Herbert A. Simon

For the Indiana Pacers' owner, see Herbert Simon (real estate).
Herbert A. Simon
Born Herbert Alexander Simon
(1916-06-15)June 15, 1916
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Died February 9, 2001(2001-02-09) (aged 84)
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Other names 司马贺
Nationality United States
Fields Artificial Intelligence
Cognitive psychology
Computer science
Economics
Political science
Institutions Carnegie Mellon University
University of California, Berkeley
Illinois Institute of Technology
Alma mater University of Chicago
Doctoral advisor Henry Schultz
Other academic advisors Rudolf Carnap
Nicholas Rashevsky
Harold Lasswell
Charles Merriam[1]
John R. Commons[2]
Doctoral students Edward Feigenbaum
Allen Newell
Richard Waldinger[3]
John Muth
William F. Pounds
Known for Logic Theory Machine
General Problem Solver
Bounded rationality
Satisficing
Influences Richard T. Ely, John R. Commons, Henry George, Chester Barnard, Charles Merriam
Influenced Daniel Kahneman, Amos Tversky, James March, Allen Newell, Philip E. Tetlock, Richard Thaler, John Muth, Oliver E. Williamson, Massimo Egidi, Vela Velupillai, Ha Joon Chang
Notable awards Turing Award (1975)
Nobel Prize in Economics (1978)
National Medal of Science (1986)
Harold Pender Award (1987)
von Neumann Theory Prize (1988)
APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology (1969)
APA Award for Lifetime Contributions to Psychology (1993)
ACM Fellow (1994)
IJCAI Award for Research Excellence (1995)
Spouse Dorothea Isabel Pye[4] (1939-2001, his death) (1913-2002)
Children Katherine, Peter, Barbara

Herbert Alexander Simon (June 15, 1916 – February 9, 2001), a Nobel laureate, was an American political scientist, economist, sociologist, psychologist, and computer scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology, cognitive science, computer science, public administration, economics, management, philosophy of science, sociology, and political science, unified by studies of decision-making.[5] With almost a thousand highly cited publications, he was one of the most influential social scientists of the twentieth century. For many years he held the post of Richard King Mellon Professor at Carnegie Mellon University[6]

Simon was among the founding fathers of several of today's important scientific domains, including artificial intelligence, information processing, decision-making, problem-solving, organization theory, complex systems, and computer simulation of scientific discovery.

He coined the terms bounded rationality and satisficing, and was among the earliest to analyze the architecture of complexity and to propose a preferential attachment mechanism to explain power law distributions.[7][8]

He also received many top-level honors later in life. These include: becoming a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959;[9] election to the National Academy of Sciences in 1967;[10] APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology (1969);the ACM's Turing Award for making "basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing" (1975); the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics "for his pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations" (1978); the National Medal of Science (1986); the APA's Award for Outstanding Lifetime Contributions to Psychology (1993); ACM fellow (1994); and IJCAI Award for Research Excellence (1995). A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Simon as the 37th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.[11]

As a testament to his interdisciplinary approach, Simon was affiliated with such varied Carnegie Mellon departments as the School of Computer Science, Tepper School of Business, departments of Philosophy, Social and Decision Sciences, and Psychology. Simon received an honorary Doctor of Political science degree from University of Pavia in 1988 and an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) degree from Harvard University in 1990.

Early life and education

Herbert Alexander Simon was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on June 15, 1916. His father, Arthur Simon (1881–1948), was an electrical engineer who had come to the United States from Germany in 1903 after earning his engineering degree from the Technische Hochschule of Darmstadt.[12] An inventor who was granted "several dozen patents", his father also was an independent patent attorney.[13] His mother, Edna Marguerite Merkel, was an accomplished pianist whose ancestors had come from Prague and Cologne.[14] His European ancestors had been piano makers, goldsmiths, and vintners. Simon's father was Jewish and his mother came from a family with Jewish, Lutheran, and Catholic backgrounds.[14] Simon called himself an atheist.[15]

Simon was educated as a child in the public school system in Milwaukee where he developed an interest in science. He found schoolwork to be interesting, but rather easy. Unlike many children, Simon was exposed to the idea that human behavior could be studied scientifically at a relatively young age due to the influence of his mother’s younger brother, Harold Merkel, who had studied economics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison under John R. Commons. Through his uncle’s books on economics and psychology, Simon discovered the social sciences. Among his earliest influences, Simon has cited Richard Ely’s economics textbook, Norman Angell’s The Great Illusion, and Henry George’s Progress and Poverty.

In 1933, Simon entered the University of Chicago, and following those early influences, he studied the social sciences and mathematics. He was interested in biology, but chose not to study it because of his "color-blindness and awkwardness in the laboratory".[16] He chose instead to focus on political science and economics. His most important mentor at the University was Henry Schultz who was an econometrician and mathematical economist. Simon received both his B.A. (1936) and his Ph.D. (1943) in political science, from the University of Chicago, where he studied under Harold Lasswell and Charles Edward Merriam.[17]

After enrolling in a course on "Measuring Municipal Governments," Simon was invited to be a research assistant for Clarence Ridley, with whom he coauthored the book, Measuring Municipal Activities, in 1938,[18] the same year that he and Dorothea married. Eventually his studies led him to the field of organizational decision-making, which would become the subject of his doctoral dissertation.

Academic career

From 1939 to 1942, Simon was director of a research group at the University of California, Berkeley.

From 1942 to 1949, Simon was a professor of political science and also served as department chairman at Illinois Institute of Technology. Back in Chicago, he began participating in the seminars held by the staff of the Cowles Commission who at that time included Trygve Haavelmo, Jacob Marschak, and Tjalling Koopmans. He thus began a more in-depth study of economics in the area of institutionalism. Marschak brought Simon in to assist in the study he was currently undertaking with Sam Schurr of the “prospective economic effects of atomic energy”.

From 1949 to 2001, Simon was a faculty at Carnegie Mellon. In 1949, Simon became a professor of administration and chairman of the Department of Industrial Management at Carnegie Tech (later to become Carnegie Mellon University). Simon later also [19] taught psychology and computer science in the same university, (occasionally visiting other universities.[20]).

Personal life and interests

Simon married Dorothea Pye in 1938. Their marriage lasted 63 years until his death. They had three children, Katherine, Peter, and Barbara. His wife died in 2002, during the year following his death in 2001.

From 1950 to 1955, Simon studied mathematical economics and during this time, together with David Hawkins, discovered and proved the Hawkins–Simon theorem on the “conditions for the existence of positive solution vectors for input-output matrices." He also developed theorems on near-decomposability and aggregation. Having begun to apply these theorems to organizations, by 1954 Simon determined that the best way to study problem-solving was to simulate it with computer programs, which led to his interest in computer simulation of human cognition. Founded during the 1950s, he was among the first members of the Society for General Systems Research.

Simon had a keen interest in the arts. He was a friend of Robert Lepper[21] and Richard Rappaport.[22] Rappaport also painted Simon's commissioned portrait at Carnegie Mellon University.

In January 2001, Simon underwent surgery at UPMC Presbyterian to remove a cancerous tumor in his abdomen. Although the surgery was successful, Simon later succumbed to the complications that followed.

Study of decision-making

Simon's 3 stages in Rational Decision Making: Intelligence, Design, Choice (IDC)
Simon's three stages in Rational Decision Making: Intelligence, Design, Choice (IDC)
I am a monomaniac. What I am a monomaniac about is decision-making.[5]

Administrative Behavior,[23] first appearing in 1947, and updated across the years [24] was based on Simon’s doctoral dissertation. It served as the foundation for his life's work. The centerpiece of this book is the behavioral and cognitive processes of humans making rational choices, that is, decisions. By his definition, an operational administrative decision should be correct and efficient, and it must be practical to implement with a set of coordinated means.[24]

Simon recognised that a theory of administration is largely a theory of human decision making, and as such must be based on both economics and on psychology. He states:

   "(If) there were no limits to human rationality administrative theory would be barren. It would consist of the single precept: Always select that alternative, among those available, which will lead to the most complete achievement of your goals" [24] (p xxviii).

Contrary to the "homo economicus" stereotype, Simon argued that alternatives and consequences may be partly known, and means and ends imperfectly differentiated, incompletely related, or poorly detailed.[24]

Simons defined the task of rational decision making is to select the alternative that results in the more preferred set of all the possible consequences. Correctness of administrative decisions was thus measured by:

  1. the adequacy of achieving the desired objective;
  2. the efficiency with which the result was obtained.

The task of choice was divided into three required steps:

  1. Identifying and listing all the alternatives;
  2. Determining all consequences resulting from each of the alternatives; and
  3. Comparing the accuracy and efficiency of each of these sets of consequences.[25]

Any given individual or organization attempting to implement this model in a real situation would be unable to comply with the three requirements. Simon argued that knowledge of all alternatives, or all consequences that follow from each alternative is impossible in many realistic cases.[23]

Simon attempted to determine the techniques and/or behavioral processes that a person or organization could bring to bear to achieve approximately the best result given limits on rational decision making.[24] Simon writes:

The human being striving for rationality and restricted within the limits of his knowledge has developed some working procedures that partially overcome these difficulties. These procedures consist in assuming that he can isolate from the rest of the world a closed system containing a limited number of variables and a limited range of consequences.[26]

He therefore describes work in terms of an economic framework, conditioned on human cognitive limitations: Economic man and Administrative man.

Administrative Behavior, as a text, addresses a wide range of human behaviors, cognitive abilities, management techniques, personnel policies, training goals and procedures, specialized roles, criteria for evaluation of accuracy and efficiency, and all of the ramifications of communication processes. Simon is particularly interested in how these factors directly and indirectly influence the making of decisions.

Simons argued that the two outcomes of a choice require monitoring and that many members of the organization would be expected to focus on adequacy, but that administrative management must pay particular attention to the efficiency with which the desired result was obtained.

Simon followed Chester Barnard who pointed out that “the decisions that an individual makes as a member of an organization are quite distinct from his personal decisions”.[27] Personal choices may be determined whether an individual joins a particular organization, and continue to be made in his or her extra–organizational private life. As a member of an organization, however, that individual makes decisions not in relationship to personal needs and results, but in an impersonal sense as part of the organizational intent, purpose, and effect. Organizational inducements, rewards, and sanctions are all designed to form, strengthen, and maintain this identification.

Simon [24] saw two universal elements of human social behavior as key to creating the possibility of organizational behavior in human individuals: Authority (addressed in Chapter VII—The Role of Authority) and in Loyalties and Identification (Addressed in Chapter X: Loyalties, and Organizational Identification).

Authority is a well studied, primary mark of organizational behavior, straightforwardly defined in the organizational context as the ability and right of an individual of higher rank to guide the decisions of an individual of lower rank. The actions, attitudes, and relationships of the dominant and subordinate individuals constitute components of role behavior that may vary widely in form, style, and content, but do not vary in the expectation of obedience by the one of superior status, and willingness to obey from the subordinate.

Loyalty was defined by Simon as the "process whereby the individual substitutes organizational objectives (service objectives or conservation objectives) for his own aims as the value-indices which determine his organizational decisions".[28] This entailed evaluating alternative choices in terms of their consequences for the group rather than only for onself or ones family.[29]

Decisions can be complex admixtures of facts and values. Information about facts, especially empirically-proven facts or facts derived from specialized experience, are more easily transmitted in the exercise of authority than are the expressions of values. Simon is primarily interested in seeking identification of the individual employee with the organizational goals and values. Following Lasswell,[30] he states that “a person identifies himself with a group when, in making a decision, he evaluates the several alternatives of choice in terms of their consequences for the specified group”.[31] A person may identify himself with any number of social, geographic, economic, racial, religious, familial, educational, gender, political, and sports groups. Indeed, the number and variety are unlimited. The fundamental problem for organizations is to recognize that personal and group identifications may either facilitate or obstruct correct decision making for the organization. A specific organization has to determine deliberately, and specify in appropriate detail and clear language, its own goals, objectives, means, ends, and values.

Simon's contributions to research in the area of administrative decision-making have become increasingly mainstream in the business community.

Artificial intelligence and psychology

Simon was a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, creating with Allen Newell the Logic Theory Machine (1956) and the General Problem Solver (GPS) (1957) programs. GPS may possibly be the first method developed for separating problem solving strategy from information about particular problems. Both programs were developed using the Information Processing Language (IPL) (1956) developed by Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Simon. Donald Knuth mentions the development of list processing in IPL, with the linked list originally called "NSS memory" for its inventors.[32] In 1957, Simon predicted that computer chess would surpass human chess abilities within "ten years" when, in reality, that transition took about forty years.[33]

In the early 1960s psychologist Ulric Neisser asserted that while machines are capable of replicating 'cold cognition' behaviors such as reasoning, planning, perceiving, and deciding, they would never be able to replicate 'hot cognition' behaviors such as pain, pleasure, desire, and other emotions. Simon responded to Neisser's views in 1963 by writing a paper on emotional cognition,[34] which he updated in 1967 and published in Psychological Review.[35] Simon's work on emotional cognition was largely ignored by the artificial intelligence research community for several years, but subsequent work on emotions by Sloman and Picard helped refocus attention on Simon's paper and eventually, made it highly influential on the topic.

Simon also collaborated with James G. March on several works in organization theory.[5]

With Allen Newell, Simon developed a theory for the simulation of human problem solving behavior using production rules.[36] The study of human problem solving required new kinds of human measurements and, with Anders Ericsson, Simon developed the experimental technique of verbal protocol analysis.[37] Simon was interested in the role of knowledge in expertise. He said that to become an expert on a topic required about ten years of experience and he and colleagues estimated that expertise was the result of learning roughly 50,000 chunks of information. A chess expert was said to have learned about 50,000 chunks or chess position patterns.[38]

He was awarded the ACM A.M. Turing Award along with Allen Newell in 1975. "In joint scientific efforts extending over twenty years, initially in collaboration with J. C. (Cliff) Shaw at the RAND Corporation, and subsequentially [sic] with numerous faculty and student colleagues at Carnegie Mellon University, they have made basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing."[39]

Psychology

Simon was interested in how humans learn and, with Edward Feigenbaum, he developed the EPAM (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer) theory, one of the first theories of learning to be implemented as a computer program. EPAM was able to explain a large number of phenomena in the field of verbal learning.[40] Later versions of the model were applied to concept formation and the acquisition of expertise. With Fernand Gobet, he has expanded the EPAM theory into the CHREST computational model.[41] The theory explains how simple chunks of information form the building blocks of schemata, which are more complex structures. CHREST has been used predominantly, to simulate aspects of chess expertise.

Sociology and economics

Simon has been credited for revolutionary changes in microeconomics. He is responsible for the concept of organizational decision-making as it is known today. He also was the first to discuss this concept in terms of uncertainty; i.e. it is impossible to have perfect and complete information at any given time to make a decision. While this notion was not entirely new, Simon is best known for its origination. It was in this area that he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.[42]

At the Cowles Commission, Simon’s main goal was to link economic theory to mathematics and statistics. His main contributions were to the fields of general equilibrium and econometrics. He was greatly influenced by the marginalist debate that began in the 1930s. The popular work of the time argued that it was not apparent empirically that entrepreneurs needed to follow the marginalist principles of profit-maximization/cost-minimization in running organizations. The argument went on to note that profit-maximization was not accomplished, in part, because of the lack of complete information. In decision-making, Simon believed that agents face uncertainty about the future and costs in acquiring information in the present. These factors limit the extent to which agents may make a fully rational decision, thus they possess only “bounded rationality” and must make decisions by “satisficing,” or choosing that which might not be optimal, but which will make them happy enough.

Simon was known for his research on industrial organization. He determined that the internal organization of firms and the external business decisions thereof, did not conform to the Neoclassical theories of “rational” decision-making. Simon wrote many articles on the topic over the course of his life mainly focusing on the issue of decision-making within the behavior of what he termed “bounded rationality”. “Rational behavior, in economics, means that individuals maximize their utility function under the constraints they face (e.g., their budget constraint, limited choices, ...) in pursuit of their self-interest. This is reflected in the theory of subjective expected utility. The term, bounded rationality, is used to designate rational choice that takes into account the cognitive limitations of both knowledge and cognitive capacity. Bounded rationality is a central theme in behavioral economics. It is concerned with the ways in which the actual decision-making process influences decisions. Theories of bounded rationality relax one or more assumptions of standard expected utility theory”.

Simon determined that the best way to study these areas was through computer simulation modeling. As such, he developed an interest in computer science. Simon's main interests in computer science were in artificial intelligence, human-computer interaction, principles of the organization of humans and machines as information processing systems, the use of computers to study (by modeling) philosophical problems of the nature of intelligence and of epistemology, and the social implications of computer technology.

Some of Simon's economic research was directed toward understanding technological change in general and the information processing revolution in particular.

Pedagogy

Simon's work has strongly influenced John Mighton, developer of a program that has achieved significant success in improving mathematics performance among elementary and high school students.[43] Mighton cites a 2000 paper by Simon and two co-authors that counters arguments by French mathematics educator, Guy Brousseau, and others suggesting that excessive practice hampers children's understanding:[43]

[The] criticism of practice (called 'drill and kill,' as if this phrase constituted empirical evaluation) is prominent in constructivist writings. Nothing flies more in the face of the last 20 years of research than the assertion that practice is bad. All evidence, from the laboratory and from extensive case studies of professionals, indicates that real competence only comes with extensive practice... In denying the critical role of practice one is denying children the very thing they need to achieve real competence. The instructional task is not to 'kill' motivation by demanding drill, but to find tasks that provide practice while at the same time sustaining interest.
— John R. Anderson, Lynne M. Reder, and Herbert A. Simon, 'Applications and misapplications
of cognitive psychology to mathematics education', Texas Educational Review 6 (2000)

Honors

Selected publications

Simon was prolific, and authored 27 books and almost a thousand papers.

Books

– 4th ed. in 1997, The Free Press
- 3rd ed. in 1996, MIT Press.
- Vol. 3. in 1997, MIT Press. His papers on economics since the publication of Vols. 1 and 2 in 1982. The papers grouped under the category "The Structure of Complex Systems"– dealing with issues such as causal ordering, decomposability, aggregation of variables, model abstraction– are of general interest in systems modelling, not just in economics.

Articles

– Reprinted in 1982, In: H.A. Simon, Models of Bounded Rationality, Volume 1, Economic Analysis and Public Policy, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 235–44.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Herbert Simon, "Autobiography", in Nobel Lectures, Economics 1969–1980, Editor Assar Lindbeck, World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, 1992.
  2. ↑ Forest, Joelle , "John R. Commons and Herbert A. Simon on the Concept of Rationality", Journal of Economic Issues Vol. XXXV, 3 (2001), pp. 591–605
  3. ↑ "Herbert Alexander Simon". AI Genealogy Project. Retrieved 2012-03-15.
  4. ↑ "Dorothea Simon Obituary - Pittsburgh, PA - Post-Gazette.com". Post-Gazette.com. Retrieved 8 August 2015.
  5. 1 2 3 Edward Feigenbaum (2001). "Herbert A. Simon, 1916-2001". sciencemag.org. Science. Retrieved 7 January 2015. Studies and models of decision-making are the themes that unify most of Simon's contributions.
  6. ↑ Simon, Herbert A. (1978). Assar Lindbeck, ed. Nobel Lectures, Economics 1969–1980. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  7. ↑ Simon, H. A., 1955, Biometrika 42, 425.
  8. ↑ B. Mandelbrot A note on a class of skew distribution functions Analysis and critique of a paper by H. Simon, Information and Control, 2 (1959), p. 90
  9. ↑ http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterS.pdf
  10. ↑ National Academy of Sciences. Nas.nasonline.org. Retrieved on 2013-09-23.
  11. ↑ Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; et al. (2002). "The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century". Review of General Psychology 6 (2): 139–152. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139.
  12. ↑ Simon 1991, p.3, 23
  13. ↑ Simon 1991 p. 20
  14. 1 2 Simon 1991 p.3
  15. ↑ Hunter Crowther-Heyck (2005). Herbert A. Simon: The Bounds of Reason in Modern America. JHU Press. p. 22. ISBN 9780801880254. His secular, scientific values came well before he was old enough to make such calculating career decisions. For example, while still in middle school, Simon wrote a letter to the editor of the Milwaukee Journal defending the civil liberties of atheists, and by high school he was "certain" that he was "religiously an atheist," a conviction that never wavered.
  16. ↑ Simon 1991 p. 39
  17. ↑ Augier & March 2001
  18. ↑ Simon 1991 p. 64
  19. ↑ Simon 1991 p. 136
  20. ↑ Princeton University, Department Of Philosophy, Faculty Since 1949, <http://philosophy.princeton.edu/about/faculty-1949>, accessed 2014-Oct-13
  21. ↑ Archived June 26, 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  22. ↑ "Home - Carnegie Mellon University Libraries". Retrieved 8 August 2015.
  23. 1 2 C. Barnard and H. A. Simon. (1947). Administrative behavior. A study of decision-making processes in administrative organization. Macmillan, New York.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Simon 1976
  25. ↑ Simon 1976, p. 67
  26. ↑ Simon 1976, p. 82
  27. ↑ Barnard 1938, p. 77 cited by Simon 1976, pp. 202–203
  28. ↑ Simon 1976, pp. 218
  29. ↑ Simon 1976, pp. 206
  30. ↑ Lasswell 1935, pp. 29–51 cited by Simon 1976, pp. 205
  31. ↑ Simon 1976, p. 205
  32. ↑ Volume 1 of The Art of Computer Programming
  33. ↑ Computer Chess: The Drosophila of AI October 30, 2002
  34. ↑ Herbert A. Simon, A Theory of Emotional Behavior. Carnegie Mellon University Complex Information Processing (CIP) Working Paper #55, June 1, 1963.
  35. ↑ Herbert A. Simon, Motivational and Emotional Controls of Cognition. Psychological Review, 1967, Vol. 74, No. 1, 29-39.
  36. ↑ Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon, Human Problem Solving, 1972
  37. ↑ K. A. Ericsson and H. A. Simon, Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data, 1993
  38. ↑ Chase and Simon. Perception in Chess. Cognitive Psychology Volume 4, 1973
  39. ↑ "Herbert A. Simon - A.M. Turing Award Winner". Retrieved 8 August 2015.
  40. ↑ Feigenbaum, E. A., & Simon, H. A. (1984). EPAM-like models of recognition and learning. Cognitive Science, 8, 305–336
  41. ↑ Gobet, F. & Simon, H. A. (2000). Five seconds or sixty? Presentation time in expert memory. Cognitive Science, 24, 651–682.
  42. ↑ "Press Release: STUDIES OF DECISION-MAKING LEAD TO PRIZE IN ECONOMICS". Nobelprize.org. 16 October 1978. Retrieved 11 May 2014.
  43. 1 2 "John Mighton: The Ubiquitous Bell Curve", in Big Ideas on TVOntario, broadcast 1:30 a.m., 6 November 2010.
  44. ↑ "The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1978". Retrieved 28 August 2015.
  45. ↑ "Honorary doctors at Lund School og Economics and Management". Lund University. Retrieved 4 September 2014.
  46. ↑ "Publicaciones, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Boletín Informativo". Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas. Retrieved 6 June 2015.
  47. ↑ Newell, A.; Shaw, J. C.; Simon, H. A. (1958). "Elements of a Theory of Human Problem Solving". Psychological Review (American Psychological Association) 65 (3): 151–166. doi:10.1037/h0048495.

References

Further reading

External links

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