Northwest of the island proper Heligoland's famous landmark is found: the Lange Anna ("Long Anna" or "Tall Anna") is a free standing rock column (or stack), 47 metres (154 ft) high.

The two islands were connected until 1720, when the natural connection was destroyed by a storm flood. The highest point is on the main island, reaching 61 metres (200 ft) above sea level.

Although culturally closer to North Frisia in the German district of Nordfriesland, the two islands are part of the district of Pinneberg in the state of Schleswig-Holstein. The main island has a good harbour and is frequented mostly by sailing yachts.

Climate

The climate of Heligoland is typical of an offshore climate, being almost free of pollen and thus ideal for people with pollen allergies. Since there is no land mass in the vicinity, temperatures rarely drop below −5 °C (23 °F) even in the winter. At times, winter temperatures can be higher than in Hamburg by up to 10 °C (18 °F) because cold winds from Russia are weakened. While spring tends to be comparatively cool, autumn on Heligoland is often longer and warmer than on the mainland, and statistically, the climate is generally sunnier. The coldest temperature ever recorded on Heligoland was −11.2 °C (12 °F) in February 1956,while the highest was 28.7 °C (84 °F) in July 1994.

Owing to the mild climate, figs have reportedly been grown on the island as early as 1911,^[2] and a 2005 article mentioned Japanese bananas, figs, agaves, palm trees and other exotic plants that had been planted on Heligoland and were thriving.^[3] There still is an old mulberry tree in the Upper Town.

Geology

The island of Heligoland is a geological oddity; the presence of the main island's characteristic red sedimentary rock in the middle of the German Bight is unusual. It is the only such formation of cliffs along the continental coast of the North Sea. The formation itself, called the Bunter sandstone or Buntsandstein, is from the early Triassic geologic age. It is older than the white chalk that underlies the island Düne, the same rock that forms the white cliffs of Dover in England and cliffs of Danish and German islands in the Baltic Sea. In fact, a small chalk rock close to Heligoland, called witt Kliff^[6] (white cliff), is known to have existed within sight of the island to the west until the early 18th century, when storm floods finally eroded it to below sea level.

Heligoland's rock is significantly harder than the postglacial sediments and sands forming the islands and coastlines to the east of the island. This is why the core of the island, which a thousand years ago was still surrounded by a large, low-lying marshland and sand dunes separated from coast in the east only by narrow channels, has remained to this day, although the onset of the North Sea has long eroded away all of its surroundings. A small piece of Heligoland's sand dunes remains—the sand isle just across the harbour called Düne (Dune). A referendum in June 2011 dismissed a proposal to reconnect the main island to the Düne islet with a landfill.^[7]

Flag

The Heligoland flag is very similar to its coat of arms—it is a tricolour flag with three horizontal bars, from top to bottom: green, red and white. Each of the colours has its symbolic meaning, as expressed in its motto:

German	Low German	North Frisian	English
Grün ist das Land, rot ist die Kant, weiß ist der Sand, das sind die Farben von Helgoland.	Gröön is dat Land, rood is de Kant, witt is de Sand, dat sünd de Farven van't Helgoland.	Grön es det Lunn, road es de Kant, witt es de Sunn, det sen de Farven van't Hillige Lunn.	Green is the land, Red is the cliff,1 White is the sand, These are the colours of Heligoland. 1 lit. "edge" or "coast"

There is an alternative version in which the word Sand ("sand") is replaced with Strand ("beach").

History

The German Bight and the area around the island is known to have been inhabited since prehistoric times. Flint tools have been recovered from the bottom of the sea surrounding Heligoland. On the Oberland, prehistoric burial mounds were visible until the late 19th century and excavations showed skeletons and artefacts. Moreover, prehistoric copper plates have been found under water near the island; those plates were almost certainly made on the Oberland.^[8]

In 697, Radbod, the last Frisian king, retreated to the then-single island after his defeat by the Franks—so it is written in the Life of Willebrord by Alcuin. By 1231, the island was listed as the property of the Danish king Valdemar II. Archaeological findings from the 12th to 14th century suggest the processing of copper ore on the island.^[9]

It is usually said that the name Heligoland in origin means "Holy Land" (cf. modern Dutch and German heilig, "holy").^[10] However, 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica describes this theory as "doubtful", suggesting instead an etymology of "Hallaglun, or Halligland, i.e. 'land of banks, which cover and uncover.' "^[11]

Traditional economic activities included fishing, hunting birds and seals, wrecking and—very important for many overseas powers—piloting overseas ships into the harbours of Hanseatic League cities such as Bremen and Hamburg. Moreover, in some periods Heligoland was an excellent base point for huge herring catches. As a result, until 1714 ownership switched several times between Denmark and the Duchy of Schleswig, with one period of control by Hamburg. In August 1714, it was captured by Denmark, and it remained Danish until 1807.

19th century

British Administration of Heligoland Britische Verwaltung von Helgoland
Colony of the British Empire
← 1807–1890 →   →
Flag
Government		Colony
Monarch
•	1807-1820	George III first
•	1837-1890	Victoria last
Lieutenant Governor/Governor[12]
•	1807-1814	Corbet James d'Auvergne first
•	1888-1890	Arthur Cecil Stuart Barkly last
Historical era		Napoleonic Wars New Imperialism
•	Treaty of Kiel	1807
•	Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty	1890
Today part of		Germany

On 11 September 1807, during the Napoleonic Wars, HMS Carrier brought to the Admiralty the despatches from Admiral Thomas McNamara Russell announcing Heligoland's capitulation to the British.^[13] Heligoland became a centre of smuggling and espionage against Napoleon. Denmark then formally ceded Heligoland to George III of the United Kingdom by the Treaty of Kiel (14 January 1814). Thousands of Germans came to Britain and joined the King's German Legion via Heligoland.

The British annexation of Heligoland was ratified by the Treaty of Paris signed on 30 May 1814, as part of a number of territorial reallocations following on the abdication of Napoleon as Emperor of the French. The prime reason at the time for Britain's retention of a small and seemingly worthless acquisition was to restrict any future French naval aggression against the Scandinavian or German states.^[14] In the event no effort was made during the period of British administration to make use of the islands for naval purposes. This was partially for financial reasons but mainly because the Royal Navy considered Heligoland to be too exposed as a forward base.^[15]

In 1826, Heligoland became a seaside spa and soon it turned into a popular tourist resort for the European upper-class. The island attracted artists and writers, especially from Germany and Austria who enjoyed the freedom of the benignly ruled (British) island, including Heinrich Heine and August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben. It was a refuge for revolutionaries of the 1830s and the 1848 German revolution.

Britain gave up the islands to Germany in 1890 in the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty. The newly unified Germany was concerned about a foreign power's controlling land from which it could command the western entrance to the militarily-important Kiel Canal, then under construction, as well as other naval installations in the area, and traded for it. A "grandfathering"/optant approach prevented the Heligolanders (as they were named in the British measures) from forfeiting advantages because of this imposed change of status.

Heligoland has an important place in the history of the study of ornithology, and especially the understanding of migration. The book Heligoland, an Ornithological Observatory by Heinrich Gätke, published in German in 1890 and in English in 1895, described an astonishing array of migrant birds on the island and was a major influence on the future studies of bird migration, in Britain in particular.

20th century

Under the German Empire, the islands became a major naval base, and during the First World War the civilian population was evacuated to the mainland. The first naval engagement of the war, the Battle of Heligoland Bight, was fought nearby in the first month of the war. The islanders returned in 1918, but during the Nazi era the naval base was reactivated. Lager Helgoland, the Nazi labour camp on Alderney, was named after the island.

Werner Heisenberg (1901–75) first formulated the equation underlying his picture of quantum mechanics while on Heligoland in the 1920s. While a student of Arnold Sommerfeld at Munich in the early 1920s, Heisenberg first met the Danish physicist Niels Bohr. He and Bohr went for long hikes in the mountains and discussed the failure of existing theories to account for the new experimental results on the quantum structure of matter. Following these discussions, Heisenberg plunged into several months of intensive theoretical research, but met with continual frustration. Finally, suffering from a severe attack of hay fever, he retreated to the treeless (and pollenless) island of Heligoland in the summer of 1925. There he conceived the basis of the quantum theory.

In 1937, construction began on a major reclamation project (Project Hummerschere) intended to expand existing naval facilities and restore the island to its pre-1629 dimensions. The project was largely abandoned after the start of World War II and was never completed.

World War II

The area was the setting of the aerial Battle of the Heligoland Bight in 1939, a result of British bombing attempts on German Navy vessels in that area. The area's waters were frequently mined by British aircraft.

During World War II the civilian population remained on the main island and were protected from Allied bombing in rock shelters. Following the island's penultimate air raid, on 18 April 1945, using 969 Allied aircraft, the island was evacuated. Most of the 128 casualties during the WWII period were anti-aircraft crews.

Bombing and mining of Heligoland during World War II

Date/Target	Result
11 March 19 March, 24 August 1944	No. 466 Squadron RAAF conducted minelaying operations.[16]
18 April 1944	No. 466 Squadron RAAF conducted bombing operations.[16]
29 August 1944	Mission 584: 11 B-17 Flying Fortresses and 34 B-24 Liberators bomb Heligoland Island; 3 B-24s are damaged. Escort is provided by 169 P-38 Lightnings and P-51 Mustangs; 7 P-51s are damaged.[17]
3 September 1944	Operation Aphrodite B-17 63954 attempt on U-boat pens[18] failed when US Navy controller flew aircraft into Düne Island by mistake.
11 September 1944	Operation Aphrodite B-17 30180 attempt on U-boat pens[18] hit by enemy flak and crashed into sea.
29/30 September 1944	15 Lancasters conducted minelaying in the Kattegat and off Heligoland. No aircraft lost.[19]
5/6 October 1944	10 Halifaxes conducted minelaying off Heligoland. No aircraft lost.[19]
15 October 1944	Operation Aphrodite B-17 30039 *Liberty Belle* and B-17 37743 attempt on U-boat pens[20] destroyed many of the buildings of the Unterland.
26/27 October 1944	10 Lancasters of No 1 Group conducted minelaying off Heligoland. 1 Lancaster minelayer lost.[19] and the islands were evacuated the following night.
22/23 November 1944	17 Lancasters conducted minelaying off Heligoland and in the mouth of the River Elbe without loss.[19]
23 November 1944	4 Mosquitoes conducted Ranger patrols in the Heligoland area. No aircraft lost.[19]
31 December 1944	On Eighth Air Force Mission 772, 1 B-17 bombed Heligoland island.[21]
4/5 February 1945	15 Lancasters and 12 Halifaxes minelaying off Heligoland and in the River Elbe. No minelaying aircraft lost.[19]
16/17 March 1945	12 Halifaxes and 12 Lancasters minelaying in the Kattegat and off Heligoland. No aircraft lost.[22]
18 April 1945	969 aircraft: 617 Lancasters, 332 Halifaxes, 20 Mosquitoes bombed the Naval base, airfield, & town into crater-pitted moonscapes. 3 Halifaxes were lost. The islands were evacuated the following day.[23]
19 April 1945	36 Lancasters of 9 and 617 Squadrons attacked coastal battery positions with Tallboy bombs for no losses.[23]

Explosion

From 1945 to 1952 the uninhabited Heligoland islands were used as a bombing range. On 18 April 1947, the Royal Navy detonated 6,700 tonnes of explosives ("Big Bang" or "British Bang"), creating one of the biggest single non-nuclear detonations in history.^[24] While aiming at the fortifications, the island's total destruction would have been accepted.^[25] The blow shook the main island several miles down to its base, changing its shape (the Mittelland was created).

On 20 December 1950, two students and a professor from Heidelberg, René Leudesdorff, Georg von Hatzfeld and Hubertus zu Löwenstein occupied the off-limits island and raised various German, European and local flags.^[26] The students were arrested by the British military and brought back to the mainland. The event started a movement to restore the islands to Germany, which gained the support of the German parliament. On 1 March 1952, Heligoland was returned to German control, and the former inhabitants were allowed to return.^[27] The first of March is an official holiday on the island. The German authorities had to clear a huge amount of undetonated ammunition, landscape the main island, and rebuild the houses before it could be resettled.

Modern day

Heligoland is now a holiday resort and enjoys a tax-exempt status, as it is part of the EU but excluded from the EU VAT area and customs union. Consequently, much of the economy is founded on sales of cigarettes, alcoholic beverages and perfume to tourists who visit the islands.

There is also a search and rescue (SAR) base of the DGzRS, the Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Rettung Schiffbrüchiger ("German Maritime Search and Rescue Service") on Heligoland.

The ornithological heritage of Heligoland has also been re-established, with the Heligoland Bird Observatory, now managed by the Ornithologische Arbeitsgemeinschaft Helgoland e.V. ("Ornithological Society of Heligoland") which was founded in 1991.

Energy supply

Before the island was connected to the mainland network by a submarine cable in 2009, electricity on Heligoland was generated by a local diesel plant.

Heligoland was the site of a trial of GROWIAN, a large wind turbine testing project. In 1990, a 1.2 MW turbine of the MAN type WKA 60 was installed. Besides technical problems, the turbine was not lightning proof and insurance companies would not provide coverage. The wind energy project was viewed as a failure by the islanders and was stopped.^[28][29] The submarine cable in use now has a length of 53 kilometres (33 mi) and is one of the longest AC submarine power cables in the world and the longest of its kind in Germany.^[30] It was manufactured by the North German Seacable Works in a single piece and was laid by the barge Nostag 10 in spring 2009. The Heligoland Power Cable, which is designed for an operational voltage of 30 kV, reaches the German mainland at Sankt Peter-Ording.

Expansion plans and wind industry

Plans to re-enlarge the land bridge between different parts of the island by means of land reclamation came up between 2008 and 2010.^[31] However, the local community voted against the project.^[32][33]

Since 2013, a new industrial site is being expanded on the southern harbour. E.ON, RWE and WindMW plan to manage operation and services of large offshore windparks from Heligoland.^[34][35][36] The range had been cleaned of left-over ammunition.^[37]

Road restrictions

There are very few cars on Heligoland. There is a special section (§50) in the German traffic regulations (Straßenverkehrsordnung, abbr. StVO)^[38] prohibiting the use of automobiles and bicycles on the island. No other region in Germany has any exceptions to the general regulations in the StVO, although other North Sea islands, such as Baltrum, have also banned the public from using cars and motor-bikes.

Except for the local ambulance van and the small firetrucks, the only motor vehicles on the island are electrically powered and used primarily for moving material. Kick scooters are sometimes used as substitutes for bicycles.

The island received its first police car on 17 January 2006. Until then the island's policemen moved on foot and by bicycle, being exempt from the bicycle ban.

Notable residents

• Rickmer Clasen Rickmers (1807–1886), shipbuilder^[39]
• Heinrich Gätke (1814–1897), artist and ornithologist.
• Rear Admiral Sir John Hindmarsh (1785–1860), veteran of the Battle of Trafalgar and first governor of South Australia, was the governor of Heligoland 1840–56.
• Eva von der Osten (1881-1936), the famous soprano, was born here.
• James Krüss (1926–1997), poet.
• Richard Mansfield (1857–1907), actor.

In culture

• Heligoland gave its name to the Heligoland trap, used in bird ringing.
• Anton Bruckner composed a large scale choral work based on text about Heligoland.
• The text of the German National Anthem was written by August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben during his vacation on then British-governed Heligoland.
• "Heligoland" is the name of a song by Overseer
• Part of Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens was filmed here. Part of the dark comedy Shadow of the Vampire, which is a fictionalized account of the filming of Nosferatu, was also set on Heligoland.
• The first part of The Holy Mountain, starring Leni Riefenstahl, directed by Arnold Fanck was filmed here.
• Physicist Werner Heisenberg formulates the idea of the Uncertainty Principle on this island in the play Copenhagen (1998) by Michael Frayn.
• The British trip hop band Massive Attack named their 2010 album Heligoland.
• The Berlin-based football club TSV Helgoland takes its name from the island.
• Heligoland is one of the two locations used for missions featured in the computer game Ship Simulator: Maritime Search and Rescue. The game features a near perfect copy of Heligoland and the surrounding waters.

See also

• Forseti—A Norse god whose central place of worship was at Heligoland
• Location hypotheses of Atlantis—Heligoland is hypothesized as a possible location for Atlantis by the Austrian author Jürgen Spanuth.
• Postage stamps and postal history of Heligoland

References

Further reading

Papers

• Charlier, C. (1947). "L'explosion d'Heligoland. – Discussion des observations effectuées à Uccle". Ciel et Terre (in French) 64: 193–214. Bibcode:1948C&T....64..193C. 
• Gardner, N. (2008). "An island outpost: Helgoland". Hidden Europe Magazine (20): 2–7. ISSN 1860-6318.  Historical synopsis with review of modern economy and society on Heligoland.
• Reich, H.; Foertsch, O.; Schulze, G. A. (1951). "Results of seismic observations in Germany on the Heligoland explosion of April 18, 1947". Journal of Geophysical Research 56 (2): 147–156. Bibcode:1951JGR....56..147R. doi:10.1029/JZ056i002p00147. 

Books

• Black, William George (1888). Heligoland and the Islands of the North-Sea. Edinburgh: W. Blackwood. 
• Drower, George (2011). Heligoland: The True Story of German Bight and the Island That Britain Forgot. Stroud, UK: History Press. ISBN 9780752460673. 
• Ritsema, Alex (2007). Heligoland, Past and Present. Lulu Press. ISBN 1847531903. 

External links

• Film clip of coast defenses
• Heligoland Tourist Board — includes an aerial photograph of Heligoland (front) and Düne (back).
• Site about planting palms on Heligoland
• Heligoland Web Cams
• Heligoland Bird Observatory
• Footage of Destruction of Heligoland fortifications April 1947

Towns and municipalities in Pinneberg (district) Appen Barmstedt Bevern Bilsen Bokel Bokholt-Hanredder Bönningstedt Borstel-Hohenraden Brande-Hörnerkirchen Bullenkuhlen Ellerbek Ellerhoop Elmshorn Groß Nordende Groß Offenseth-Aspern Halstenbek Haselau Haseldorf Hasloh Heede Heidgraben Heist Heligoland Hemdingen Hetlingen Holm Klein Nordende Klein Offenseth-Sparrieshoop Kölln-Reisiek Kummerfeld Langeln Lutzhorn Moorrege Neuendeich Osterhorn Pinneberg Prisdorf Quickborn Raa-Besenbek Rellingen Schenefeld Seester Seestermühe Seeth-Ekholt Tangstedt Tornesch Uetersen Wedel Westerhorn

Frisian Islands West Frisian Islands (Netherlands) Noorderhaaks Texel Vlieland Richel Terschelling Griend Ameland Rif Engelsmanplaat Schiermonnikoog Simonszand Rottumerplaat Rottumeroog Zuiderduintjes Former islands Wieringen Monnikenlangenoog Bosch East Frisian Islands (Germany) Borkum Lütje Hörn Kachelotplate Memmert Juist Norderney Baltrum Langeoog Spiekeroog Wangerooge Minsener-Oldoog Mellum Former islands Buise Heligoland Bight (Germany) Langlütjen I & II Großer Knechtsand Heligoland Düne Neuwerk Scharhörn Nigehörn Trischen Tertius Blauort North Frisian Islands (Germany) Barrier Island Pellworm Amrum Föhr Sylt Uthörn Halligen Gröde Habel Hamburger Hallig Hooge Langeneß Norderoog Nordstrandischmoor Oland Süderoog Südfall Former islands Hainshallig Nordstrand Strand Danish Wadden Sea Islands (Denmark) Rømø Koresand Fanø Halligen Langli Mandø Former islands Jordsand

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See Canada's name. 3. Gave up self-rule in 1934, but remained a de jure Dominion until it joined Canada in 1949.   South America 1651–1667 Willoughbyland (Suriname) 1670–1688 Saint Andrew and Providence Islands4 1831–1966 British Guiana (Guyana) Since 1833 Falkland Islands5 Since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands5 4. Now the San Andrés y Providencia Department of Colombia. 5. Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982.   Africa 17th and 18th centuries 19th century 20th century Since 1658 Saint Helena14 1792–1961 Sierra Leone 1795–1803 Cape Colony Since 1815 Ascension Island14 Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14 1806–1910 Cape Colony 1807–1808 Madeira 1810–1968 Mauritius 1816–1965 The Gambia 1856–1910 Natal 1868–1966 Basutoland (Lesotho) 1874–1957 Gold Coast (Ghana) 1882–1922 Egypt 1884–1966 Bechuanaland (Botswana) 1884–1960 British Somaliland 1887–1897 Zululand 1890–1962 Uganda 1890–1963 Zanzibar (Tanzania) 1891–1964 Nyasaland (Malawi) 1891–1907 British Central Africa Protectorate 1893–1968 Swaziland 1895–1920 East Africa Protectorate 1899–1956 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1900–1914 Northern Nigeria 1900–1914 Southern Nigeria 1900–1910 Orange River Colony 1900–1910 Transvaal Colony 1903–1976 Seychelles 1906–1954 Nigeria Colony 1910–1931 South Africa 1914–1954 Nigeria Colony and Protectorate 1915–1931 South West Africa (Namibia) 1919–1960 Cameroons (Cameroon)6 1920–1963 Kenya 1922–1961 Tanganyika (Tanzania)6 1923–1965 Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)7 1924–1964 Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) 1954–1960 Nigeria 1979–1980 Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)7 6. League of Nations mandate. 7. Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.   Asia 17th and 18th century 19th century 20th century 1685–1824 Bencoolen (Sumatra) 1702–1705 Pulo Condore 1757–1947 Bengal (West Bengal (India) and Bangladesh) 1762–1764 Manila and Cavite 1786–1946 Penang (Malaysia) 1795–1948 Ceylon (Sri Lanka) 1796–1965 Maldives 1812–1824 Banka (Sumatra) and Billiton (Sumatra) 1819–1826 British Malaya (West Malaysia and Singapore) 1826–1946 Straits Settlements (Malaysia and Singapore) 1839–1967 Colony of Aden 1839–1842 Afghanistan 1841–1997 Hong Kong 1841–1946 Kingdom of Sarawak (Malaysia) 1848–1946 Labuan (Malaysia) 1858–1947 British India (India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, Burma) 1874–1963 British Borneo (East Malaysia and Brunei) 1879–1919 Afghanistan (protectorate) 1882–1963 British North Borneo (Malaysia) 1885–1946 Unfederated Malay States 1888–1984 Sultanate of Brunei 1891–1971 Muscat and Oman protectorate 1892–1971 Trucial States 1895–1946 Federated Malay States 1898–1930 Weihai Garrison 1878–1960 Cyprus 1907–1949 Bhutan (protectorate) 1918–1961 Kuwait protectorate 1920–1932 Iraq8 1921–1946 Transjordan8 1923–1948 Palestine8 1945–1946 South Vietnam 1946–1963 North Borneo (Malaysia) 1946–1963 Sarawak (Malaysia) 1946–1963 Singapore 1946–1948 Malayan Union 1948–1957 Federation of Malaya (Malaysia) Since 1960 Akrotiri and Dhekelia (before as part of Cyprus) Since 1965 British Indian Ocean Territory (before as part of Mauritius and the Seychelles) 8 League of Nations mandate. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty   Oceania 18th and 19th centuries 20th century 1788–1901 New South Wales 1803–1901 Van Diemen's Land/Tasmania 1807–1863 Auckland Islands9 1824–1980 New Hebrides (Vanuatu) 1824–1901 Queensland 1829–1901 Swan River Colony/Western Australia 1836–1901 South Australia since 1838 Pitcairn Islands 1841–1907 Colony of New Zealand 1851–1901 Victoria 1874–1970 Fiji10 1877–1976 British Western Pacific Territories 1884–1949 Territory of Papua 1888–1901 Cook Islands9 1889–1948 Union Islands (Tokelau)9 1892–1979 Gilbert and Ellice Islands11 1893–1978 British Solomon Islands12 1900–1970 Tonga (protected state) 1900–1974 Niue9 1901–1942 *Commonwealth of Australia 1907–1953 *Dominion of New Zealand 1919–1942 Nauru 1945–1968 Nauru 1919–1949 Territory of New Guinea 1949–1975 Territory of Papua and New Guinea13 9. Now part of the *Realm of New Zealand. 10. Suspended member. 11. Now Kiribati and *Tuvalu. 12. Now the *Solomon Islands. 13. Now *Papua New Guinea.   Antarctica and South Atlantic Since 1658 Saint Helena14 Since 1815 Ascension Island14 Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14 Since 1908 British Antarctic Territory15 1841–1933 Australian Antarctic Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia) 1841–1947 Ross Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand) 14. Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena. 15. Both claimed in 1908; territories formed in 1962 (British Antarctic Territory) and 1985 (South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands).

Authority control WorldCat VIAF: 234572022 LCCN: n82151430 GND: 4024291-2