Graphology

Not to be confused with graphanalysis, the branch of questioned or forensic document examination that deals with handwritten documents.
For the linguistic study of writing systems which has sometimes been called graphology, see graphemics.

Graphology is the analysis of the physical characteristics and patterns of handwriting purporting to be able to identify the writer, indicating psychological state at the time of writing, or evaluating personality characteristics.[1] It is generally considered a pseudoscience.[2][3][4][5] The term is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to forensic document examination.

Graphology has been controversial for more than a century. Although supporters point to the anecdotal evidence of positive testimonials as a reason to use it for personality evaluation, most empirical studies fail to show the validity claimed by its supporters.[6][7]

Etymology

From grapho- (from the Greek γραφή, "writing") and logos (from the Greek λόγος, "word"). There also exist many other words formed from the same root: graphopathology, graphomaniac, graphistic, graphopsychology, psychographology, graphometric, graphometry, graphoanalysis, graphotechnology, micrographia.[8]

History

Jean-Charles Gille stated in 1991 that Juan Huarte de San Juan's 1575 Examen de ingenios para las ciencias was the first book on handwriting analysis.[9][10] In American graphology, Camillo Baldi's Trattato come da una lettera missiva si conoscano la natura e qualita dello scrittore is considered to be the first book.[11][12]

Around 1830 Jean-Hippolyte Michon became interested in handwriting analysis. He published his findings[13][14] shortly after founding Société Graphologique in 1871. The most prominent of his disciples was Jules Crépieux-Jamin who rapidly published a series of books[15][16] that were soon published in other languages.[17][18] Starting from Michon's integrative approach, Crépieux-Jamin founded a holistic approach to graphology.

Alfred Binet was convinced to conduct research into graphology from 1893 to 1907. He called it "the science of the future" despite rejection of his results by graphologists.

After World War I, interest in graphology continued to spread in Europe as well as the United States. In Germany during the 1920s, Ludwig Klages founded and published his finding in Zeitschrift für Menschenkunde (Journal for the Study of Mankind). His major contribution to the field can be found in Handschrift und Charakter.[19][20]

Thea Stein Lewinson and J. Zubin modified Klage's ideas, based upon their experience working for the U.S. government, publishing their method in 1942.[21]

In 1929 Milton Bunker founded The American Grapho Analysis Society teaching graphoanalysis. This organization and its system split the American graphology world in two. Students had to choose between graphoanalysis or holistic graphology. While hard data is lacking, anecdotal evidence indicates that 10% of the members of International Graphoanalysis Society (IGAS) were expelled between 1970 and 1980.[22]

Status

Although graphology had some support in the scientific community before the mid-twentieth century, more recent research rejects the validity of graphology as a tool to assess personality and job performance,[2][23][24] and today it is considered to be a pseudoscience.[3][25] Graphology is primarily used as a recruiting tool to screen candidates during the evaluation process. Many studies have been conducted to assess its effectiveness to predict personality and job performance. Recent studies testing the validity of using handwriting for predicting personality traits and job performance have been consistently negative.[2][23]

In a 1987 study, graphologists were unable to predict scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire using writing samples from the same people.[7] In a 1988 study, graphologists were unable to predict scores on the Myers-Briggs test using writing samples from the same people.[26] A 1982 meta-analysis drawn from over 200 studies concludes that graphologists were generally unable to predict any kind of personality trait on any personality test.[27]

Measures of job performance appear similarly unrelated to the handwriting metrics of graphologists. Professional graphologists using handwriting analysis were just as ineffective as lay people at predicting performance in a 1989 study.[28] A broad literature screen done by King and Koehler confirmed dozens of studies showing the geometric aspects of graphology (slant, slope, etc.) are essentially worthless predictors of job performance.[23]

Rowan Bayne, a British psychologist who has written several studies on graphology, summarized his view of the appeal of graphology: "[i]t's very seductive because at a very crude level someone who is neat and well behaved tends to have neat handwriting", adding that the practice is "useless... absolutely hopeless".[29] The British Psychological Society ranks graphology alongside astrology, giving them both "zero validity".[29]

Graphology was also dismissed as a pseudo-science by the skeptic James Randi in 1991.[30]

There is some evidence of a relationship between gender and handwriting style, though the correlation is weak.[31]

Additional specific objections

Approaches

Max Pulver supports a system called symbolic analysis in which he looks for symbols in the handwriting.[37][38][39][40]

Systems of handwriting analysis

Each approach to handwriting analysis has spawned several different systems.

Integrative graphology focuses on strokes and their relation to personality.[41] Graphoanalysis was the most influential system in the United States, between 1929 and 2000. The Sistema de Xandró is another method of integrative graphology.[42][43][44] Holistic graphology is based on form, movement, and use of space.[41] The psychogram[11][45][46] is another method which uses specific diagrams to analyze handwriting. The Personal Worth Chart is one such method developed by the Handwriting Consultants of San Diego[47] during the early eighties. The psychograph is an additional psychogram method.[48] was developed by Leslie King during the seventies.The Wittlich Character Diagram,[49][50] and the Muller - Enskat Protokol[51][52] are other psychogram methods.

Psychologists Leopold Szondi, Augusto Vels, and Girolamo Moretti invented their personal schools of graphology.[53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64]

Four academic institutions around the world currently offer an accredited degree in handwriting analysis:

The majority of material in the field is oriented towards the Latin writing system. Courses offered in the subject reflect that bias.

Vocabulary

Every system of handwriting analysis has its own vocabulary. Even though two or more systems may share the same words, the meanings of those words may be different. The technical meaning of a word used by a handwriting analyst, and the common meaning is not congruent. Resentment, for example, in common usage, means to feel or exhibit annoyance. In Graphoanalysis, the term indicates a fear of imposition.[67][68]

Legal considerations

In Hungary

A report by the Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information says that handwriting analysis without informed consent is a privacy violation.[69]

In the United States

Gender and handwriting

There have been a number of studies on gender and handwriting.[70][71][72][73] Uniformly the research indicates that gender can be determined at a significant level. The published studies on ethnicity,[74][75][76] race,[77][78][79] age,[80][81][82] nationality,[83] gender orientation, weight, and their relationship to handwriting have had mixed results.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

One of the rules of thumb in human resources is that if an individual who has an ADA-defined disability cannot take a test, then nobody can. As a result, tests that cannot be adapted for use by those individuals will not be used by a company.

Handwriting clearly falls into the group of tests that cannot be adapted to be administered to individuals who fall within one or more ADA-defined disabilities. Blind people, for example, do not develop the required fluency in handwriting, for the writing to be correctly analyzed.

Questions that handwriting analysts ask before doing an analysis can be illegal under this act.[84]

Graphology in court testimony

In Carroll v. State [276 Ark 160; 634 SW 2d 99, 101-102 (1982)] the opposing handwriting analysts showed unprofessionalism.[35]

Applications

Employment profiling

A company takes a writing sample provided by an applicant, and proceeds to do a personality profile, matching the congruency of the applicant with the ideal psychological profile of employees in the position.[85]

A graphological report is meant to be used in conjunction with other tools, such as comprehensive background checks, practical demonstration or record of work skills. Graphology supporters state that it can complement but not replace traditional hiring tools.

Research in employment suitability has ranged from complete failure[86] to guarded success.[87] The most substantial reason for not using handwriting analysis in the employment process is the absence of evidence of a direct link between handwriting analysis and various measures of job performance.[88]

The use of graphology in the hiring process has been criticized on ethical grounds[89] and on legal grounds in the United States.[90]

Psychological analysis

Graphology has been used clinically by European counselors and psychotherapists.[49][50][51][52] When it is used, it is generally used alongside other projective personality assessment tools, and not in isolation. It is often used within individual psychotherapy, marital counseling, or vocational counseling.[91]

Marital compatibility

In its simplest form only sexual expression and sexual response are examined. At its most complex, every aspect of an individual is examined for how it affects the other individual(s) within the relationship.[92] The theory is that after knowing and understanding how each individual in the relationship differs from every other individual in the relationship, the resulting marriage will be more enduring.[93]

Medical diagnosis

Medical graphology is probably the most controversial branch of handwriting analysis.[94] Strictly speaking, such research is not graphology as described throughout this article but an examination of factors pertaining to motor control. Research studies have been conducted in which a detailed examination of handwriting factors, particularly timing, fluidity, pressure, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are considered in the process of evaluating patients and their response to pharmacological therapeutic agents.[95] The study of these phenomena is a by-product of researchers investigating motor control processes and the interaction of nervous, anatomical, and biomechanical systems of the body.

The Vanguard Code of Ethical Practice, amongst others, prohibits medical diagnosis by those not licensed to do diagnosis in the state in which they practice.

Graphotherapy

This is the practice of changing a person's handwriting with the goal of changing features of his or her personality. It originated in France during the 1930s, spreading to the United States in the late 1950s.[96][97] The purported therapy consists of a series of exercises which are similar to those taught in basic calligraphy courses, sometimes in conjunction with music or positive self-talk.

See also

Systems of handwriting analysis

Graphologists

Related fields

References

  1. ↑ Longman Dictionary of Psychology and Psychiatry, Longman Group United Kingdom, 1983
  2. 1 2 3 Nevo, B Scientific Aspects Of Graphology: A Handbook Springfield, IL: Thomas: 1986
  3. 1 2 "Barry Beyerstein Q&A". Ask the Scientists. Scientific American Frontiers. Retrieved 2008-02-22. "they simply interpret the way we form these various features on the page in much the same way ancient oracles interpreted the entrails of oxen or smoke in the air. i.e., it's a kind of magical divination or fortune telling where 'like begets like'".
  4. ↑ Graphology, on season 8 , episode 2 of Scientific American Frontiers.
  5. ↑ James, Barry (3 August 1993). "Graphology Is Serious Business in France : You Are What You Write?". New York Times. Retrieved 18 September 2010.
  6. ↑ Driver, Russel H.; Buckley, M. Ronald; Frink, Dwight D. (April 1996), "Should We Write Off Graphology?", International Journal of Selection and Assessment (Blackwell Publishing Ltd) 4 (2): 78–86, doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.1996.tb00062.x, ISSN 1468-2389.
  7. 1 2 Furnham, Adrian; Barrie Gunter (1987), "Graphology and Personality: Another Failure to Validate Graphological Analysis.", Personality and Individual Differences 8 (3): 433–435, doi:10.1016/0191-8869(87)90045-6.
  8. ↑ "Fine Dictionary". Retrieved 2014-09-22.
  9. ↑ Gille-Maisani, Jean Charles(1991): Psicología de la Escritura (Psychology of the Handwriting), Barcelona, Herder. Prefaced by Augusto Vels
  10. ↑ Examen de ingenios para las ciencias.
  11. 1 2 Roman, Klara G. (1952), Handwriting: A Key to Personality (1st ed.), New York: Pantheon Books
  12. ↑ Baldi, Camillo (1622), Trattato come de una lettera missiva si conoscano la natura e qualita dello scrittore, Carpi: Girolamo Vaschieri, p. 54
  13. ↑ Michon, Jean-Hippolyte (1872), Le mystéres de l'écriture, Paris
  14. ↑ Michon, Jean-Hippolyte (1875), Systéme de graphologie, Paris
  15. ↑ Crépieux-Jamin, Jules, Traité pratique de graphologie, étude du caractère de l'homme d'après son écriture, Paris
  16. ↑ Crépieux-Jamin, Jules, L'écriture et le caractère, Paris: 1888
  17. ↑ Crépieux-Jamin, Jules, Handwriting and Expression (First English Translation ed.), London: 1892
  18. ↑ Crépieux-Jamin, Jules (1906), Praktisches Lehrbuch der Graphologie (Fifth German ed.), Leipzig: List
  19. ↑ Klages, Ludwig, Handschrift und Charakter, 1916
  20. ↑ Klages, Ludwig (1940), Handschrift und Charakter: gemeinverständlicher Abriss der graphologischen Technik (17th ed.), Barth, p. 256
  21. ↑ Lewinson, Thea Stein; Zubin, J (1942), Handwriting analysis; a series of scales for evaluating the dynamic aspects of handwriting (1st ed.), New York: King's Crown Press, pp. 147 + xiii
  22. ↑ Chimera, Mary Ann, Impact Magazine (5). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  23. 1 2 3 Roy N. King and Derek J. Koehler (2000), "Illusory Correlations in Graphological Inference", Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 6 (4): 336–348, doi:10.1037/1076-898X.6.4.336.
  24. ↑ Lockowandte, Oskar (1976), "Lockowandte, Oskar Present status of the investigation of handwriting psychology as a diagnostic method", Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology (6): 4–5.
  25. ↑ Goodwin CJ (2010). Research In Psychology: Methods and Design. John Wiley & Sons. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-470-52278-3.
  26. ↑ Bayne, R., & O'Neill, F. (1988), "Handwriting and personality: A test of some expert graphologists' judgments", Guidance and Assessment Review (4): 1–3.
  27. ↑ Jennings, D. L., Amabile, T. M., and Ross, L. (1982), Informal covariation assessment: Data-based versus theory-based judgments. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 211–238
  28. ↑ Neter, E., & Ben-Shakhar, G. (1989), "The predictive validity of graphological influences: A meta-analytic approach", Personality and Individual Differences 10 (10): 737–745, doi:10.1016/0191-8869(89)90120-7.
  29. 1 2 Duffy, Jonathan; Giles Wilson (2005-02-01). "Writing wrongs". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
  30. ↑ James Randi and a Graphologist on YouTube
  31. ↑ Hartley, James, "Sex Differences in Handwriting: a comment on Spear", British Educational Research Journal 17 (2): 141–145, doi:10.1080/0141192910170204
  32. ↑ Ware, J. E.; Williams, R. G. (February 1975), "The Dr. Fox effect: a study of lecturer effectiveness and ratings of instruction", Journal Medical Education 50 (2): 149–156, doi:10.1097/00001888-197502000-00006, PMID 1120118
  33. ↑ Tallent, N (1958), "On Individualizing the Psychologists's Clinical Evaluation", Journal of Clinical Psychology 14 (3): 243–244, doi:10.1002/1097-4679(195807)14:3<243::AID-JCLP2270140307>3.0.CO;2-A.
  34. ↑ Dean, Geoffrey A., "The Bottom Line: Effect Size", In Beyerstein & Beyerstein (1992): 269–341
  35. 1 2 Beyerstein, Barry L.; Beyerstein, Dale F. (1992), The Write Stuff: Evaluation of Graphology - The Study of handwriting Analysis (1st ed.), Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, ISBN 0-87975-612-8
  36. ↑ Ulfried Geuter, The Professionalization of Psychology in Nazi Germany, pp. 95–96. Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  37. ↑ Pulver, Max Albert Eugen (1931), Symbolik der Handschrift (1st ed.), Zurich & Leipzig: Orell Füssli
  38. ↑ Pulver, Max Albert Eugen (1972), Symbolik der Handschrift (New ed.), Munich: Kindler, ISBN 3-463-18087-1
  39. ↑ Pulver, Max Albert Eugen (1944), Person, Charakter, Schicksal (1st ed.), Zurich: Orell Füssli
  40. ↑ Pulver, Max Albert Eugen (1949), Der Intelligenzausdruck in der Handschrift (1st ed.), Zurich: Orell Füssli
  41. 1 2 Carter, Molly. "Handwriting Analysis and the Secrets of Graphology". Sciences 360. Helium, Inc. Retrieved 2014-09-22.
  42. ↑ Xandró, Mauricio (1949), Psicologia y Grafologia, Havana: Ed de Conf y Ensayos
  43. ↑ Xandró, Mauricio (1954), Abecedario Grafológico, Onate: Aránzazu
  44. ↑ Xandró, Mauricio (1955), Grafología Tratado de Iniciación, Barcelona: Stadium
  45. ↑ Cole, Charlie; Jean Hartman, Karey Starmer (1961–1968), Handwriting Analysis Workshop Unlimited: Professional Graphology Course, Campbell, CA: E C F Cole / HAWU
  46. ↑ Anthony, Daniel S. (1983) [1964], The Graphological Psychogram: Psychological meanings of its Sectors; Symbolic Interpretation of its Graphic Indicators (Revised ed.), Fort Lauderdale, FL; New York NY
  47. ↑ Sassi, Paula; Whiting, Eldene (1983), Personal Worth Intermediate Course in Handwriting Analysis (1st ed.), San Diego, CA: Handwriting Consultants of San Diego
  48. ↑ King, Leslie W. (1978), Graphology Handbook for Tyros or Pros .. . (1st ed.), Bountiful, UT: Handwriting Consultants of Utah
  49. 1 2 Wittlich, Bernhard (1956), Graphologische Charakterdiagramme (1st ed.), Munich: Johann Ambrosius Barth
  50. 1 2 Wittlich, Bernhard (1951), Angewandte Graphologi (2nd ed.), Berlin: Walter de Griyter & Co
  51. 1 2 Müller, Wilhelm H.; Enskat, Alice (1973), Graphologische Diagnostik (20th ed.), Bern, Stuttgart, Wien: Verlag Hans Huber, ISBN 3-456-30514-1
  52. 1 2 Müller, Wilhelm H. (1943), Mensch und Handschrift. Lehrbuch der Graphologischen Deutungstechnik zum Selbstunterricht (1st ed.), Bern: Munz
  53. ↑ Moretti, Girolamo Maria (1942), Trattato Scientifico di Perizie Grafiche su base Grafologica, Verona: L'Alberto
  54. ↑ Moretti, Girolamo Maria (1963), ISanti dalla scrittura: esami grafologici, Padova: Messaggero di S Antonio
  55. ↑
    Moretti, Girolamo (1980) : Trattato di Grafologia. Intelligenza – Sentimento, Padova, Ed. Messagero di S. Antonio, 12ª Ed.
  56. ↑
    Vels, Augusto: Tratado de Grafología, Barcelona, Editorial Vives, 1945
  57. ↑
    Vels, Augusto: El lenguaje de la Escritura, Barcelona, Editorial Miracle, 1949.
  58. ↑
    Vels, Augusto:Cómo ser importante, Barcelona, P.E.A.P., 1957.
  59. ↑
    Vels, Augusto:Escritura y Personalidad, Barcelona, Editorial Herder, 468 pág. - 8ª ed.
  60. ↑
    Vels, Augusto:La Selección de Personal y el problema humano en las empresas, Barcelona, Ed. Herder, 640 pág. -5ª ed.
  61. ↑
    Vels, Augusto: Diccionario de Grafología y términos psicológicos afines, Barcelona, Ed. Herder,1998, 532 pág., 5ª ed.
  62. ↑
    Vels, Augusto:Manual de Grafoanálisis, Barcelona, Ed. Herder, 264 pág., 2ª ed. revisada.
  63. ↑
    Vels, Augusto:Grafología Estructural y Dinámica, Barcelona, Ed. Herder, 404 pág.1997
  64. ↑
    Vels, Augusto: Grafología de la A a la Z, Barcelona, Ed. Herder, 2000,432 pág.
  65. ↑ Instituto Superior Emerson
  66. ↑ Centro de Estudios Superiores
  67. ↑ IGAS Department of Instruction (1964), The Encyclopedic Dictionary for Graphoanalysts (1st ed.), Chicago, IL: International Graphoanalysis Society
  68. ↑ IGAS Department of Instruction (1984), The Encyclopedic Dictionary for Graphoanalysts (3rd ed.), Chicago, IL: International Graphoanalysis Society
  69. ↑ Péterfalvi, Attila (16 March 2004). "Overview of the Data Protection Commissioner’s investigation into the tender for the notary position of the city of Nagymaros". Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information. Retrieved 2008-06-21.
  70. ↑ Binet, Alfred L. (1904), "La graphologie et ses révélations sur le sexe, l'âge et l'intelligence", L'Année Psychologique 10: 179–210, doi:10.3406/psy.1903.3547
  71. ↑ Binet, Alfred L. (1902/1903), "Le sexe de l'écriture", Année Psychologique 9: 17–34 Check date values in: |date= (help)
  72. ↑ Young, P. T. (1931), "Sex differences in Handwriting", Journal of Applied Psychology 15 (5): 486–498, doi:10.1037/h0072627
  73. ↑ Wittlich, Bernhard (1927), "Ein Betrag zur Grage der Geschlechtsbestimmung nach der Handschrift", Zeitschrift fűr Menschenkenntnis 3: 42–45
  74. ↑ Geyer, L. (1929), Beitäge zur Graphologischen Technik. Derinnere Widerstreit der Bewusstseinsformen(Rassen), Kraftschwerpunkte (Naturelle) sowie Volksschichten als Urasache jeder unrhythmischen schwankungsbreite sämtl. Scrhiftelemente: Eine Lösung, Heidelberg: Selbstverlag
  75. ↑ Krieger, P. L. (1935), "Artmerkmale an ausländischen Handschriftenproben unter rassenseelenkundlichen Gesichtspunkt", Zentralblatt für Graphologie 6: 95–105
  76. ↑ Krieger, P. L. (1937), "Rhythmus and Schreibinnervation bei Jugendlichen und Erwachsenen", Zeitschrift für pädaagogische Psychologie und Jugendkunde 38: 15–31
  77. ↑ Garth, T. R. (1931), "The Handwriting of Indians", Journal of Educational Psychology 22 (9): 705–719, doi:10.1037/h0071730
  78. ↑ Garth, T. R.; Mitchell, J J; Anthony, C. N. (1939), "The Handwriting of Negroes", Journal of Educational Psychology 30: 69–73, doi:10.1037/h0063156
  79. ↑ Weisser, E. A. (1932), "A Diagnostic Study of Indian handwriting", Journal of Educational Psychology 23 (9): 703–707, doi:10.1037/h0075632
  80. ↑ Kollarits, J. (1933), "Űber Sprach- und Schreibstörungen in allgemeinen und als "kleine Zeichen der Geistesschwächung" bei Tuberkulose und im Alter. Das Verhaltnis zwischen innerer Sprache und Schreibfehler", Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie 99 (1): 109–196, doi:10.1007/BF01814310
  81. ↑ Binet, Alfred L., "L'âge et l'écriture", La Revue des Revues 484 (4): 182–195;326–341
  82. ↑ Binet, Alfred L. (1904), "La Graphologie et Ses Révélations sur le sexe, l'âge et l'intelligence", L'Année Psychologique 10: 179–210, doi:10.3406/psy.1903.3547
  83. ↑ Blumenthal, E. (1959), "Schulschriften der Verschiedenen Länder. Beihefte zur", Schweizerischen Zeitschrift für Psychologie undihre Anwendungen 31: 3–116
  84. ↑ Johnston, Dianna B. (28 February 2001), Title VII: Disparate Impact, Handwriting Analysis, The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, archived from the original on September 27, 2006, retrieved 2007-05-24
  85. ↑ Partial List of Characteristics Evaluated, Behavioral Profiling International, archived from the original on March 3, 2007, retrieved 2007-06-05
  86. ↑ Lighton, R. E. (1934). "A Graphological Examination of the Handwriting of Air Pilots". Thesis in the Faculty of Arts (University of Pretoria).
  87. ↑ Luca, E. S. (1973), "Major Aptitudes and Personality Characteristics of 42 Dental Students as Evaluated Through Their Handwriting", New York Journal of Dentistry 43: 281–283
  88. ↑ Thomas, Steven L.; Vaught, Steve (September 2001). "The write stuff: What the evidence says about using handwriting analysis in hiring". SAM Advanced Management Journal 66 (4): 31–35.
  89. ↑ Koehn, Daryl. "Handwriting Analysis In Pre-Employment Screening". The Online Journal of Ethics 1 (1).
  90. ↑ Spohn, Julie (Fall 1997). "The Legal Implications of Graphology". Washington University Law Quarterly 73 (3).
  91. ↑ Poizner, Annette (2012). Clinical Graphology: An Interpretive Manual for Mental Health Practitioners. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publishers
  92. ↑ Karohs, Erika (1994) SSS. Pebble Beach, CA
  93. ↑ IGAS (1976) MGA. Chicago, IL: IGAS
  94. ↑ Ludewig, R.; Lewinson, T. S.; Lewinson, T. S. (1992), "Profiles and Limits of Medical Graphology", Z Gesamte Inn Med 47 (12): 549–557, PMID 1285461.
  95. ↑ Kopp, W.; Paulson, G.; Allen, J.; Smeltzer, F.; Brown, F.; Koss, W. (1970), "Parkinson's Disease: L-dopa Treatment and Handwriting Areas", Current Therapeutic Research 12 (3): 115–124.
  96. ↑ de Sainte Columbe (1966), Grapho Therapeutics: Pen and Pencil Therapy (1st ed.), Hollywood, CA: Laurida Books
  97. ↑ de Sainte Columbe, Paul (1972), Grapho Therapeutics: Pen and Pencil Therapy (2nd ed.), Hollywood, CA: Paul de St Columbe Center

Further reading

External links

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Wednesday, January 27, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.