Euroscepticism

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Euroscepticism (sometimes euroskepticism, EU-scepticism[1][2][3] or Anti-EUism[4][5]) is to criticism of the European Union (EU). Traditionally, the main source of euroscepticism has been the notion that integration weakens the nation state, and a desire to slow, halt or reverse integration within the EU. Other views often held by eurosceptics include perceptions of the EU being undemocratic or too bureaucratic.[6][7] Euroscepticism should not be confused with anti-Europeanism, which refers to the rejection of the culture of Europe and Europeanisation, and sentiments, opinions and discrimination against European ethnic groups. A Eurobarometer survey of EU citizens in 2009 showed that support for membership of the EU was lowest in Latvia, the United Kingdom, and Hungary.[8] Euroscepticism is found in political parties across the political spectrum; however, the rise in radical right-wing parties in Europe is strongly linked to a rise in Euroscepticism in the continent.[9]

Global outlook

While having some overlaps, euroscepticism and Anti-Europeanism are different. Anti-Europeanism has always had a strong influence in American culture and American exceptionalism, which sometimes sees Europe on the decline or as a rising rival power, or both.[10] Some aspects of euroscepticism in the United Kingdom have been mirrored and parroted by US authors.[10]

Terminology

Flag of the "EUSSR", a common trope[11] among hard eurosceptics comparing the EU with the USSR.

There can be considered to be two different types of eurosceptic thought, which differ in the extent to which adherents reject European integration and in their reasons for doing so. Aleks Szczerbiak and Paul Taggart described these as 'hard' and 'soft' euroscepticism.[12][13][14][15][16]

Hard Euroscepticism is the opposition to membership of, or the existence of, the European Union as a matter of principle.[15] The Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy group in the European Parliament, typified by such parties as the United Kingdom Independence Party, is hard eurosceptic. In western European EU member countries, hard euroscepticism is currently a hallmark of many anti-establishment parties.[17]

Soft Euroscepticism is support for the existence of, and membership of, a form of European Union, but with opposition to specific EU policies, and opposition to a federal Europe.[18] Hence Soft Euroscepticism occurs where there is no objection to European integration or EU membership on principle, but where concerns on one (or a number) of policy areas lead to the expression of qualified opposition to the EU, or where there is a sense that ’national interest’ is currently at odds with the EU’s trajectory.[19] The European Conservatives and Reformists group, typified by centre-right parties such as the British Conservative Party or Czech Civic Democratic Party, along with the European United Left–Nordic Green Left which is an alliance of the left-wing parties in the European Parliament, is soft eurosceptic.

Alternative names for 'hard' and 'soft' euroscepticism are respectively 'withdrawalist' and 'reformist' euroscepticism. Some 'hard' eurosceptics such as UKIP prefer to call themselves euro-realists rather than 'sceptics', and regard their position as pragmatic rather than "in principle". Also many on the left such as Tony Benn have tended not to use the phrase to refer to themselves even though they share many of their criticisms of the European Union. They may use phrases such as euro-critical or just call themselves democrats or socialists and their scepticism is seen as part of their wider belief in democracy or socialism.

The Czech president Václav Klaus rejected the term "euroscepticism", with its purported negative undertones, saying (at a meeting in April 2012) that the expressions for a eurosceptic and his opponent should be "a Euro-realist" and someone who is "Euro-naïve" (respectively).[20]

François Asselineau of the French Popular Republican Union has criticised the use of the term 'sceptic' to describe 'hard eurosceptics' or those who want to withdraw from the EU and would rather advocate the use of the term 'euro opponent' .[21] However, he believes the use of the term 'sceptic' for 'soft eurosceptics' to be correct since other eurosceptic parties in France are 'merely criticising' the EU without taking into account the fact that the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union can only be modified with a unanimous agreement of all the EU member states, something he considers impossible to achieve.[22]

Eurobarometer survey 2012

A survey in 2012, conducted by TNS Opinion and Social on behalf of the European Commission, showed that, for the European Union overall, those who think that their country's interests are looked after well in the EU are now in a minority (42%).[23] Those with a positive image of the EU are down from a high of 52% in 2007 to a low of 31% in May 2012 (unchanged since November 2011); this compares with 28% with a negative image of the EU, and 39% with a neutral image (up from a low of 14% in 2007).[24][25]

About 31% of EU citizens tend to trust the European Union as an institution, and about 60% do not tend to trust it.[26] Trust in the EU has fallen from a high of 57% in 2007 to 31% in 2012, while trust in national governments has fallen from 43% in 2007 to 28% in 2012; so the EU has moved from enjoying much more trust than national governments in 2007 to a position of enjoying only slightly more trust than national governments in 2012.[25] Trust in the EU is lowest in the United Kingdom (16% trust, 75% distrust) and highest in Bulgaria (55% trust; 15% distrust). Trust in national governments in these two countries is 21% (distrust 77%) and 28% (distrust 64%) respectively.[26]

In the 2014 European Elections, the 16 countries that most voted for Eurosceptic parties or candidates were Greece (66.7% of the seats), Hungary (66,7%) - including Fidesz, United Kingdom (63.0%), Ireland (45.5%), Poland (45.1%), Denmark (38.5%), France (37.8%), Netherlands (34.6%), Italy (34.2%), Cyprus (33.3%), Czech Republic (28.6%), Lithuania (27.3%), Latvia (25%), Portugal (23.8%) - including Marinho Pinto, Belgium (23.8%) and Austria (22.2%).

History in the European Parliament

1999–2004

A study analysed voting records of the Fifth European Parliament and ranked groups, concluding:[27] "Towards the top of the figure are the more pro-European parties (PES, EPP-ED, and ALDE), whereas towards the bottom of the figure are the more anti-European parties (EUL/NGL, G/EFA, UEN and EDD)."

2004–2009

In 2004, 37 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) from the UK, Poland, Denmark and Sweden founded a new European Parliament group called "Independence and Democracy" from the old Europe of Democracies and Diversities (EDD) group.

The main goals of the ID group were to reject the proposed Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe. Some delegations within the group, notably the United Kingdom Independence Party, also advocate the complete withdrawal of their country from the EU whilst others only wish to limit further European integration.

2009 elections

The elections in 2009 saw a significant drop in some areas in support for Eurosceptic parties, with all MEPs from Poland, Denmark and Sweden losing their seats. However, in the UK, the eurosceptic United Kingdom Independence Party achieved second place in the elections, finishing ahead of the governing Labour Party, and the British National Party (BNP) won its first ever two MEPs. Although new members joined the ID group from Greece and the Netherlands, it was unclear as to whether the ID group would reform in the new parliament.

The ID group did reform, as the Europe of Freedom and Democracy (EFD) and is represented by 32 MEPs from nine countries.

2014 elections

The elections in 2014 saw a big anti-establishment vote in favour of eurosceptic parties taking around 25% of the seats available. Those who won their national elections include: UKIP in the UK (the first time since 1906 that a party other than Labour or the Conservatives had won a national vote), National Front in France, The People's Party in Denmark, SYRIZA in Greece, and second places taken by Sinn Féin in Ireland and Five Star Movement in Italy. Following the election, European Council President Herman Van Rompuy agreed to re-evaluate the economic area's agenda and to launch consultations on future policy areas with the 28 member states.

Euroscepticism in the EU member states

Austria

Heinz-Christian Strache, leader of the Austrian hard eurosceptic party FPÖ.

As of 2013, six parties together hold all 183 National Council seats, and all bar one of the 62 Federal Council seats and 19 European Parliament seats. Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs (social democrats), who hold 56/183 NC, 24/62 FC, and 5/19 EP seats, are pro-European integration. Austrian People's Party (conservative/Christian), who hold 51/183 NC, 28/62 FC, and 6/19 EP seats, are pro-European integration. And Die Grünen – Die Grüne Alternative (green), who hold 20/183 NC, 3/62 FC, and 2/19 EP seats, are also pro-European integration.

Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs (FPÖ), established in 1956, is a right-wing populist party who mainly attract support from young people and workers.[28] In 1989, they changed their stance over the European Union to euroscepticism. They opposed Austria joining the EU in 1994, and opposed the introduction of the Euro in 1998. The party would like to leave the union. In the 1990s the party received 20–27% of the national vote, and recently received 17.5% in 2008. It currently has 34/183 National Council seats, 4/62 Federal Council seats, and 2/19 European Parliament seats.

Bündnis Zukunft Österreich, established in 2005, are a socially conservative party that had always held eurosceptical elements. In 2011, the party openly supported leaving the Euro-Zone, and in 2012, the party announced they supported a full withdrawal from the European Union.[29] The party has also called upon a referendum on the Lisbon Treaty.[30] In polls it currently receives around 10%–15%, although in one state it did receive 45% of the vote in 2009. It currently has 13/183 National Council seats, 0/62 Federal Council seats, and 1/19 European Parliament seats.

Team Stronach, established in 2012, have campaigned to reform the European Union, as well as replace the Euro with an Austrian Euro. In 2012, they regularly received between 8–10% national support in polls.[31] Politicians from many different parties including the Social Democratic Party (socialist), Bündnis Zukunft Österreich (conservative) as well as previous independents, switched their allegiances to the new party upon creation.[32][33] In two local elections in March 2013, it won 11% of the vote in Carinthia, and 10% of the vote in Lower Austria. It currently has 6/183 National Council seats, 1/62 Federal Council seats, and 0/19 European Parliament seats.

Ewald Stadler, former member of FPÖ (and latter BZÖ) was very eurosceptic but in 2011 ironically became member of the European Parliament due to the Lisbon treaty. Before Stadler accepted the seat, this led to heavy critics by Jörg Leichtfried (SPÖ) "Stadler wants to just rescue his political career" because Stadler before mentioned he would never accept a seat as MEP if this was only due to the Lisbon Treaty.[34] On 23 December 2013 he founded a conservative and eurosceptic party called The Reform Conservatives.

In the 2014 European Elections, the eurosceptic Freedom Party of Austria increased their vote to 19.72% (up 7.01%) gaining 2 new MEP's giving them 4 in total, coming 3rd behind the Austrian People's Party and Social Democratic Party of Austria. EU-STOP (the electoral alliance of the EU Withdrawal Party and the
Neutral Free Austria Federation) polled 2.76% with no seats gained and the Reform Conservatives 1.18% with Team Stronach putting up no candidates.

Belgium

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are Vlaams Belang and Lijst Dedecker.

In the European Parliament election, 2014, Belgium's main anti-EU party Vlaams Belang lost half of its previous vote share, polling 4.26% down 5.59% and losing 1 of its 2 MEP's.

Bulgaria

Volen Siderov, leader of the Bulgarian eurosceptic party Attack.

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are Union of Communists in Bulgaria, NFSB, Attack, and VMRO – BND (also to some degree Bulgaria Without Censorship, which is in a coalition with VMRO – BND, both members of the eurosceptic European Conservatives and Reformists).

In 2011 Bulgaria's Minister of Finance Simeon Djankov stated that ERM II membership to enter the Euro zone would be postponed until after the Eurozone crisis had stabilized.[35]

In the European Parliament election, 2014, Bulgaria remained overwhelmingly pro-EU, with eurosceptic Attack losing 9% to get 2.96% of the vote with the splinter group National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria taking 3.05%, neither getting any MEP's.

Croatia

Parties with eurosceptic views are mainly small right-wing parties like Croatian Party of Rights, Croatian Party of Rights dr. Ante Starčević, Croatian Pure Party of Rights, Autochthonous Croatian Party of Rights, Croatian Christian Democratic Party and Only Croatia – Movement for Croatia.

The Human Blockade party, whose candidate came third in the last presidential election is staunchly eurosceptic.

Czech Republic

Vaclav Klaus, former eurosceptic President of the Czech Republic.

In May 2010, the Czech president Václav Klaus claimed that they "needn't hurry to enter the Eurozone".[36]

Petr Mach, an economist, a close associate of president Václav Klaus and a member of the Civic Democratic Party between 1997 and 2007, founded the Free Citizens Party in 2009. The party aims to mainly attract dissatisfied Civic Democratic Party voters.[37] At the time of the Lisbon Treaty ratification, they were actively campaigning against it, supported by the president Vaclav Klaus, who demanded opt-outs such as were granted to the United Kingdom and Poland,[38][39][40] unlike the governing Civic Democratic Party, who endorsed it in the Chamber of Deputies.[41] After the treaty has been ratified, Mach's party is in favour of withdrawing from the European Union completely.[42] After 2014 European Parliament election, Free Citizens Party have won one mandate and have allied with UKIP in the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy (EFD).

After 2013 Czech legislative election there is in Parliament represented soft eurosceptic Civic Democratic Party (ODS), Dawn - National Coalition (Dawn) which have split into new hard eurosceptic Freedom and Direct Democracy (SPD) in 2015. Position of Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSČM) on European integration is unclear.

Cyprus

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are New Internationalist Left, the Progressive Party of Working People and Committee for a Radical Left Rally.

Denmark

Pia Kjærsgaard, Speaker of the Parliament of Denmark and former leader of the hard eurosceptic party Danish People's Party (Dansk Folkeparti), the second largest represented in the in Danish parliament and the most represented in the European Parliament.

The People's Movement against the EU only takes part in European Parliament elections and has one member in the European Parliament. The pro-EU, but eurosceptic, June Movement, originally a split-off from the People's Movement against the EU, existed from 1992 to 2009.

In the Danish Parliament, the Unity List has withdrawal from the EU as a policy. The Danish People's Party also advocate withdrawal, but has claimed to support some EU structures such as the internal market, and supported the EU-positive Liberal-Conservative coalition 2001–2011.

The Socialist People's Party, minorities within the Social Liberal Party and Social Democratic Party, and some smaller parties were against accession to the European Union in 1972. Still in 1986, these parties advocated a no vote in the Single European Act referendum. Later, the Social Liberal Party changed to a strongly EU-positive party, and EU opposition within the Social Democratic Party faded. The Socialist People's Party were against the Amsterdam Treaty in 1998 and Denmark's joining the euro in 2000, but has become increasingly EU positive, for example when MEP Margrete Auken left the eurosceptic European United Left–Nordic Green Left and joined the The Greens–European Free Alliance in 2004.

In the European Parliament election, 2014, the Danish People's Party came first by a large margin with 26.6% of the vote, gaining 2 extra seats giving it 4 MEP's. The People's Movement against the EU also polled 8.1% retaining their single MEP.

Estonia

The Independence Party and Centre Party were against accession to the EU, but only the Independence Party still wants Estonia to withdraw from the European Union.

Finland

Whereas the current Finnish administration (notably Jutta Urpilainen) has been more hesitant towards the EU monetary policy than the previous ones, Eurobarometers and other polls have shown that among Finnish citizens, the opinion trend has been somewhat reversed during recent years. In Eurobarometer 77 (fieldwork in Spring 2012), 41% of Finns trusted the European Union (EU-27 average: 31%), 51% trusted The European Parliament (EU-27average: 40%), and 74% were in favour of the euro currency (EU-27 average: 52%). The rise of a pro-European sentiment is mainly due to the existent wave of general internationalisation in Finland.

Distinctively a soft eurosceptic Finnish party is The Finns Party, and heavily euroscepticals are supporters of the Independence Party, Communist Party of Finland and Workers Party of Finland.

In the European Parliament election, 2014, the Finns Party increased their vote share by 3.1% to 12.9%, adding a 2nd MEP.

France

Marine Le Pen, prominent French MEP, leader of the National Front (France) and of the Europe of Nations and Freedom group.
Jean-Luc Mélenchon, leader of the soft eurosceptic Left Front in France, advocate of the exit of France from the Eurozone.

In France, many parties are more or less radically eurosceptic, varying from advocating less EU intervention in national affairs to advocating outright withdrawal from the EU as it is and from the Eurozone. These parties belong to all sides of the political spectrum so the reasons for their euroscepticism may differ, but they all opposed the ratification of the Treaty of Lisbon. Many French people are uninterested in such matters: only 40% of the French electorate voted in the 2009 European Parliament elections.[43]

Moderate right-leaning eurosceptic parties include the Gaullist Debout la République, and also the Mouvement pour la France, and Chasse, Pêche, Nature & Traditions, both of which joined Libertas, a pan-European eurosceptic party.[44] In the 2009 European Parliament elections, Debout la République obtained 1.77% of the national vote, and Libertas 4.8%. In a similar way to the moderate parties, the French far right in general is naturally opposed to the EU, as they criticise France's loss of political and economic sovereignty to a supra-national entity. The main far right political party is the Front National (FN).[45] The party obtained 6.5% of the votes, which makes it the largest eurosceptic party in France.

Left-wing eurosceptic parties tend to criticise the liberal agenda of the EU, although they usually support a unification of countries (albeit under a socialist system) and the abolition of national borders. They include the Parti de Gauche and the French Communist Party, which formed the Front de Gauche for the 2009 European Parliament elections and obtained 6.3% of the votes. The leader of the Left Front defends a complete reform of the Monetary Union rather than the withdrawal of France from the Eurozone.[46] The other major far-left eurosceptic parties are the New Anticapitalist Party[47] which obtained 4.8% and Lutte Ouvrière[48] which obtained 1.2%. The Citizen and Republican Movement, a left-wing eurosceptic and souverainist party, did not participate in the 2009 elections.

Popular Republican Union, led by François Asselineau is also a eurosceptic party.

In the European Parliament election, 2014, the National Front won the elections with 24.85% of the vote, a swing of 18.55%, winning 24 seats, up from 3 previously. The French President François Hollande has since called for the EU to be reformed and to scale back its power [49]

Germany

"Referendum on saving the Euro!" Poster from the party Alternative for Germany (AfD) regarding Germany's financial contributions during the Eurozone crisis

The Alternative for Germany is a soft Euro-sceptic party that considers itself pro-Europe and pro-EU, but it opposes the Euro, which it believes has undermined European integration.[50] It has no seats in national but 35 seats in the state parliaments and obtained 4.7% of the vote in the 2013 federal parliamentary elections.

In the European Parliament election, 2014, the Alternative for Germany came 5th with 7% of the vote, winning 7 seats and is a member of the eurosceptic European Conservatives and Reformists. The Alternative for Germany went on to take seats in three state legislatures in the Autumn of 2014.[51] In July 2015 a split from AfD created a new Euroskeptic party called Alliance for Progress and Renewal.

Greece

Alexis Tsipras, soft eurosceptic leader of SYRIZA and Prime Minister of Greece

Communist Party of Greece (KKE), Golden Dawn, Anticapitalist Left Cooperation for the Overthrow, I Don't Pay Movement, SYRIZA, Popular Unity, ANEL and LAOS are the main eurosceptic parties in Greece. According to the London School of Economics, Greece is the 2nd most eurosceptic country in the European Union, with 50% (only behind UK) of the Greeks thinking that their country has not benefited at all from the EU. Meanwhile, 33% of the Greeks views Greek membership in EU as a good thing, marginally ahead of UK. 81% of the Greeks say that the EU is going in the wrong direction. These figures represent a major increase in euroscepticism in Greece since 2009. In June 2012, the eurosceptic parties in Greece that were represented in the parliament before the Election in January 2015 (SYRIZA, ANEL, Golden Dawn, KKE) got 45.8% of the votes and 40.3% of the seats in the parliament. In the legislative election of January 2015 the Pro-European (left and right-wing) parties (ND, PASOK, POTAMI, KIDISO, EK and Prasinoi-DIMAR) got 43.28% of the votes. The eurosceptic parties got 54.64%. The eurosceptic left (SYRIZA, KKE, ANTARSYA-MARS and KKE (m-l)/M-L KKE) got 42.58% of the votes and the eurosceptic right (Golden Dawn, ANEL and LAOS) got 12.06% of the votes, with SYRIZA ahead with 36.34%.The eurosceptic parties got 194 seats in the new parliament and the pro-EU parties got 106 seats.[52] According to the polls conducted in June and July 2015 (12 polls), the eurosceptic left would get on average 48,03% (excluding extraparliamentary parties as ANTARSYA-MARS and KKE (m-l)/ML-KKE), the parliamentary pro-EU parties (Potami, New Democracy and PASOK) would get 33.82%, the extra-parliamentary (not represented in the Hellenic Parliament) pro-EU parties (KIDISO and EK) would get 4.44% and the eurosceptic right would get 10.2% (excluding extraparliamentary parties, such as LAOS, not displayed on recent opinion polls). The soft Eurosceptic parties (particularly SYRIZA) would get 42.31%, the hard Eurosceptic parties (including KKE, ANEL and Golden Dawn) would get 15.85%, and the pro-EU parties (including extra-parliamentary parties displayed on opinion polls) would get 38.27% of the votes.

In the European Parliament election, 2014, SYRIZA won the election with 26.58% of the vote (a swing of 21.88%) taking 6 seats (up 5), with Golden Dawn coming 3rd taking 3 seats, the Communist Party taking 2 seats and the Independent Greeks gaining their first ever seat. SYRIZA 's leader Tsipras said he's not anti-European and does not want to leave the euro. According to the The Economist, Tsipras is willing to negotiate with Greece's European partners, and it is believed a Syriza victory could encourage radical leftist parties across Europe. Alexis Tsipras vowed to reverse many of the austerity measures adopted by Greece since a series of bailouts began in 2010, at odds with the Eurogroup's positions.[53][54] The current government coalition in Greece is composed by SYRIZA (let-wing soft Eurosceptic party, led by Alexis Tsipras) and ANEL (right-wing hard Eurosceptic party, led by Panos Kammenos, who is the current Minister of Defence).

Hungary

Viktor Orbán, Prime Minister of Hungary

Viktor Orbán is the hardline Eurosceptic[55] Prime Minister of Hungary for the national-conservative Fidesz Party. Another hardline Eurosceptic party in Hungary is Jobbik, a radical, xenophobic and Far-right party. In Hungary 31% of the population supports membership in the EU, 28% oppose it and the rest are neutral.[24]

In the Hungarian parliamentary election, 2014, Fidesz got 44.54% of the votes, Jobbik got 20.54% of the votes and the left-wing Hungarian Workers' Party got 0.58% of the votes, turning Hungary into one of the most Eurosceptic countries in Europe (total: 65.66% of the votes).

The green-liberal Politics Can Be Different classifies as a soft or reformist eurosceptic party given its self-professed euro-critical stance. During the European parliamentary campaign of 2014 party Co-President András Schiffer described LMP as having a pronounced pro-integration position on environmental, wage and labour policy however, as supporting member state autonomy on the self-determination of local communities concerning land resources. So as to combat the differentiated integration of the multi-speed Europe which discriminates against Eastern and Southern member states, LMP would like to initiate an eco-social market economy within the union.[56]

Ireland

Gerry Adams, member of the Irish Parliament for Sinn Féin, the 2nd largest in the last European Election and a soft eurosceptic party.

The Irish people voted no to initial referendums on both the Nice and Lisbon Treaties. There were second referendums held on both of these issues, and it was then, following renegotiations that the votes were swayed in favour of the respective 'Yes' campaigns.[57]

In relation to both the Nice and Lisbon treaties, the decision to force second referendums has been the subject of much scrutiny and widespread criticism. It is claimed that rejection of the Irish peoples decision to vote no stands testament to the European Union's lack of regard for democracy and lack of regard for the right of people of nation states to decide their futures.[58]

The left wing republican party Sinn Féin is one party which opposes the current structure of the European Union and the direction it is moving in.[59] Sinn Féin objects to the limitations and restrictions European Union membership has placed on the Republic of Ireland, as well as the European depletion of Irish sovereignty.[60]

The United Left Alliance is an electoral alliance of left-wing political parties and independent politicians in the Republic of Ireland. It shares some common views on Europe with Sinn Féin.[61]

In the European Parliament election, 2014, Sinn Féin won 3 seats coming 2nd with 19.5% of the vote up 8.3%.

Italy

Beppe Grillo, leader of the Italian Five Star Movement, a soft eurosceptic party

The Five Star Movement (M5S), an anti-establishment movement founded by the former comedian Beppe Grillo, can be considered a soft eurosceptic party. The M5S gained 25.5% of vote in the 2013 general election, becoming the largest anti-establishment and eurosceptic party in Europe. The party also advocates a consultive referendum on the withdrawal of Italy from the Eurozone (but not from the European Union) and to return to the lira.[62] The M5S's popular support is evenly distributed all across Italy, but in 2013 the party was particularly strong in Sicily, Liguria and Marche, where it gained more than 30% of the vote.

Matteo Salvini, leader of the Italian Lega Nord, a hard eurosceptic party

Another eurosceptic party is Lega Nord, a regionalist movement led by Matteo Salvini favouring Italy's exit from the Eurozone and the re-introduction of the lira. When in government, LN however approved the Treaty of Lisbon.[63] The party won a mere 4.1% of the vote in 2013, but two of its leading members are Presidents of Lombardy and Veneto (where LN gained 35.2% of the vote in 2010).

Minor eurosceptic parties include the Brothers of Italy, The Right, New Force, Tricolour Flame, I Change and the No Euro Movement.

In the European Parliament election, 2014 the Five Star Movement came 2nd gaining 17 seats and 21.2% of the vote in its first time contesting this election. Lega Nord took 5 seats and The Other Europe with Tsipras gained 3 seats.

According to 18 opinion polls conducted in July 2015, the pro-EU parties that were polled (Democratic Party, Forza Italia, Civic Choice, Union of the Centre and New Centre-Right) would get, on average, 49.5% of the votes, while the eurosceptic parties (Five Star Movement, Lega Nord, Us with Salvini, Left Ecology Freedom and Brothers of Italy) would get 47.05% of the votes.

Latvia

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are National Alliance (For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK/All for Latvia!) and Union of Greens and Farmers.

Lithuania

Party with mainly eurosceptic views is Order and Justice.

Luxembourg

The Alternative Democratic Reform Party is a soft eurosceptic party.[64] It is a member of the Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists.

Malta

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are Labour Party and Libertas Malta.

The Labour Party was not in favour of Malta entering the European Union. They, however were in favour of a partnership with the EU. After a long battle the Nationalist Party led by Eddie Fenech Adami won the referendum and the following election, making Malta one of the states to enter the European Union on 1 May 2004.

Netherlands

Geert Wilders, leader of the Party for Freedom, a hardline Dutch Eurosceptic party and a prominent anti-Islamic radicalism party.

Historically, the Netherlands have been a very pro-European country, being one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952, and campaigning with much effort to include the United Kingdom into the Community in the 1970s and others after that. It has become slightly more eurosceptical in the 2000s, rejecting the European Constitution in 2005 and complaining about the relatively high financial investment into the Union or the alleged democratic deficit amongst other issues.

Despite these concerns, the majority of the Dutch electorate continues to support parties that favour ongoing European integration: the Social Democrats, the Christian Democrats, the Liberals, but most of all the (Liberal) Democrats.[67]

Poland

Lech Kaczyński, a soft eurosceptic and former President of Poland
"Trumna dla rybaków" ("Coffin for fishermen"). A sign visible on the sides of many Polish fishing boats. Polish fishermen protest against the EU's prohibition of cod fishing on Polish ships.

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are KORWiN, Congress of the New Right, National Movement (together with Real Politics Union) and the largest of the political parties Law and Justice, which is a member of the eurosceptic European Conservatives and Reformists. Law and Justice is currently the ruling party in Poland with an absolute majority in parliament. The President is also a member of Law and Justice.

The former president of Poland Lech Kaczyński resisted the signature of the Treaty of Lisbon, namely in what concerned to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Subsequently, Poland got an opt-out from this charter. As Polish President, Kaczyński also slammed the Polish government's intentions to join the eurozone.[68][69]

Portugal

Jerónimo de Sousa, hard eurosceptic leader of the Portuguese Communist Party

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are National Renovator Party, New Democracy Party, MRPP, Portuguese Communist Party, and Left Bloc. Partido Democrático Republicano (pt:Partido Democrático Republicano) is a new centrist soft eurosceptic party. Partido Popular, once a eurosceptic party is now a soft pro-European party member of the EPP. Portugal is the 8th most eurosceptic country in the European Union (not counting with Croatia) as shown by the "The Continent-wide rise of Euroscepticism", with 58% of the people tending not to trust the EU, behind Greece (81%), Spain (72%), UK (69%), Cyprus (64%), Sweden (62%), Czech Republic (60%) and Germany (59%).[70] Of the eurosceptic parties only the Portuguese Communist Party has any seats (15 out of 230) in parliament. The euroscepticism of the left wing prevails in Portugal.

In the European Parliament election, 2014, the Portuguese Communist Party took 3 seats.

Romania

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are the far-right Greater Romania Party, New Republic and left-wing populists of People's Party - Dan Diaconescu (that is collaborating with EUDemocrats), but as May 2014 none of these parties are represented in European Parliament. In Romania there is also a high number of eurosceptics. [71]

Slovakia

Robert Fico, Prime Minister of Slovakia

Parties with primarily hard eurosceptic views are the Slovak National Party,[72] People's Party - Our Slovakia, Freedom and Solidarity and the Conservative Democrats of Slovakia. Prominent Slovak eurosceptic politicians include Richard Sulík and Marian Kotleba. Party with soft eurosceptic views is Direction – Social Democracy.

Slovenia

Party with mainly eurosceptic views is Slovenian National Party and United Left (Slovenia).

Spain

Pablo Iglesias Turrión, Spanish MEP, prominent member of the European United Left–Nordic Green Left group.

Candidatura d'Unitat Popular, a Catalan socialist and independentist party, advocates the independence of Catalan Countries outside of the European Union. Spain is ranked the second most distrustful of the European Union, making it one of the three most eurosceptic countries in the EU, along with the UK and Greece. 72 per cent of the Spanish people do not trust the EU, comparing to only 23% that trust this Union. Nevertheless, it was one of the few countries to vote Yes for the European Constitution in a referendum in February 2005, though by a lower margin in Catalonia and the Basque Country.[73][74]

In the European Parliament election, 2014, the left wing parties Podemos (We Can) gained 5 seats, United Left took 4 seats (up 3), with the Galician Nationalist Brotherhood and the Basque The Peoples Decide gaining one seat each.

Sweden

Anti-EU posters in Sweden

The Left Party of Sweden was against accession to the European Union and still wants Sweden to leave the European Union.[75] The Sweden Democrats are also strongly against the Union and favour withdrawal from the EEA.[76] The Centre Party is moderately sceptic towards the EU as well.

The June List, a eurosceptic list consisting of members from both the political right and left won three seats in the 2004 Elections to the European Parliament and sat in the EU-critical IND/DEM group in the European Parliament.

In general, the people are more eurosceptical than the parties. Around 80% of the Riksdag members represent parties that officially supports the Sweden membership, while polls have given approximately 50% for and 50% against the membership.

In the European Parliament election, 2014, the Sweden Democrats gained 2 seats with 9.67% of the vote, up 6.4%, and the Left Party took one seat with 6.3% of the vote.

United Kingdom

Margaret Thatcher, eurosceptic Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, 1979-1990
Nigel Farage, leader of the UK Independence Party and of the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy group in the European Parliament.
Tony Benn, a British Labour Party politician and a staunch opponent of the EEC and EU.

Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom has been a significant element in British politics since the inception of the European Economic Community (EEC), the predecessor to the EU. The European Union divides the British public, political parties, media and civil society.

Euroscepticism in other countries

Iceland

The two main eurosceptic parties are Independence Party and Progressive Party. The parties won the parliamentary election in April 2013 and they have halted the current negotiations with the European Union regarding Icelandic membership and tabled a parliamentary resolution on 21 February 2013 to withdraw the application completely.

The public opinion was lightly positive in 2008–2009 during the currency crisis. Later the public opinion became more negative, with an average of 70% of those who stated an opinion on membership being negative. In early 2014 the tide turned a bit in the polls with 58% against and 42% for. Paradoxically a large majority has consistently been for proceeding with the EU membership application, the most common reason cited being curiosity about what terms EU will offer.

Israel

Allegations of anti-Israel bias and a new antisemitism from within the EU have been raised by eurosceptics, such as Nigel Farage from the UK Independence Party.[77] Eurosceptic MEPs such as Farage have also criticised an alleged 300 million euros per annum (as of 2009) going to the Palestinian National Authority from the EU.[77]

In 2015, the Israeli Foreign Ministry claimed that "Israel is suspending its diplomatic dialogue with the EU in various forums" due to a policy passed by the EU to label products from the West Bank. Israel condemned that "the EU has chosen, for political reasons, to take such an exceptional and discriminatory step, inspired by the boycott movement, particularly at this time, when Israel is confronting a wave of terrorism targeting any and all of its citizens", the statement read. The statement also said that "there are over 200 other territorial disputes worldwide, including those occurring within the EU or on its doorstep" adding that the policy would "have implications for Israel-EU relations."[78] The Prime Minister of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu, reiterated that the decision was "hypocritical and [set] a double standard", adding that the EU "should be ashamed" of its actions.[79]

Moldova

The two main eurosceptic parties are left-wing Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova which officially declared its main purpose the integration of Moldova in Kremlin-backed Eurasian Economic Union and Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova that also promotes closer ties with Moscow, even if nowadays its leader speech became more soft on the issue of euroscepticism. As of November 2014 both parties are represented in Moldovan Parliament, with 45 MPs out of a total of 101 MPs.

Montenegro

All parliamentary parties in Montenegro officially support the country's bid for accession to the European Union. The only party that rejects the European integration and instead publicly advocates a tighter political and economic integration with Russia is the non-parliamentary right-wing party Serb List.

Norway

Norway has rejected EU membership in two referendums, 1972 and 1994. The Centre Party, Christian Democratic Party, Socialist Left Party, The Red Party and the Liberal Party were against EU-membership in both referendums. The Centre Party, The Red Party and Socialist Left Party are also against the current membership of the European Economic Area.[80] The Liberal Party, the Progress Party, and the Green Party (Norway) have not taken a stance on the issue.

Russia

Vladimir Putin, the Russian president, an outspoken eurosceptic, who successfully promoted an alternative Economic Union with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan - the Eurasian Economic Union.

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are Communist Party of the Russian Federation, United Russia and Liberal Democratic Party of Russia.

Following the 2014 Crimean crisis, the European Union issued sanctions on the Russian Federation "in response to the illegal annexation of Crimea and deliberate destabilisation of a neighbouring sovereign country".[81] In response to this, Alexey Borodavkin – Russia's permanent representative with the UN – said "The EU is committing a direct violation of human rights by its actions against Russia. The unilateral sanctions introduced against us are not only illegitimate according to international law, they also undermine Russian citizens’ freedom of travel, freedom of development, freedom of work and others".[82] In the same year, Russian president Vladimir Putin said: "What are the so-called European values? Maintaining the coup, the armed seizure of power and the suppression of dissent with the help of the armed forces?"[83]

Serbia

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are Democratic Party of Serbia, Serbian Radical Party and Dveri.

Switzerland

Switzerland has long been known for its neutrality in international politics. Swiss voters rejected EEA membership in 1992, and EU membership in 2001. Despite the passing of several referendums calling for closer relations between Switzerland and the European Union such as the adoption of bilateral treaties and the joining of the Schengen Area, a second referendum of the joining of the EEA or the EU is not expected,[84] and the general public remains opposed to joining.[85]

In February 2014, the Swiss voters narrowly approved a referendum limiting the freedom of movement of EU citizens to Switzerland.

Eurosceptic political parties include the Swiss People's Party, which is the largest political party in Switzerland, with 29.4% of the popular vote as of the 2015 election. Smaller eurosceptic parties include, but are not limited to, the Federal Democratic Union, the Ticino League, and the Geneva Citizens' Movement, all of which are considered right-wing parties.

Turkey

Devlet Bahçeli, leader of the Turkish hard eurosceptic party MHP.

The two main eurosceptic parties are the far-right secularist Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), which had 16.29% of the votes, having secured 80 seats in the Parliament, and the Felicity Party (Saadet Partisi), a far-right Sunni Islamist party which has no seats in the Parliament because it had only 2.06% of the votes in the last general election, far below the 10% threshold necessary to be represented in the Parliament.

Many left-wing nationalist and far-left parties hold no seats at parliament but they control many activist and student movements in Turkey. The Patriotic Party (formerly Worker's Party) consider the European Union as a frontrunner of global imperialism.[86][87]

Ukraine

Dmytro Yarosh, leader of the Ukrainian hard eurosceptic party Right Sector.

Parties with mainly eurosceptic views are Party of Regions, Communist Party of Ukraine and Right Sector.

The far-right Ukrainian group Right Sector opposes joining the European Union. It regards the EU as an "oppressor" of European nations.[88]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ "EU-Scepticism vs. Euroscepticism. Re-assessing the Party Positions in the Accession Countries towards EU Membership" in Laursen, Finn (ed.) EU Enlargement: Current Challenges and Strategic Choices, Bruxelles: Peter Lang.
  2. ↑ Kirk, Lisbeth (22 June 2011). "EU scepticism threatens European integration". EU Observer. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
  3. ↑ Therése Hultén "Swedish EU-Scepticism: How is it Compatible with the Support for Enlargement?"
  4. ↑ Mediating the EU: Deciphering the Transformation of Turkish Elites. ProQuest. 2009. p. 202. ISBN 978-1-109-21663-9.
  5. ↑ Matthew (26 October 2011). "Why anti-EUism is not left-wing". Workers' Liberty. Alliance for Workers Liberty. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
  6. ↑ Kopel, David, Silencing opposition in the EU, Davekopel.org, retrieved 18 February 2015
  7. ↑ Hannan, Daniel (14 November 2007). "Why aren't we shocked by a corrupt EU?". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  8. ↑ "Standard Eurobarometer 71 (fieldwork June–July 2009)" (PDF). European Commission. September 2009. pp. 91–3. Retrieved 26 November 2009.
  9. ↑ Han Werts, Marcel Lubbers, and Peer Scheepers (2013) Euro-scepticism and radical right-wing voting in Europe, 2002–2008: Social cleavages, socio-political attitudes and contextual characteristics determining voting for the radical right, European Union Politics, vol. 14 no. 2: 183-205.
  10. 1 2 Chamorel, Patrick. "Anti-Europeanism and Euroscepticism in the United States, No. 2004/25" (PDF). European University Institute. Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies (RSCAS). Retrieved 20 September 2015.
  11. ↑ Daniel Hannan MEP (19 October 2012). "You thought the whole 'EUSSR' thing was over the top? Have a look at this poster". blogs.telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
  12. ↑ Arato, Krisztina; Kaniok, Petr. Euroscepticism and European Integration. CPI/PSRC. p. 162. ISBN 978-953-7022-20-4.
  13. ↑ Harmsen et al (2005), p. 18.
  14. ↑ Gifford, Chris (2008). The Making of Eurosceptic Britain. Ashgate Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-7546-7074-2.
  15. 1 2 Szczerbiak et al (2008), p. 7
  16. ↑ Lewis, Paul G; Webb, Paul D (2003). Pan-European Perspectives on Party Politics. Brill. p. 211. ISBN 978-90-04-13014-2.
  17. ↑ Harmsen et al. (2005), p. 31–2
  18. ↑ Szczerbiak et al (2008), p. 8
  19. ↑ Taggart, Paul; Szczerbiak, Aleks (2001). The Party Politics of Euroscepticism in EU Member and Candidate States (PDF). Sussex European Institute. p. 7. Retrieved 4 August 2015.
  20. ↑ "Radio Prague: Current Affairs". Retrieved 28 July 2013.
  21. ↑ Asselineau, François. "« Européens convaincus » contre « Eurosceptiques » : Le retour de la Sainte Inquisition", Popular Republican Union, 16 December 2010. Retrieved on 29 October 2013.
  22. ↑ De Boissieu, Laurent. "Présidentielle: Ces «petits» candidats qui veulent se faire entendre", La Croix, 15 March 2012. Retrieved on 29 October 2013.
  23. ↑ TNS Opinion and Social (July 2012). "Question A21a.2". Standard Eurobarometer 77 Table of Results (PDF). European Commission. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
    Question: "The interests of (OUR COUNTRY) are well taken into account in the EU."
    • Total agree: 42%
    • Total disagree: 50%
  24. 1 2 TNS Opinion and Social (July 2012). "Question A14". Standard Eurobarometer 77 Table of Results (PDF). European Commission. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
    Question: "In general, does the EU conjure up for you a very positive, fairly positive, neutral, fairly negative of very negative image?
    • Very positive: 3%
    • Fairly positive: 28%
    • Neutral: 39%
    • Fairly negative: 22%
    • Very negative: 6%
  25. 1 2 TNS Opinion and Social (July 2012). Standard Eurobarometer 77 (fieldwork May 2012) (PDF). European Commission. pp. 13–14. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
  26. 1 2 TNS Opinion and Social (July 2012). "Question A13". Standard Eurobarometer 77 Table of Results (PDF). European Commission. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
    Question: "QA13.4 I would like to ask you a question about how much trust you have in certain institutions. For each of the following institutions, please tell me if you tend to trust it or tend not to trust it:
    • European Union:
      • Tend to trust: 31%
      • Tend not to trust: 60%
      • Don't know: 9%
    • National government (of respondent):
      • Tend to trust: 28%
      • Tend not to trust: 67%
      • Don't know: 5%
  27. ↑ Simon Hix; Abdul Noury (17 March 2006), "After Enlargement: Voting Behaviour in the Sixth European Parliament", The Federal Trust for education and research, archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-04-19
  28. ↑ Nordland, Rod (4 October 2008). Charging To The Right. Newsweek. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
  29. ↑ "BZÖ will raus aus der Euro-Zone". Österreich (in German). 21 June 2012. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
  30. ↑ "BZÖ wird "rechtsliberal"". Die Presse (in German). 15 October 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
  31. ↑ "Austrian magnate's new party wants to dump euro". The Irish Times. 23 August 2012. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
  32. ↑ "Stronach-Partei: Gerüchte um vierten Mandatar "falsch"". Die Presse (in German). 26 August 2012. Retrieved 12 May 2012.
  33. ↑ "Zerfallserscheinungen beim BZÖ". Kurier (in German). 12 October 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
  34. ↑ "Leichtfried zu Stadler: Chaos bei BZÖ - EU-Mandat durch Lissabon plötzlich akzeptabel" (in German). 17 December 2009. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
  35. ↑ "Bulgaria puts off Eurozone membership for 2015". Radio Bulgaria. 26 July 2011. Archived from the original on 2012-03-29. Retrieved 2 September 2012.
  36. ↑ Kolyako, Nina. "Czech Republic is in no rush to implement euro". The Baltic Course. Retrieved 4 March 2011.
  37. ↑ Petr Mach zvolen do čela Strany svobodných občanů (in Czech), CZ: CT24, 14 February 2009
  38. ↑ "Svobodní: Výzva senátorům". Svobodni.cz. 2009-02-05. Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
  39. ↑ "Svobodní: Veřejné čtení Lisabonské smlouvy již tuto neděli". Svobodni.cz. 2009-04-15. Archived from the original on 2011-08-20. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
  40. ↑ "Lisbon treaty turmoil as Czechs demand opt-out". The Guardian. 9 October 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  41. ↑ EU Dodges Constitutional Hurdle as Czechs Back Treaty (Update 2), Bloomberg, 18 February 2009
  42. ↑ "Svobodní: Evropa svobodných států". Svobodni.cz. Archived from the original on 2010-09-01. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
  43. ↑ "Européenes : l'UMP en tête, le PS en fort recul" (in French). Le Monde. 7 June 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
  44. ↑ "Européenes : la dynamique inédite du eurosceptcism" (in French). Euros du village. 29 April 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
  45. ↑ "Europe" (in French). Front National. Archived from the original on 2009-10-13. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
  46. ↑ "Résolution du Parti de Gauche sur l’euro" (in French). Worldpress - Politique à Gauche. 10 April 2011. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  47. ↑ "Leur Europe n'est pas la nôtre !" (in French). NPA. 19 May 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
  48. ↑ "L'Europe" (in French). Lutte Ouvrière. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
  49. ↑ "BBC News - EU election: France's Hollande calls for reform of 'remote' EU". Bbc.co.uk. 2014-05-27. Retrieved 2015-01-28.
  50. ↑ German party says 'no' to the euro, 'yes' to the EU | Germany | DW.DE | 11.03.2013. DW.DE (23 February 2013). Retrieved on 15 August 2013.
  51. ↑ "BBC News - German anti-euro AfD party wins seats in east". Bbc.co.uk. 2014-09-15. Retrieved 2015-01-28.
  52. ↑ "Parliamentary Elections January 2015". Ministry of Interior. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
  53. ↑ "Greece turns, Europe wobbles". The Economist. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
  54. ↑ "BBC News - Greece election: Anti-austerity Syriza wins election". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-01-28.
  55. ↑ Batory, A. (2008) ‘Euroscepticism in the Hungarian Party System: Voices from the Wilderness?’ In Taggart, P. and Szczerbiak, A. (eds).
  56. ↑ "hu:Új politikai hangnemet szorgalmaz az LMP" [LMP to encourage new political voice] (in Hungarian). Hungarian News Broadcast. 17 April 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-05-13. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
  57. ↑ Richard Sinnott; Johan A. Elkink (July 2010). "Attitudes and Behaviour in the Second Referendum on the Treaty of Lisbon" (PDF). Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Ireland. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-12-25.
  58. ↑ James Walsh. "The Irish rejection of the Lison Treaty and the EU's democratic deficit" (PDF). Spr.tcdlife.ie. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2010. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  59. ↑ "Sinn Féin Wants To Drag Ireland into Eurosceptic Slipstream of British Tory Party". Ireland for Europe: Media Centre. 9 August 2009.
  60. ↑ "Republican SF argues treaty a further erosion of sovereignty". The Irish Times. 16 May 2012. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
  61. ↑ "Column: Hollande wants to re-negotiate the treaty – but what does that mean for Ireland?". Thejournal.ie. 28 April 2012. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
  62. ↑ "Grillo: «Referendum sull'euro entro un anno". Corriere.it. Retrieved 2015-01-28.
  63. ↑ Caprara, Maurizio (24 July 2008). "Passa all'unanimità il Trattato europeo". Milan: Corriere della Sera.
  64. ↑ Dumont, Patrick; Fehlen, Fernand; Kies, Raphaël; Poirier, Philippe (2006). "Les élections législatives et européennes de 2004 au Grand-Duché de Luxembourg" (PDF) (in French). Chamber of Deputies: 220.
  65. ↑ "PVV: EU-droom is nu nachtmerrie" (in Dutch). NOS. 19 May 2014. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
  66. ↑ "Standpunt: Europese Unie - superstaat nee, samenwerken ja" (in Dutch). SP website. Archived from the original on 2014-05-24. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
  67. ↑ "Stemden we voor of tegen Europa?" (in Dutch). NOS. 23 May 2014. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
  68. ↑ Hilary White (9 April 2008). "Poland Ratifies Lisbon Treaty with Opt-Out from EU Human Rights Charter". Catholic Exchange - Sophia Institute Press. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  69. ↑ "Polish President slams government eurozone drive". timesofmalta.com. 25 May 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  70. ↑ "The Continent-wide rise of Euroscepticism" (PDF). Standard Eurobarometer. 16 October 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-08-14.
  71. ↑ "Euroscepticismul, in crestere în Romania – evolutii in sondajele de opinie" [Euroscepticism up in Romania - evolution in opinion polls] (in Romanian). Infopolitic.ro. 5 September 2005. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  72. ↑
  73. ↑ "The Continent-wide rise of Euroscepticism" (PDF). European Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-08-14. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
  74. ↑ "es:CONSTITUCIÓN EUROPEA - Resultados del Referéndum 2005" [European Constitution - Referendum Results 2005] (in Spanish). European Parliament. 2005. Archived from the original on 2005-02-26.
  75. ↑ Szczerbiak et al (2008), p. 183.
  76. ↑ Vår politik A till Ö | Sverigedemokraterna. Sverigedemokraterna.se (28 June 2011). Retrieved on 15 August 2013.
  77. 1 2 Rocker, Simon (12 March 2009). "UKIP leader attacks 'trendy' Israel-hate in EU Parliament". The Jerusalem Chronicle. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
  78. ↑ "Israel suspends meetings with EU after Brussels’ move to label settlement products". RT. 11 November 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
  79. ↑ "EU sets guidelines on labelling Israeli settlement goods". BBC News Online. 11 November 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
  80. ↑ "NOU 2012: 2: Utenfor og innenfor". Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in Norwegian). 2010. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
  81. ↑ "EU sanctions against Russia over Ukraine crisis"; via the official website of the European Union.
  82. ↑ "Envoy blasts EU anti-Russian sanctions human rights violation". RT. 11 December 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
  83. ↑ "Ukraine dismisses Russia's call for cease-fire". The Boston Globe. 1 September 2014.
  84. ↑ Miserez, Marc-Andre (2012-12-02). "Switzerland poised to keep EU at arm's length". swissinfo. Retrieved 2014-04-10.
  85. ↑ Keiser, Andreas (2012-11-30). "Swiss still prefer bilateral accords with EU". Swissinfo. Retrieved 2014-04-10.
  86. ↑ "Vatan Partisi hariç hepsi NATO ve AB yanlısı! İşte partilerin dış politikaları" [All parties except Homeland Party are pro-NATO and the EU! Here are the foreign policy of the party] (in Turkish). Ulusalkanal.com.tr. 6 May 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  87. ↑ "TKP, NATO'ya, ABD'ye ve Avrupa Birliği'ne neden karşı?" [CAP, NATO, the United States and the European Union against reason?] (in Turkish). Tkp.org.tr. 13 August 2013. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  88. ↑ "Profile: Ukraine's 'Right Sector' movement". BBC News. 21 January 2014.

References

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