History of Hawaii

Further information: Historical outline of Hawaii

The history of Hawaii begins sometime around 1 CE, the earliest Polynesian settlers began to populate the islands. Around 1200 CE Tahitian explorers found and began settling the area as well. This became the rise of the Hawaiian civilization and would be separated from the rest of the world for another 500 years until the arrival of the British. Within five years of contact a local king used European military technology to conquer all the tribes and unify the islands for the first time. The Kingdom of Hawaii was prosperous and important for its agriculture and strategic location in the Pacific. American immigration began almost immediately after contact, led by Protestant missionaries. American style, plantation farming for sugar required extensive labor, which the natives did not want to do. Several waves of permanent immigrants came from Japan, as well as China and the Philippines. Meanwhile the native population declined and by 1900 it was a minority element. In the 1880s the Hawaiian monarchy was forced to accept a constitution replacing royal absolutism with a constitutional monarchy. The new Queen attempted to regain absolute power in 1893 and was overthrown by the business community. They established the Republic of Hawaii, but were at risk from the threat of the Japanese fleet. The Republic sought union with the U.S. and the U.S. Congress obliged in 1898. It became Hawaii Territory and in 1959 the state of Hawaii in terms of equality with the other 49 states of the United States. The farming has mostly ended, and the economy is now based on tourism and military bases.

Discovery and settlement

Austronesians expansion map (French)

The earliest settlements in the Hawaiian Islands are generally believed to have been made by Polynesians who reached Hawaii using large double-hulled canoes. They brought with them pigs, dogs, chickens, taro, sweet potatoes, coconut, banana, sugarcane, and other plants and animals.

Several theories describe migration to Hawaii. The "one-migration" theory suggests a single settlement. A variation on the one-migration theory instead suggests a single, continuous settlement period. Several "multiple migration" theories exist. One variation suggests that the original migration could have been followed by settlers from the Marquesas Islands, and then later by Tahitians.

Numerous accounts describe landings by Europeans, Chinese and others long before the arrival of Captain Cook; however, none have been documented with certainty until recently.

On January 18, 1778 British Captain James Cook and his crew, while attempting to discover the Northwest Passage between England and Asia, encountered the islands and were surprised to find a Polynesian island so far north in the Pacific.[1] He named them the "Sandwich Islands", after the fourth Earl of Sandwich. Members of this expedition described the population of the islands as abundant, handsome and healthy. Unfortunately the British brought many new infectious diseases to the islands, in particular tuberculosis and venereal diseases that quickly propagated through the locals.[2]

In 1786, eight years after Cook, a French frigate arrived in Hawai'i and reported that most of the islanders were very sick. By 1832 only 130,000 remained.[3]

Religion

The nature worship of native Hawaiians disappeared after 1820 when New England Protestant missionaries arrived.[4] English missionaries helped establish an Anglican church, the Church of Hawaii. It became the official state church when it was sponsored by the royal family. The Roman Catholic opened a mission in 1827. By the end of the 19th century Catholics had the largest membership, aided by conversions of the natives and Portuguese immigrants. Immigrants from China, Japan, and Korea brought their Buddhist, Confucian, and Shinto churches. The late 20th century saw a rapid increase in membership in the Apostolic, Pentecostal, and other Holiness faiths, the Dancing Goddess and other new movements of Japanese or Korean derivation, and such groups as the Hare Krishna and Church of Scientology.[5]

Population statistics

Historical population[6]
Year Population Notes
1778 300,000
1805 264,160
1831 130,313 Census
1850 82,000
1853 73,134 2,119 foreigners
1872 56,897
1876 53,900
1884 80,000 The native population continues to decline.
1890 40,000 native Hawaiians
1900 154,001 About 25% Hawaiian/part-Hawaiian; 40% Japanese; 16% Chinese; 12% Portuguese; and about 5% other Caucasian
1910 191,874 26,041 Hawaiians and 12,056 part-Hawaiians
1920 255,881 42.7% of the population is of Japanese descent.
1930 368,336
1940 420,770
1950 499,794
1960 632,772
1970 769,913
1980 964,691
1990 1,108,228
2000 1,211,537 239,655 native Hawaiians; Japanese: 21%; Filipino: 17.7%; Chinese: 8.3%; German: 5.8%
2010 1,360,301 10% Native Hawaiians or other Pacific Islanders; Two or more races may include some of the remainder

Kingdom of Hawaii

Economic and demographic factors in the 19th century reshaped the islands. In 1848 the Great Māhele was imposed by the king; it resulted in the selling off virtually all the village land farmed by the natives. For the natives, contact with the outer world represented demographic disaster, as a series of unfamiliar diseases such as smallpox decimated the natives. Their total numbers fell from 300,000 in 1778 to 71,000 in 1853, and kept declining to 24,000 in 1920. Most lived in remote villages.[7]

American missionaries promoted the sugar industry in order to modernize Hawaii's economy. Few natives were willing to work on the sugar plantations So recruiters fanned out across Asia and Europe. As a result between 1850 and 1900 some 200,000 contract laborers from China, Japan, the Philippines, Portugal and elsewhere came to Hawaii under five-year contracts. Most returned home on schedule, but large numbers stayed permanently. The 180,000 Japanese workers arrived by 1908. No more were allowed in, but 50,000 remained permanently.[8]

Formation of the Hawaiian Kingdom

native Hawaiian in royal cloak
Kamehameha I unified the islands

Kamehameha I united the islands into a single kingdom for the first time in 1810 with the help of foreign weapons and advisors. The monarchy adopted a flag similar to the one used as the present flag of the State of Hawaii, with the Union Flag in the canton (top quarter next to the flagpole) and eight horizontal stripes (alternating white, red, blue, from the top), representing the eight major islands.

In May 1819, Prince Liholiho became King Kamehameha II. Under pressure from his co-regent and stepmother, Kaʻahumanu, he abolished the kapu system that had ruled life in the islands. He signaled this revolutionary change by sitting down to eat with Kaʻahumanu and other women of chiefly rank, an act forbidden under the old system—see ʻAi Noa. Kekuaokalani, a cousin who thought he was to share power with Liholiho, organized supporters of the kapu system, but his forces were defeated by Kaʻahumanu and Liholiho in December 1819 at the battle of Kuamoʻo.[9]

France

In the early kingdom, Protestant ministers convinced Kamehameha I to make Catholicism illegal, deport French priests and imprison Native Hawaiian Catholic converts.

In 1839 Captain Laplace of the French frigate Artémise sailed to Hawaii. Under the threat of war, King Kamehameha III signed the Edict of Toleration on July 17, 1839 and paid $20,000 in compensation for the deportation of the priests and the incarceration and torture of converts, agreeing to Laplace's demands. The kingdom proclaimed:

That the Catholic worship be declared free, throughout all the dominions subject to the king of the Sandwich Islands; the members of this religious faith shall enjoy in them the privileges granted to Protestants.

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu returned and Kamehameha III donated land for them to build a church as reparation.

In August 1849, French admiral Louis Tromelin arrived in Honolulu Harbor with his ships La Poursuivante and Gassendi. De Tromelin made ten demands to King Kamehameha III on August 22, mainly that full religious rights be given to Catholics (Catholics still enjoyed only partial religious rights). On August 25 the demands had not been met. After a second warning, French troops overwhelmed the skeleton force and captured Honolulu Fort, spiked the coastal guns and destroyed all other weapons they found (mainly muskets and ammunition). They raided government and other property in Honolulu, causing $100,000 in damages. After the raids the invasion force withdrew to the fort. De Tromelin eventually recalled his men and left Hawaii on September 5.

Great Britain

Main article: Paulet Affair (1843)

On February 10, 1843, Lord George Paulet on the Royal Navy warship HMS Carysfort entered Honolulu Harbor and demanded that King Kamehameha III cede the Hawaiian Islands to the British Crown. Under the guns of the frigate, Kamehameha stepped down under protest.[10] Kamehameha III surrendered to Paulet on February 25,

Where are you, chiefs, people, and commons from my ancestors, and people from foreign lands?'
Hear ye! I make known to you that I am in perplexity by reason of difficulties into which I have been brought without cause, therefore I have given away the life of our land. Hear ye! but my rule over you, my people, and your privileges will continue, for I have hope that the life of the land will be restored when my conduct is justified.
Done at Honolulu, Oahu, this 25th day of February, 1843.
Kamehameha III.
Kekauluohi.[11]

Gerrit P. Judd, a missionary who had become the Minister of Finance, secretly sent envoys to the United States, France and Britain, to protest Paulet's actions.[12]

The protest was forwarded to Rear Admiral Richard Darton Thomas, Paulet's commanding officer, who arrived at Honolulu harbor on July 26, 1843 on HMS Dublin. Thomas repudiated Paulet's actions, and on July 31, 1843, restored the Hawaiian government. In his restoration speech, Kamehameha declared "Ua mau ke ea o ka ʻāina i ka pono", the motto of the future State of Hawaii translated as "The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness."

Honolulu Fort, 1853

Kamehameha family

Dynastic rule by the Kamehameha family ended in 1873 after the death of Kamehameha V and a short reign of Lunalilo. The House of Kalākaua came to the throne next. These transitions were by election of candidates of noble birth.

United States

American Protestant missionaries settled in Hawaiʻi at the beginning of the 19th century and quickly gained influence and wealth. They prohibited local traditions they disliked, like hula or surfboarding. Reverend Amos Starr Cooke, who arrived in 1837, set up a school to educate the future monarchs. When one of his pupils rose to the throne, Cooke was appointed unofficial adviser to the king in 1843 and from this position devised a land reform that allowed foreigners to purchase land from locals in order to plant sugarcane. Cooke and other missionaries became big landowners and sugar producers, and got control of the economy.[2]

The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 between the Kingdom of Hawaii (explicitly acknowledged as a sovereign nation) and the United States allowed for duty-free importation of Hawaiian sugar into the United States beginning in 1876. This further promoted plantation agriculture, which was in the hands of foreign Whites. Hawai'i ceded Pearl Harbor, including Ford Island (Hawaiian: Mokuʻumeʻume), together with its shoreline and four to five miles of land adjacent to the shore, free of cost to the U.S.[13] The U. S. demanded this area based on an 1873 report commissioned by the U. S. Secretary of War. Native Hawaiians protested the treaty on the streets until the revolt was suffocated by U.S. marines.[2]

The treaty also included duty-free importation of rice, which was by this time becoming a major crop in the abandoned taro patches in the wetter parts of the islands. This led to an influx of immigrants from Asia (first Chinese, and later Japanese) needed to support the escalating sugar industry and provided the impetus for expansion of rice cultivation. Water needed for growing sugarcane resulted in extensive water works to divert streams from the wet windward slopes to the dry lowlands.

Overthrow of the Kingdom

King David Kalākaua

When the Queen tried to impose a new constitution, the the dominant white element in 1893 overthrew her, ended the Hawaiian Kingdom and founded the Hawaii Republic. They wanted to join the United States and succeeded in 1898.[14]

Bayonet Constitution and Wilcox Rebellions

In 1887 descendants of the American missionaries, who held most of the important government positions by that time, founded the Reform Party (also known as the Missionary Party) and an armed militia, the Honolulu Rifles.[15] That same year, the Honolulu Rifles and a group of cabinet officials and advisors to King David Kalākaua seized the royal palace and forced the king to promulgate what is known as the Bayonet Constitution. His power was no longer unlimited. The impetus was the frustration of the Reform Party with growing debts, the King's spending habits and general governance. It was specifically triggered by a failed attempt by Kalākaua to create a Polynesian Federation and accusations of an opium bribery scandal.[note 1][17] The 1887 constitution stripped the monarchy of much of its authority, imposed significant income and property requirements for voting, and completely disenfranchised all Asians.[16]:20 Three fourths of the votes were assigned to whites, which included all American-born permanent residents thanks to a special rule from the U.S. State Department.

The king's family felt the 1887 constitution was imposed by the business community because of the king's refusal to renew the Reciprocity Treaty. The treaty now included an amendment to permit the US Navy to establish a permanent naval base at Pearl Harbor on Oʻahu. According to bills submitted by the King, foreign policy would include an alliance with Japan and supported other countries he perceived to be suffering from colonialism. A plot by Princess Liliʻuokalani was exposed to overthrow King David Kalākaua in a military coup in 1888. In 1889, a rebellion of Native Hawaiians led by Colonel Robert Wilcox attempted to replace the Bayonet Constitution and stormed ʻIolani Palace. The rebellion, known as the Wilcox rebellions, was crushed by the Honolulu Rifles.

When Kalākaua died in 1891, his sister Liliʻuokalani ascended the throne. Queen Liliʻuokalani called her brother's reign "a golden age materially for Hawaii".[18]

1893

US Marines at the time of the overthrow, January 1893

The new Queen was determined to end all restrictions on her absolute power. She called on parliament to revise the constitution. It refused and she announced plans to issue a new constitution on her own authority. Alone Liliʻuokalani drafted a new constitution that would restore the monarchy's power. She acted in defiance of the constiturion then in place.[19]

In response to Liliʻuokalani's threat, business leaders formed a Committee of Safety on January 14, 1893. After a meeting of supporters, the Committee committed itself to removing the Queen and annexation to the United States.[20]

United States Government Minister John L. Stevens summoned a company of uniformed US Marines from the USS Boston and two companies of US sailors to land and take up positions at the US Legation, Consulate and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. The Committee of Safety had claimed an "imminent threat to American lives and property".[note 2]

The Provisional Government of Hawaii was established, led by Sanford Dole, to manage the Hawaiian islands between the overthrow and expected annexation, supported by the Honolulu Rifles White militia group.

Liliʻuokalani was put under house arrest and abdicated her throne. The Queen's statement yielding authority, on January 17, 1893, pleaded for justice:

I Liliʻuokalani, by the Grace of God and under the Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Queen, do hereby solemnly protest against any and all acts done against myself and the Constitutional Government of the Hawaiian Kingdom by certain persons claiming to have established a Provisional Government of and for this Kingdom.
That I yield to the superior force of the United States of America whose Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency John L. Stevens, has caused United States troops to be landed at Honolulu and declared that he would support the Provisional Government.
Now to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life, I do this under protest and impelled by said force yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United States shall, upon facts being presented to it, undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the Constitutional Sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.

The Provisional Government sent members of the Missionary Party to Washington to negotiate the annexation treaty, which was signed on February 14, 1893. President Benjamin Harrison, who had just lost the presidential elections, promptly submitted it to the Senate for ratification but then an envoy from the deposed Queen arrived in Washington and made the case that the dethroning and annexation were illegal. Democratic Senators opposed the ratification of the treaty because it would bring a new non-white element into the American population. The new president Grover Cleveland commissioned an investigation into the events of the overthrow that was conducted by former Congressman James Henderson Blount, a Southerner who did not want non-whites into the U.S.. The Blount Report was completed on July 17, 1893 and concluded that "United States diplomatic and military representatives had abused their authority and were responsible for the change in government."[21] The Republicans rejected the report.[22] In the meantime the Leper War on Kauaʻi was suppressed by Provisional Government troops.

Minister Stevens was recalled, and the commander of military forces in Hawaii was forced to resign. Cleveland stated "Substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair the monarchy." Cleveland further stated in his 1893 State of the Union Address[23] and that, "Upon the facts developed it seemed to me the only honorable course for our Government to pursue was to undo the wrong that had been done by those representing us and to restore as far as practicable the status existing at the time of our forcible intervention." Submitting the matter to Congress on December 18, 1893, after provisional President Sanford Dole refused to reinstate the Queen on Cleveland's command, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee under chairman John Morgan continued investigation into the matter.

On February 26, 1894, the Morgan Report was submitted, contradicting the Blount Report and finding Stevens and the US troops "not guilty" of any involvement in the overthrow. The report asserted that, "The complaint by Liliʻuokalani in the protest that she sent to the President of the United States and dated the 18th day of January, is not, in the opinion of the committee, well founded in fact or in justice."[24] After submission of the Morgan Report, and the Queen's reported threat to execute the current government is she was restored by American troops, Cleveland gave up. He ended any efforts to overturn the revolution and reinstate the monarchy. He commenced diplomatic relations with the new government. He rebuffed further entreaties from the Queen to intervene.[25]

Republic of Hawaii

Sanford B. Dole, center with beard, was the first and only President of the Republic of Hawaii and was first governor of the U.S. Territory of Hawaii
Main article: Republic of Hawaii

Fears grew among the Hawaiian Whites of a US intervention to restore the kingdom. A Constitutional Convention began on May 30, 1894 and the Republic of Hawaii was declared on July 4, 1894, American Independence Day, under the presidency of Sanford Dole.

In the 1895 Counter-Revolution, a group led by Colonel Robert Nowlein, Minister Joseph Nawahi, members of the Royal Household Guards and later Robert Wilcox, attempted to overthrow the Republic. The leaders including Liliʻuokalani were captured, convicted, and imprisoned.

American territory

Annexation to the United States

Political cartoon of 1898

In March 1897, William McKinley, a Republican expansionist, succeeded Democrat Cleveland in the White House. He prepared a treaty of annexation but it needed a 2/3 majority in the Senate and enough Democrats were opposed to block it. A joint resolution was written by Republican Congressman Francis G. Newlands to annex Hawaii was passed; it needed only a majority support. The War with Spain had broken out and many leaders pointed to the urgent need for Pearl Harbor if the United States was to be a Pacific power and be able to protect the West Coast. In 1897 the Japan sent warships to Hawaii to oppose annexation. Talk of invasion and annexation of Hawaii by Japan made the decision even more urgent.[26]

McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution which annexed Hawaii. On July 7, 1898 creating the Territory of Hawaii. On 22 February 1900 the Hawaiian Organic Act established a territorial government. In the opinion of annexation opponents, this was illegal for they believed the Queen was the only legitimate ruler; no one listened. McKinley appointed Dole as territorial governor. The territorial legislature convened for the first time on February 20, 1901. Hawaiians formed the Hawaiian Independent Party, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, Hawaii's first congressional delegate.[27]

Plantation era

Sugarcane plantations in Hawaii expanded during the territorial period. Some of the companies diversified and came to dominate related industries including transportation, banking and real estate. Economic and political power was concentrated in what were known as the "Big Five" corporations.

Attack on Pearl Harbor

USS Arizona during the attack on Pearl Harbor

Pearl Harbor was attacked on 7 December 1941 by the Japanese navy, sinking the main American battleship fleet. The four American aircraft carriers were not in port and escaped damage. Hawaii was put under martial law until 1945. The large Japanese American population was not interred, but hundreds of pro-Japanese leaders were arrested. It was the main forward base for the Pacific War. The Japanese tried to invade in 1942 but were defeated at the Battle of Midway. Hundreds of thousands of American soldiers, sailors, Marines and airment came through on their way to the front lines.[28]

Democratic Party

In 1954 a nonviolent revolution of industry-wide strikes, protests and other civil disobedience transpired. In the territorial elections of 1954 the reign of the Hawaii Republican Party in the legislature came to an abrupt end, replaced by the Democratic Party of Hawaii. Democrats lobbied for statehood and gained the governorship from 1962 to 2002. The Revolution also unionized the labor force, hastening the decline of the plantations.

Statehood

All islands voted at least 93% in favor of statehood in 1959

President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Hawaii Admission Act on March 18, 1959 which allowed for Hawaiian statehood. After a popular referendum in which over 93% voted in favor of statehood, Hawaii was admitted as the 50th state on August 21, 1959.

Sovereignty movements

For many Native Hawaiians, the manner in which Hawaii became a US territory is a bitter part of its history. Hawaii Territory governors and judges were direct political appointees of the US president. Native Hawaiians created the Home Rule Party and seek greater self-government. Hawaii was subject to cultural and societal repression during the territorial period and the first decade of statehood. Along with other self-determination movements worldwide the 1960s Hawaiian Renaissance led to the rebirth of Hawaiian language, culture and identity.

With the support of Hawaii Senators Daniel Inouye and Daniel Akaka, Congress passed a joint resolution called the "Apology Resolution" (US Public Law 103-150). It was signed by President Bill Clinton on November 23, 1993. This resolution apologized "to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893... and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination." The implications of this resolution have been extensively debated.[29][30]

Akaka proposed what is called the Akaka Bill to extend federal recognition to those of Native Hawaiian ancestry as a sovereign group similar to Native American tribes.[31]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ "For instance, in 1887 he was accused of accepting a bribe of $71,000", footnote 73[16]:19
  2. ↑ "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself."[16]:350

References

  1. ↑ Paul Capper. "Chronology: The Third Voyage (1776-1780)". The Captain Cook Society. Retrieved 2010-03-02.
  2. 1 2 3 Bradley, James (2009). The Imperial Cruise: a secret history of empire and war. Little, Brown and Company. pp. 148–162. ISBN 978-0-316-00895-2.
  3. ↑ Carter L. Hudgins (1997). Shaping Communities. Univ. of Tennessee Press. p. 172.
  4. ↑ Clifford Putney, Missionaries in Hawai'i: The Lives of Peter and Fanny Gulick, 1797-1883 (2010).
  5. ↑ Robert C. Schmitt, "Religious Statistics of Hawaii, 1825-1972," Hawaiian Journal of History (1973), Vol. 7, pp 41-47.
  6. ↑ Linda K. Menton; Eileen Tamura (1999). A History of Hawaii, Student Book. CRDG. p. 92.
  7. ↑ Ronald T. Takaki (1984). Pau Hana: Plantation Life and Labor in Hawaii, 1835-1920. p. 22.
  8. ↑ Edward D. Beechert, Working in Hawaii: A Labor History (U of Hawaii Press, 1985)
  9. ↑ Seaton, S. Lee (Feb 1974). "The Hawaiian "kapu" Abolition of 1819". American Ethnologist 1 (1): 193–206. doi:10.1525/ae.1974.1.1.02a00100.
  10. ↑ "The US Navy and Hawaii--A Historical Summary". Retrieved 4 November 2014.
  11. ↑ "The Morgan Report, p500-503". Retrieved 4 November 2014.
  12. ↑ "La Ku'ko'a: Events Leading to Independence Day, November 28, 1843". Retrieved 4 November 2014.
  13. ↑ "Ford Island History — Hawaii Aviation". Hawaii.gov. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
  14. ↑ Anne Feder Lee (1993). The Hawaii State Constitution: A Reference Guide. p. 5.
  15. ↑ Gary Okihiro (2010). Cane Fires: The Anti-Japanese Movement in Hawaii, 1865-1945. p. 11.
  16. 1 2 3 William Adam Russ (1992) [1959]. The Hawaiian Revolution (1893-94). Susquehanna University Press. ISBN 0-945636-43-1.
  17. ↑ Ernest Andrade, Jr. (1996). The Unconquerable Rebel. University Press of Colorado. pp. 42–44. ISBN 0-87081-417-6. "The opium scandal and fragmentary news concerning the Samoan embassy led to unprecedented criticism and unrest by a political opposition that had by this time gone far beyond venting its dissatisfaction through political action."
  18. ↑ Liliʻuokalani (Queen of Hawaii) (July 25, 2007) [1898]. Hawaii's story by Hawaii's queen, Liliuokalani. Lee and Shepard, reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-548-22265-2.
  19. ↑ Anne Feder Lee (1993). The Hawaii State Constitution: A Reference Guide. p. 5.
  20. ↑ The Morgan Report, p817 "There was talk at the meeting of the committee at W.R. Castle's, on the next (Sunday) morning, of having resolutions abrogating the monarchy and pronouncing for annexation, offered at the mass meeting;"
  21. ↑ Ball, Milner S. (1979). "Symposium: Native American Law". Georgia Law Review 28: 303.
  22. ↑ Tennant S. McWilliams, "James H. Blount, the South, and Hawaiian Annexation." Pacific Historical Review 57.1 (1988): 25-46. in JSTOR
  23. ↑ "Grover Cleveland, State of the Union Address, 1893". Retrieved 4 November 2014.
  24. ↑ "Reports of Committee on Foreign Relations 1789-1901 Volume 6 (The Morgan Report), p385". Retrieved 4 November 2014.
  25. ↑ George F. Pearce, "Assessing Public Opinion: Editorial Comment and the Annexation of Hawaii: A Case Study." Pacific Historical Review 43#.3 (1974): 324-341. in JSTOR
  26. ↑ William Morgan (2011). Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.-Japanese Rivalry over the Annexation of Hawai'i, 1885-1898. Naval Institute Press. pp. 213–16.
  27. ↑ William Adam Russ, The Hawaiian Republic (1894-98): and its struggle to win annexation (Susquehanna U Press, 1992).
  28. ↑ DeSoto Brown, and Anne Ellett, Hawaii goes to war: life in Hawaii from Pearl Harbor to peace (1989).
  29. ↑ Carolyn Lucas (December 30, 2004). "Law expert Francis Boyle urges natives to take back Hawaii". West Hawaii Today. Archived from the original on 2005-01-02. Retrieved 2015-06-04.
  30. ↑ Fein, Bruce (June 6, 2005). "Hawaii Divided Against Itself Cannot Stand" (PDF). Angelfire on Lycos. Waltham, MA, USA: Lycos. Archived from the original on February 5, 2007. Retrieved September 4, 2012. External link in |work= (help)
  31. ↑ "Aloha, Apartheid: A court strikes down a race-based policy in Hawaii, while Congress considers enshrining one". Wall Street Journal. August 8, 2005.

Further reading

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External links

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