List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field

The following is a list of people who are considered a "father" or "mother" (or "founding father" or "founding mother") of a scientific field. Such people are generally regarded to have made the first significant contributions to and/or delineation of that field; they may also be seen as "a" rather than "the" father or mother of the field. Debate over who merits the title can be perennial. As regards science itself, the title has been bestowed on the ancient Greek philosophers Thales[1][2] – who attempted to explain natural phenomena without recourse to mythology – and Democritus, the seminal atomist.[3]

Natural sciences

Biology

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Bacteriology Robert Koch / Ferdinand Cohn[4] / Louis Pasteur First to produce precise, correct descriptions of bacteria.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[5]
Biogeography Alfred Russel Wallace "...Often described as the Father of Biogeography, Wallace shows the impact of human activity on the natural world."[6]
Biology[n 1] Aristotle [7]
Entomology Jan Swammerdam [8]
Johan Christian Fabricius[9] Fabricius described and published information on over 10,000 insects and refined Linnaeus's system of classification.
William Kirby [10]
Charles Darwin[11][12][13] On the Origin of Species (1859).
Genetics Gregor Mendel For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance.[14]
William Bateson Proponent of Mendelism.[15]
Ichthyology Peter Artedi "Far greater than either of these… was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–35)."[16]
Lichenology Erik Acharius "Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology..."[17]
Microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[18] The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria.
Molecular biology Linus Pauling [19]
Molecular biophysics Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran[20] Founded the [world's first?] molecular biophysics unit (1970).
Neuroscience Santiago Ramón y Cajal[21] Neuron doctrine
Paleontology Leonardo da Vinci
George Cuvier		 [22]
Parasitology Francesco Redi The founder of experimental biology and the first person to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies.[23]
Protozoology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[5] First to produce precise, correct descriptions of protozoa.
Taxonomy Carolus Linnaeus[24] Devised the system of naming living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world.
Toxicology Paracelsus [25]
Virology Dmitry Ivanovsky
Martinus Beijerinck		 The first men to discover viruses (1892).

Chemistry

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Atomic theory (early) Democritus[26] Founder of atomism in cosmology.
Atomic theory (modern) Father Roger Boscovich[27] First coherent description of atomic theory.
John Dalton[28] First scientific description of the atom as a building block for more complex structures.
Chemical thermodynamics (modern) Gilbert Lewis / Willard Gibbs / Merle Randall / Edward Guggenheim[29] Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933), which made a major contribution to the use of thermodynamics in chemistry.
Chemistry (early) Jabir ("Geber") ibn Hayyan (died 815)[30][31][32][33] Introduced the experimental method to Islamic alchemy.
Chemistry (modern) Antoine Lavoisier[34] Elements of Chemistry (1787)
Robert Boyle[34] The Sceptical Chymist (1661)
Jöns Berzelius[35][36] Development of chemical nomenclature (1800s)
John Dalton[34] Revival of atomic theory (1803)
Green chemistry Paul Anastas[37] Design and manufacture of chemicals that are non-hazardous and environmentally benign.
Nuclear chemistry Otto Hahn[38]
Periodic table Dmitri Mendeleev[39] Arranged the sixty-six elements known at the time in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869).
Physical chemistry Mikhail Lomonosov The first to read lectures in physical chemistry and coin the term (1752).
Svante Arrhenius[40] Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry. On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876), Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange (1882).
Wilhelm Ostwald "Wilhelm Ostwald is considered one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry..."[41]
Hermann von Helmholtz

Earth sciences

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Geochemistry (modern) Victor Goldschmidt For developing the Goldschmidt classification of elements.
Geodesy (mathematical geography) Eratosthenes [42][43]
Geology (modern)
Limnology (modern) G. Evelyn Hutchinson [46]
Mineralogy Georgius Agricola [47]
Matthew Fontaine Maury [48]
Plate tectonics Alfred Wegener
Acoustical oceanography Leonid Brekhovskikh [49]
Stratigraphy Father Nicholas Steno [44]
Speleology Édouard-Alfred Martel Began the first systematic exploration of cave systems and promoted speleology as a field separate from geology.

Medicine and physiology

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Anatomy (modern) Marcello Malpighi
Audiology Raymond Carhart
  • "…the Father of Audiology himself, Raymond Carhart at Northwestern University…"[50]
  • "Carhart notch: A decrease in the bone-conduction hearing at the 2000 Hz region of patients with otosclerosis first reported by and therefore named after the father of audiology, Raymond Carhart."[51]
Cognitive therapy Aaron T. Beck
  • "In developing ways to do this, Beck became the father of cognitive therapy, one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years."[52]
  • The Prospect of Immortality (1962)
Cryonics Robert Ettinger [53]
Emergency medicine
Fitness Jack LaLanne [57]
Gynaecology J. Marion Sims [58][59]
Histology Marcello Malpighi
Human anatomy (modern) Vesalius[60] De humani corporis fabrica (1543)
Medical genetics Victor McKusick[61] Mendelian Inheritance in Man
Medicine (early)
Medicine (modern) Hippocrates[7][65][66][67] Prescribed professional practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath.
Dentistry (modern) Pierre Fauchard [68]
Neurosurgery Harvey Cushing[69] Developed techniques that considerably reduced the risks involved with brain surgery in the early 20th Century.[69]
Nutrition (modern)
  • "Justus Von Liebig, the 'father of modern nutrition', developed the perfect infant food. It consisted of [...]"[70]
  • "In addition to being known as the Father of Modern Chemistry, Lavoisier is also considered the Father of Modern Nutrition, as the first to discover the metabolism that occurs inside the human body..."[71]
Psychology (experimental) Wilhelm Wundt[72] Founded the first laboratory for psychological research.
Nursing (modern) Florence Nightingale See Nursing#History.
Organ transplantation Thomas Starzl[73] Performed the first human liver transplant and established the clinical utility of anti-rejection drugs including ciclosporin. Developed major advances in organ preservation, procurement and transplantation.
Pediatrics Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rhazes")[74] Wrote The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field.
Physiology Claude Bernard[75] An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865)
Physical culture Bernarr Macfadden "It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."[76]
Plastic surgery Wrote the Sushruta Samhita.
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud [79]
Psychophysics Gustav Fechner[80] Elements of Psychophysics (1860)
Space medicine Hubertus Strughold "After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'"[81]
Surgery (early) Sushruta[77][78] Wrote the Sushruta Samhita.
Surgery (modern)

Physics and astronomy

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Acoustics Ernst Chladni[90] For important research in vibrating plates
Atomic bomb Enrico Fermi
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Leslie Groves
Edward Teller		 For their role in the Manhattan Project
Aerodynamics Nikolai Zhukovsky
George Cayley[91]
 Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow, was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift. Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built
Physical cosmology Albert Einstein (founder)

Henrietta Leavitt (mother)[92]
Edwin Hubble (father)[92]

 Leavitt discovered Cepheid variables, the "Standard Candle" by which Hubble later determined galactic distances. Einstein's general theory of relativity is usually recognized as the theoretic foundation of modern cosmology.
Classical mechanics Isaac Newton (founder)[93] Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
Electricity William Gilbert[94]
Michael Faraday[95]		 Book: De Magnete (1600)
Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831)
Electrodynamics André-Marie Ampère[96] Book: Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience (1827)
Energetics Willard Gibbs[97] Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876)
Experimental physics (founder) Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[98][99] For introducing experimental method into physics with his Book of Optics (1021)
Modern astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus[100] Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)
Modern physics Galileo Galilei[101] His development and extensive use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope
Nuclear physics Ernest Rutherford[102] Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909)
Nuclear science Marie Curie
Pierre Curie[103]
Optics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[104] Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021).
Quantum mechanics Max Planck (founder)[105] Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form
Relativity Albert Einstein (founder)[106] Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915)
Spaceflight (rocketry) Robert Hutchings Goddard
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Hermann Oberth		 Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket.
Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.
Thermodynamics Sadi Carnot (founder)[107] Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824)

Formal sciences

Mathematics

Father of Mathematics - Archimedis

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Algebra
(see also The father of algebra)		 Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[108] Brahmagupta[109]
Diophantus[110][111]		 Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in his Al-Jabr and recognized algebra as an independent discipline.
First use of symbolism (syncopation) in his Arithmetica.
Algebraic topology Henri Poincaré[112] Published Analysis Situs in 1895,[113] introducing the concepts of homotopy and homology, which are now considered part of algebraic topology.
Analysis Augustin-Louis Cauchy[114]
Karl Weierstrass[115]
Analytic geometry René Descartes
Pierre de Fermat[116](founders)		 For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System
Calculus Isaac Newton[117]
Gottfried Leibniz		 See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy.
Classical analysis Madhava of Sangamagrama[118] Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions
Computer science George Boole
Alan Turing		 Invented Boolean logic, which is the basis of modern digital computer logic
Provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing machine.
Descriptive geometry Gaspard Monge[119]
(founder)		 Developed a graphical protocol that creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane
Fractal geometry Benoît B. Mandelbrot
Geometry Euclid[120] Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms.
Graph Theory Leonhard Euler[121] See Seven Bridges of Königsberg
Italian school of algebraic geometry Corrado Segre[122] Publications and students developing algebraic geometry
Non-Euclidean geometry János Bolyai,
Nikolai Lobachevsky[123](founders)		 Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true
Number theory Pythagoras[124]
Probability Gerolamo Cardano, Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, Christiaan Huygens[125] (founders) Fermat and Pascal co-founded probability theory, about which Huygens wrote the first book
Projective geometry Girard Desargues[126](founder) By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away
Tensor calculus Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro[127]
(founder)		 Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus
Trigonometry Aryabhata Hipparchus[128][129] Constructed the first trigonometric table.
Vector algebra,
vector calculus		 Willard Gibbs[130]
Oliver Heaviside[131]
(founders)		 For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus

Systems theory

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Chaos theory Henri Poincaré[132]
Edward Lorenz[133]		 Lorenz attractor
Cybernetics Norbert Wiener[134] Book Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 1948.
Dynamic programming Richard E. Bellman
Fuzzy logic Lotfi Asker Zadeh
Information theory Claude Shannon[135] Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948)
Optimal control Arthur E. Bryson[136] Book: Applied Optimal Control[137]
Robust control George Zames Small gain theorem and H infinity control.
Stability theory Alexander Lyapunov Lyapunov function
System dynamics Jay Wright Forrester[138] Book: Industrial dynamics (1961)

Social sciences

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Anthropology Herodotus[139]
Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[140][141]
Demography Ibn Khaldun[142] Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377)
Egyptology Father Athanasius Kircher[143]

Jean-François Champollion

 First to identify the phoenetic importance of the hieroglyph, and he demonstrated Coptic as a vestige of early Egyptian, before the Rosetta stone's discovery.
Translated parts of the Rosetta Stone.
Historiography Ibn Khaldun Wrote several essential books
History Herodotus (who also coined the term)
Indology Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[141] Wrote the Indica
International law Alberico Gentili
Francisco de Vitoria
Hugo Grotius		 Influential contributions to the theory of international law, war and human rights
Linguistics (early) Panini Wrote the first descriptive grammar (of Sanskrit)
Linguistics (modern) Ferdinand de Saussure

Noam Chomsky

Sociology Ibn Khaldun[142][144]
Adam Ferguson[145]
Auguste Comte (who also coined the term)[146]
Marquis de Condorcet (founder)[147]		 Wrote the first sociological book, the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena).
"Father of modern sociology"
Introduced the scientific method into sociology.

Economics

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Accounting and Bookkeeping Luca Pacioli[148] Establisher of accounting and the first person to publish a work on bookkeeping.[148]
Economics (early) Ibn Khaldun[149]
Chanakya / Kautilya[150]		 Publication: Muqaddimah (1370)
Publication: Arthashastra (400 BCE - 200 CE)
Economics (modern)
Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen[155][156][157][158][159] The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971)
Macroeconomics John Maynard Keynes[160] Author of The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money and groundbreaking economist, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking. Prior to Keynes, the general consensus among economists was that the economy was self-fixing. During the Great Depression, when people began to realize that the economy would not fix itself, Keynes proposed that the government needed to intervene to combat excessive boom and bust. This idea was the largest influence in U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal.[161][162]
Mathematical economics Daniel Bernoulli Forerunner of the Tableau économique.[163]
Monetary economics
  • Oresme's De Moneta.
  • "Irving Fisher [...] spent his career studying questions about money and the economy - how money affects interest rates, how money affects inflation, and the impact of money on overall economic activity. For this work, he is regarded as the father of monetary economics."[165]
  • "[...] no less an authority than the University of Chicago's Milton Friedman, the father of monetary economics, [...]"[166]
Microcredit Muhammad Yunus[167] Founded Grameen Bank
Personnel economics Edward Lazear Published the first paper in the field.

Schools of thought

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Austrian School Carl Menger[168]
Communism Karl Marx
Friedrich Engels
David Ricardo[169]
School of Salamanca Francisco de Vitoria[170] Highly influential teacher and lecturer on commercial morality

Theories

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Expectations theory Thomas Cardinal Cajetan[171] Recognised the effect of market expectations on the value of money
Modern portfolio theory Harry Markowitz[172]
Social choice theory Kenneth Arrow Created the field with his 1951 book, Social Choice and Individual Values

Other fields

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
science (modern) Galileo Galilei[173]
[174][175]		 For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method, physics and observational astronomy
physics (early) Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[176][177] Alhazen developed rigorous experimental methods of controlled scientific testing to verify theoretical hypotheses and substantiate inductive conjectures.

Developed Baconian method in his Novum Organum (1620).

Family and consumer science Ellen Swallow Richards Founded the American Association of Home Economics, currently the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences. "Bringing science into the home, Richards hoped to "...attain the best physical, mental, and moral development" for the family, which she believed was the basic unit of civilization."[178]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ A name suggested in 1802 by the German naturalist Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus and introduced as a scientific term later that year by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.

References

  1. ↑ Singer, C. (2008). A Short History of Science to the 19th century. Streeter Press. p. 35.
  2. ↑ Needham, C. W. (1978). Cerebral Logic: Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain. Loose Leaf. p. 75. ISBN 0-398-03754-X.
  3. ↑ Pamela Gossin, Encyclopedia of Literature and Science, 2002.
  4. ↑ Drews G (1999). "Ferdinand Cohn, a Founder of Modern Microbiology". ASM News 65 (8).
  5. 1 2 p. 18, Foundations in microbiology: basic principles, Kathleen Park Talaro, 6th ed., international ed., McGraw-Hill, 2007, ISBN 978-0-07-126232-3.
  6. ↑ DK Publishing (2010). Explorers: Tales of Endurance and Exploration. Penguin. p. 272. ISBN 9780756675110.
  7. 1 2 Strong, W. F.; Cook, John A. (July 2007), "Reviving the Dead Greek Guys", Global Media Journal, Indian Edition, ISSN: 1550-7521
  8. ↑ p. 208, A history of social thought, Paul Hanly Furfey, The Macmillan company, 1942.
  9. ↑ p. 162, Museum: the Macleays, their collections and the search for order, Robyn Stacey, Ashley Hay, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-521-87453-X.
  10. ↑ p. 118, The fossil hunter: dinosaurs, evolution, and the woman whose discoveries changed the world, Shelley Emling, Macmillan, 2009, ISBN 0-230-61156-7.
  11. ↑ Darwin, Charles (1842, published 1909), "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844., Cambridge University Press, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID = F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  12. ↑ Moore, James (2006), "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin", Speaking of Faith (Radio Program), American Public Media, <http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  13. ↑ van Wyhe, John (2006), Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  14. ↑ The Father of Genetics
  15. ↑ p. 91, Theory change in science: strategies from Mendelian genetics, Lindley Darden, Oxford University Press US, 1991, ISBN 0-19-506797-5.
  16. ↑ Jordan, David Starr (1905). A Guide to the Study of Fishes. Henry Holt and Company., online at Google Books, p. 390.
  17. ↑ Department of Cryptogamic Botany at the Swedish Museum of Natural History (17 December 1999).
  18. ↑ Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th ed., Prentice Hall.
  19. ↑ Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers - Special Collections - Oregon State University
  20. ↑ Prathap, Gangan (March 2004), "Indian science slows down: The decline of open-ended research", Current Science 86 (6): 768–769 [768]
  21. ↑ Ramón y Cajal, Santiago [1897] (1999). Advice for a Young Investigator, translated by Neely Swanson and Larry W. Swanson, Cambridge: MIT Press.
  22. ↑ p. 287, On social structure and science (volume 1996 of Heritage of sociology), Robert King Merton and Piotr Sztompka, University of Chicago Press, 1996, ISBN 0-226-52071-4.
  23. ↑ Levine R, Evers C. "The Slow Death of Spontaneous Generation (1668-1859)". Retrieved 2013-04-18.
  24. ↑ Hovey, Edmund Otis, "The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus", New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1908.
  25. ↑ Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology - Borzelleca 53 (1): 2 - Toxicological Sciences
  26. ↑ Rothbard, Murray N. (2006). Economic thought before Adam Smith: An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought (PDF). Cheltnam, UK: Edward Elgar. p. 10. ISBN 0-945466-48-X.
  27. ↑ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 107. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  28. ↑ Patterson, Elizabeth C. (1970). John Dalton and the Atomic Theory. Garden City, New York: Anchor. p. 10.
  29. ↑ Ott, Bevan, J.; Boerio-Goates, Juliana (2001). Chemical Thermodynamics - Principles and Applications. ISBN 0-12-530990-2.
  30. ↑ Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), "On wine, chirality and crystallography", Acta Crystallographica A 64: 246–258 [247], doi:10.1107/s0108767307054293
  31. ↑ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
  32. ↑ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
  33. ↑ Paul Vallely. How Islamic inventors changed the world. The Independent.
  34. 1 2 3 Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). Affinity , That Elusive Dream - A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution (Epilogue: A Tale of Three Fathers). ISBN 0-262-11273-6.
  35. ↑ Berzelius, Jöns (1779–1848) - Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography
  36. ↑ Jons Jacob - Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2 Aug 2007
  37. ↑ "ACS Green Chemistry at a Glance"
  38. ↑ O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle (On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11-15 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938.
  39. ↑ Chemistry Contexts. by Irwin, D; Farrelly, R; Garnett, P. Longman Sciences, (2001)
  40. ↑ Jacob Darwin Hamblin (2005). Science in the Early Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 9. ISBN 9781851096657. His interest in both fields would serve him well, because he became a principal founder of physical chemistry.
  41. ↑ Elizabeth H. Oakes (2010). Encyclopedia of World Scientists. Infobase Publishing. p. 562. ISBN 9781438118826.
  42. ↑ p. 12, Plotting the globe: stories of meridians, parallels, and the international date line, Avraham Ariel and Nora Ariel Berger, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-275-98895-3.
  43. ↑ p. 389, "Eratosthenes", D. R. Dicks, in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie, vol. 4, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.
  44. 1 2 Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 96. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  45. ↑ Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003).
  46. ↑ G. Evelyn Hutchinson a.k.a. Father of modern limnology and the modern Darwin (1903–1991)
  47. ↑ p. 19, Reader's guide to the history of science, Arne Hessenbruch, Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 1-884964-29-X.
  48. ↑ Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the United States Naval Academy: Pathfinder of the Seas (book).
  49. ↑ Mikhalevsky, P; Godin, O; Naugolnykh, K; Dubrovsky, N (2005). "Leonid Maksimovich Brekhovskikh". Physics Today 58 (11): 70–71. Bibcode:2005PhT....58k..70M. doi:10.1063/1.2155769.
  50. ↑ Hall, James W. (1999). Handbook of Otoacoustic Emissions. Thomson Delmar Learning. p. 2. ISBN 1-56593-873-9.
  51. ↑ Hall, James W.; H. Gustav Mueller (1998). Audiologists Desk Reference: Audiolologic Management, Rehabilitation and Terminology. Thomson Delmar Learning. p. 912. ISBN 1-56593-711-2.
  52. ↑ Durand, V. Mark, Jim; David H Barlow (2005). Essentials of Abnormal Psychology. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 235. ISBN 0-495-03128-3.
  53. ↑ Klein, Bruce (August 13, 2004). "The Father of Cryonics, Robert C. W. Ettinger, Interview with Bruce Klein". Immortality Institute. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
  54. ↑ Acierno, LJ; Worrell, LT (January 2007). "Peter Safar: father of modern cardiopulmonary resuscitation". Clinical Cardiology 30 (1): 52–4. doi:10.1002/clc.20042. ISSN 0160-9289. PMID 17262769.
  55. ↑ Mitka, Mike (May 2003). "Peter J. Safar, MD: 'father of CPR,' innovator, teacher, humanist" (PDF). JAMA 289 (19): 2485–6. doi:10.1001/jama.289.19.2485. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 12759308.
  56. ↑ UK Daily Telegraph obituary 12/29/2004.
  57. ↑ Father of fitness, Jack La Lanne, turns 90, MSNBC, September 24, 2004. "He continues to live by his motto, 'I can't die, it would ruin my image!'"
  58. ↑ Log In Problems
  59. ↑ History of Women and Science, Health, and Technology
  60. ↑ Vallejo-Manzur F et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3-7
  61. ↑ Geneticists Mourn Loss of the ‘Father of Genetic Medicine’
  62. ↑ Mostafa Shehata MD (2004). "The Father of Medicine: A Historical Reconsideration". Turk Klin J Med Ethics 12: 171–176 [176].
  63. ↑ How Imhotep gave us medicine, The Daily Telegraph, 10/05/2007.
  64. ↑ Nirupama Laroia M.D., Sharma Deeksha (2006). "The Religious and Cultural Bases for Breastfeeding Practices Among the Hindus". Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 1 (2): 94–98. doi:10.1089/bfm.2006.1.94.
  65. ↑ Grammaticos, P. C.; Diamantis, A. (2008). "Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus". Hellenic journal of nuclear medicine 11 (1): 2–4. PMID 18392218.
  66. ↑ Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. Archived 2009-10-31.
  67. ↑ p. 4, Surgery: Basic Science and Clinical Evidence, Jeffrey A. Norton, Philip S. Barie, R. Randal Bollinger, Alfred E. Chang, Stephen F. Lowry, Sean J Mulvihill, M.D., Harvey I Pass, M.D., Robert W Thompson, M.D., Springer, 2008, ISBN 0-387-30800-8.
  68. ↑ de Vaux, Jean Claude. "The Pierre Fauchard Academy". Retrieved 2006-07-22.
  69. 1 2 "Father of neurosurgery Dr Harvey Cushing's legacy". Retrieved 2015-05-20.
  70. ↑ Black, Rebecca. The Support of Breastfeeding: Module 1. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. p. 9. ISBN 0-7637-0208-0.
  71. ↑ Lavoisier, Antoine. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 July 2007.
  72. ↑ Wilhelm Wundt in Psychology Biographies at ALLPSYCH Online
  73. ↑ Cronin, Mike (2010-01-29). "Starzl, Tribune-Review reporters claim Carnegie Science Awards". Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. Retrieved 2010-01-29.
  74. ↑ Tschanz David W., PhD (2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine". Heart Views 4: 2.
  75. ↑ Bernard, Claude. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949. The Dover Edition of 1957 is a reprint of the original translation with a new Foreword by I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University.
  76. ↑ Oursler, Fulton; Will Oursler (1949). Father Flanagan of Boys Town. Doubleday. p. 270.
  77. 1 2 A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We need to think and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
  78. 1 2 H. W. Longfellow (2002). "History of Plastic Surgery in India", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.
  79. ↑ Sigmund Freud [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
  80. ↑ Aaen-Stockdale, Craig (2008), "Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics", Perception 37 (4): 636–638, doi:10.1068/p5940, PMID 18546671
  81. ↑ Lee, Martin A.; Bruce Shlain (1986). Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond. Grove Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-8021-3062-3.. See also Harry Armstrong.
  82. ↑ Martin-Araguz A., Bustamante-Martinez C., Fernandez-Armayor Ajo V., Moreno-Martinez J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine". Revista de neurología 34 (9): 877–892. PMID 12134355.
  83. ↑ p. 283, Old-Time Makers of Medicine, James J. Walsh, New York: Fordham University Press, 1911.
  84. ↑ Pare, Ambroise." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441>.
  85. ↑ Gray C (May 1983). "The remarkable surgical collection of John Hunter". Can Med Assoc J 128 (10): 1225–8. PMC 1875296. PMID 6340814.
  86. ↑ The knife man: the extraordinary life and times of John Hunter, father of modern surgery, Wendy Moore, Random House, 2005, ISBN 0-7679-1652-2.
  87. ↑ pp. 51-55, Pioneers of microbiology and the Nobel prize, Ulf Lagerkvist, World Scientific, 2003, ISBN 981-238-234-8.
  88. ↑ Joseph Lister, Father of Modern Surgery, Rhoda Truax, Bobbs Merrill, Indianapolis and New York, 1944.
  89. ↑ Voorhees, J. R.; Tubbs, R. S.; Nahed, B.; Cohen-Gadol, A. A. (2009). "William S. Halsted and Harvey W. Cushing: reflections on their complex association". Journal of Neurosurgery 110 (2): 384–390. doi:10.3171/2008.4.17516. PMID 18976064.
  90. ↑ Chladniite: A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics, McCoy, T. J.; Steele, I. M.; Keil, K.; Leonard, B. F.; Endress, M., Meteoritics, vol. 28, no. 3, volume 28, page 394, 07/1993
  91. ↑ "Cayley, Sir George." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092>.
  92. 1 2 Milestones in the birth of Cosmology
  93. ↑ Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press.
  94. ↑ Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5.
  95. ↑ He also invented the electrical generator, which is the basic source for producing electricity to begin with. (1831) Frank Ashall, Remarkable Discoveries!, Cambridge University Press - 1996. page 1
  96. ↑ André-Marie Ampère - Encyclopedia Britannica
  97. ↑ Josiah Willard Gibbs - Britannica, 1911
  98. ↑ Thiele, Rüdiger (2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 15: 329–331, doi:10.1017/S0957423905000214
  99. ↑ Thiele, Rüdiger (August 2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, 1928–2005", Historia Mathematica 32 (3): 271–274, doi:10.1016/j.hm.2005.05.002
  100. ↑ Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006
  101. ↑ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse, p. 155. ISBN 0-595-36877-8.
  102. ↑ Pasachoff, Naomi (2005). Ernest Rutherford: Father Of Nuclear Science (Great Minds of Science). ISBN 0-7660-2441-5.
  103. ↑ Resources
  104. ↑ R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.
  105. ↑ Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000)
  106. ↑ Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6.
  107. ↑ Solomon Gandz (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris I, p. 263–277: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called the father of algebra than Diophantus, because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers."
  108. ↑ Serish Nanisetti, Father of algorithms and algebra, The Hindu, June 23, 2006.
  109. ↑ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony". A History of Mathematics (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 228. ISBN 0-471-54397-7. Diophantus sometimes is called "the father of algebra," but this title more appropriately belongs to al-Khwarizmi. It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khwarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-naren is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers. line feed character in |quote= at position 350 (help)
  110. ↑ Derbyshire, John (2006). "The Father of Algebra". Unknown Quantity: A Real And Imaginary History of Algebra. Joseph Henry Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-309-09657-X. Diophantus, the father of algebra, in whose honor I have named this chapter, lived in Alexandria, in Roman Egypt, in either the 1st, the 2nd, or the 3rd century CE.
  111. ↑ Ioan Mackenzie James, ed. (1999). History of Topology. Elsevier. p. 544. ISBN 9780444823755. Poincaré: the founder of algebraic topology
  112. ↑ Poincaré, Henri, "Analysis situs", Journal de l'École Polytechnique ser 2, 1 (1895) pp. 1–123
  113. ↑ p. 750, Rudiments of Mathematics Part 1, M. N. Mukherjee, P. Mukhopadhyay, S. Sinha Roy & U. Dasgupta, Academic Publishers, 2008, 5th ed., ISBN 81-89781-54-5.
  114. ↑ p. 147, Collisions, rings, and other Newtonian N-body problems, Donald Saari, American Mathematical Society, 2005, ISBN 0-8218-3250-6.
  115. ↑ Gullberg, Jan (1997). Mathematics From The Birth Of Numbers. W. W. Norton
  116. ↑ Bell, E.T. [1937] (1986). Men of Mathematics, Touchstone edition, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 91–2.
  117. ↑ George Gheverghese Joseph (2000). The Crest of the Peacock. Princeton University Press.
  118. ↑ "Monge, Gaspard, comte de Peluse." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053349>.
  119. ↑ Artmann, Benno (1999). Euclid: The Creation of Mathematics. New York: Springer.
  120. ↑ Biggs, N. Lloyd, E. and Wilson, R. (1986). Graph Theory, 1736-1936 . London: Oxford University Press
  121. ↑ H.F. Baker (1926), "Corrado Segre", Journal of the London Mathematical Society 1:269
  122. ↑ Marvin Jay Greenberg, Euclidean and Non-Euclidean geometries: Development and history New York: W. H. Freeman, 1993.
  123. ↑ p. 46, Aristarchus of Samos: The Ancient Copernicus, Thomas Heath, Oxford, 1913.
  124. ↑ Stigler, Stephen M. (1990). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Belknap Press/Harvard University Press.
  125. ↑ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gérard Desargues". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
  126. ↑ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
  127. ↑ Boyer (1991). "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration". A History of Mathematics (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 162. ISBN 0-471-54397-7. For some two and a half centuries, from Hippocrates to Eratosthenes, Greek mathematicians had studied relationships between lines and circles and had applied these in a variety of astronomical problems, but no systematic trigonometry had resulted. Then, presumably during the second half of the second century B.C., the first trigonometric table apparently was compiled by the astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea (ca. 180-ca. 125 B.C.), who thus earned the right to be known as the father of trigonometry. Aristarchus had known that in a given circle the ratio of arc to chord decreases from 180° to 0°, tending toward a limit of 1. However, it appears that not until Hipparchus undertook the task had anyone tabulated corresponding values of arc and chord for a whole series of angles.
  128. ↑ Boyer's opinion may constructively be compared to Øystein Ore's opinion, that the Babylonians constructed trigonometric tables ca 1600 BCE (Ore (1988). "Diophantine Problems". Number Theory and its History. Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 176–179. ISBN 0-486-65620-9. The tablet, catalogued as Plimpton 322, is composed in Old Babylonian script so that it must fall in the period from 1900 B.C. and 1600 B.C., at least a millennium before the Pythagoreans… It is evident, however, that at this early date the Babylonians not only had completely mastered the Pythagorean problem, but also had used it as the basis for the construction of trigonometric tables.)
  129. ↑ Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
  130. ↑ Michael J. Crowe (1994). A History of Vector Analysis : The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System. Dover Publications; Reprint edition.
  131. ↑ Jonathan Mendelson and Elana Blumenthal. "Chaos Theory and Fractals". Mendelson Productions in collaboration with Blumenthal Enterprises. Retrieved 4 July 2012. Henri Poincaré was really the "Father of Chaos [Theory]," however.
  132. ↑ Edward Lorenz, father of chaos theory and butterfly effect, dies at 90 - MIT News Office
  133. ↑ Conway, F., and Siegelman, J., 2005. Dark Hero of the Information Age: in search of Norbert Wiener, the father of cybernetics. Basic Books, New York. 423pp. ISBN 0-7382-0368-8
  134. ↑ Bell Labs website: "For example, Claude Shannon, the father of Information Theory, had a passion…"
  135. ↑ 2004 Distinguished Alumni
  136. ↑ Bryson, A.E.; Ho, Y.C. (1975). Applied optimal control. Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
  137. ↑ Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  138. ↑ p. 22, A Short History of Scientific Ideas to 1900, Charles Singer, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959.
  139. ↑ Ahmed Akbar S (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist". RAIN 60: 9–10. doi:10.2307/3033407.
  140. 1 2 Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold [sic] Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
  141. 1 2 H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
  142. ↑ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 109. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  143. ↑ Dr , Akhtar S. W. (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge". Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12: 3.
  144. ↑ Willcox, William Bradford; Arnstein, Walter L. (1966). The Age of Aristocracy, 1688 to 1830. Volume III of A History of England, edited by Lacey Baldwin Smith (Sixth Edition, 1992 ed.). Lexington, MA. p. 133. ISBN 0-669-24459-7. Adam Ferguson of Edinburgh became "the father of modern sociology."
  145. ↑ Auguste Comte, Britannica Student Encyclopedia. Accessed October 5, 2006.
  146. ↑ p. 87, Full Meridian of Glory, Paul Murdin, New York: Springer, 2009, ISBN 978-0-387-75533-5 (print), ISBN 978-0-387-75534-2 (online).
  147. 1 2 DIWAN, Jaswith. ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS & THEORIES. LONDON: MORRE. pp. 001–002. id# 94452.
  148. ↑ I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses, New York University Press, ISBN 0-88706-698-4.
  149. ↑ L. K. Jha, K. N. Jha (1998). "Chanakya: the pioneer economist of the world", International Journal ertrtrtrtof Social Economics 25 (2-4), p. 267-282
  150. ↑ Rothbard, Murray N. (2006). "Chapter 12 — The founding father of modern economics: Richard Cantillon". Economic thought before Adam Smith: An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Cheltnam, UK: Edward Elgar. p. 345. ISBN 0-945466-48-X. The honour of being called the 'father of modern economics' belongs, then, not to its usual recipient, Adam Smith, but to a gallicized Irish merchant, banker, and adventurer who wrote the first treatise on economics more than four decades before the publication of the Wealth of Nations. Richard Cantillon (c. early 1680s-1734)…
  151. ↑ Pelo, June. "Anders Chydenius". Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  152. ↑ Steven Pressman, Fifty Major Economists, Routledge 1999 (ISBN 0-415-13481-1), p. 20.
  153. ↑ "Acton Institute: Anders Chydenius (1729-1803)". Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  154. ↑ Cleveland C., Ruth M. (1997). "When, where, and by how much do biophysical limits constrain the economic process? A survey of Georgescu-Roegen's contribution to ecological economics". Ecological Economics 22: 203–223. doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(97)00079-7.
  155. ↑ Daly H (1995). "On Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen's contributions to economics: An obituary essay". Ecological Economics 13: 149–54. doi:10.1016/0921-8009(95)00011-w.
  156. ↑ Mayumi K (1995). "Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906-1994)". Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 6: 115–120. doi:10.1016/0954-349x(95)00014-e.
  157. ↑ Mayumi, Kozo; Gowdy, John, eds. (1999). Bioeconomics and Sustainability: Essays in Honor of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. ISBN 1-85898-667-2.
  158. ↑ Mayumi, Kozo (2001). The Origins of Ecological Economics: The Bioeconomics of Georgescu-Roegen. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0-415-23523-5.
  159. ↑ "John Maynard Keynes". Investopedia. Investopedia. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
  160. ↑ Blinder, Alan. "Keynesian Economics". Library of Economics and Liberty. Liberty Fund. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
  161. ↑ Briggs, Brad. "John Maynard Keynes: The Man Who Transformed the Economic World". Investing Answers. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
  162. ↑ Rothbard, p 379.
  163. ↑ Woods, p. 155.
  164. ↑ Pressman, Steven (2006). 50 Major Economists. Routledge Key Guides (2 ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 137. ISBN 9780415366489. Retrieved 2013-01-05.
  165. ↑ Dun's Review (Dun & Bradstreet Publications Corp.) 94: 146. 1969 https://books.google.com/books?id=v8cSAQAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2013-01-05. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  166. ↑ Expanding Microcredit in India: A Great Opportunity for Poverty Alleviation, Grameen Dialogue.
  167. ↑ Rothbard, p 167
  168. ↑ Karl Marx (1863): Theories of Surplus Value, Chapter 10:
    Carey (the passage to be looked up later) therefore denounces him as the father of communism.
    "Mr. Ricardo's system is one of discords …its whole tends to the production of hostility among classes and nations… His hook is the true manual of the demagogue, who seeks power by means of agrarianism, war, and plunder." (H. C. Carey, The Past, the Present, and the Future, Philadelphia, 1848, pp. 74–75.)
  169. ↑ Rothbard, p 102
  170. ↑ Rothbard, p 100-101
  171. ↑ Harry Markowitz, "the father of Modern Portfolio Theory," To Highlight Investment Consultants Conference
  172. ↑ Pamela Gossin, Encyclopedia of Literature and Science, 2002.
  173. ↑ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (Fall 2007), "Book Review—The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History", The Historian 69 (3): 601–602
  174. ↑ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. Universe, p. 155.
  175. ↑ Jim Al-Khalili, The 'first true scientist', BBC.co.uk, 4 January 2009.
  176. ↑ MLA style: "Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108408>. APA style: Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam. (2007).
  177. ↑ "Ellen S. Richards." Vassar College Encyclopedia. 2005. 20 Nov. 2011 <http://vcencyclopedia.vassar.edu/alumni/ellen-swallow-richards.html>.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Saturday, February 13, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.