Cyclone

This article is about the meteorological phenomenon. For other uses, see Cyclone (disambiguation).
An extratropical cyclone near Iceland on September 4, 2003

In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth.[1][2] This is usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale cyclonic circulations are centered on areas of low atmospheric pressure.[3][4] The largest low-pressure systems are cold-core polar cyclones and extratropical cyclones which lie on the synoptic scale. According to the National Hurricane Center glossary, warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones also lie within the synoptic scale.[5] Mesocyclones, tornadoes and dust devils lie within the smaller mesoscale.[6] Upper level cyclones can exist without the presence of a surface low, and can pinch off from the base of the Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere. Cyclones have also been seen on extraterrestrial planets, such as Mars and Neptune.[7][8] Cyclogenesis describes the process of cyclone formation and intensification.[9] Extratropical cyclones form as waves in large regions of enhanced mid-latitude temperature contrasts called baroclinic zones. These zones contract to form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation closes and intensifies. Later in their life cycle, cyclones occlude as cold core systems. A cyclone's track is guided over the course of its 2 to 6 day life cycle by the steering flow of the cancer or subtropical jet stream.

Weather fronts separate two masses of air of different densities and are associated with the most prominent meteorological phenomena. Air masses separated by a front may differ in temperature or humidity. Strong cold fronts typically feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. They form west of the circulation center and generally move from west to east. Warm fronts form east of the cyclone center and are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. They move poleward ahead of the cyclone path. Occluded fronts form late in the cyclone life cycle near the center of the cyclone and often wrap around the storm center.

Tropical cyclogenesis describes the process of development of tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity, and are warm core.[10] Cyclones can transition between extratropical, subtropical, and tropical phases under the right conditions. Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado formation.[11] Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear.[12] In the Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific oceans, a tropical cyclone is generally referred to as a hurricane (from the name of the ancient Central American deity of wind, Huracan), in the Indian and south Pacific oceans it is called a cyclone, and in the northwestern Pacific it is called a typhoon.[13]

Structure

Comparison between extratropical and tropical cyclones on the weather surface maps.

There are a number of structural characteristics common to all cyclones. A cyclone is a low-pressure area.[14] A cyclone's center (often known in a mature tropical cyclone as the eye), is the area of lowest atmospheric pressure in the region.[14] Near the center, the pressure gradient force (from the pressure in the center of the cyclone compared to the pressure outside the cyclone) and the force from the Coriolis effect must be in an approximate balance, or the cyclone would collapse on itself as a result of the difference in pressure.[15]

Because of the Coriolis effect, the wind flow around a large cyclone is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.[16] Cyclonic circulation is sometimes referred to as contra solem. In the Northern Hemisphere, the fastest winds relative to the surface of the Earth therefore occur on the eastern side of a northward-moving cyclone and on the northern side of a westward-moving one; the opposite occurs in the Southern Hemisphere.[17] (The wind flow around an anticyclone, on the other hand, is clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere.)

Formation

The initial extratropical low-pressure area forms at the location of the red dot on the image. It is usually perpendicular (at a right angle to) the leaf-like cloud formation seen on satellite during the early stage of cyclogenesis. The location of the axis of the upper level jet stream is in light blue.
Tropical cyclones form when the energy released by the condensation of moisture in rising air causes a positive feedback loop over warm ocean waters.[18]

Cyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere (a low-pressure area).[9] Arctic Climatology and Meteorology.[19] Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for several different processes, all of which result in the development of some sort of cyclone. It can occur at various scales, from the microscale to the synoptic scale.

Extratropical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts before occluding later in their life cycle as cold core cyclones.

Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity, and are warm core. They can be extremely dangerous.

[10] Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado formation.[11] Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear.[12] Cyclogenesis is the opposite of cyclolysis, and has an anticyclonic (high-pressure system)equivalent which deals with the formation of high-pressure areas—Anticyclogenesis.[20]

The surface low has a variety of ways of forming. Topography can force a surface low when dense low-level high-pressure system ridges in east of a north-south mountain barrier.[21] Mesoscale convective systems can spawn surface lows which are initially warm core.[22] The disturbance can grow into a wave-like formation along the front and the low will be positioned at the crest. Around the low, flow will become cyclonic, by definition. This rotational flow will push polar air equatorward west of the low via its trailing cold front, and warmer air with push poleward low via the warm front. Usually the cold front will move at a quicker pace than the warm front and "catch up" with it due to the slow erosion of higher density airmass located out ahead of the cyclone and the higher density airmass sweeping in behind the cyclone, usually resulting in a narrowing warm sector.[23] At this point an occluded front forms where the warm air mass is pushed upwards into a trough of warm air aloft, which is also known as a trowal.[24]

Tropical cyclogenesis is the technical term describing the development and strengthening of a tropical cyclone in the atmosphere.[25] The mechanisms through which tropical cyclogenesis occurs are distinctly different from those through which mid-latitude cyclogenesis occurs. Tropical cyclogenesis involves the development of a warm-core cyclone, due to significant convection in a favorable atmospheric environment. There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis: sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures,[26] atmospheric instability, high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere, enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center, a preexisting low-level focus or disturbance, and low vertical wind shear.[27] An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide, with 47 reaching hurricane/typhoon strength, and 20 becoming intense tropical cyclones (at least Category 3 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale).[28]

Synoptic scale

A fictitious synoptic chart of an extratropical cyclone affecting the UK and Ireland. The blue arrows between isobars indicate the direction of the wind, while the "L" symbol denotes the centre of the "low". Note the occluded, cold and warm frontal boundaries.

The following types of cyclones are identifiable in synoptic charts.

Surface-based types

There are three main types surface-based cyclones: Extratropical cyclones, Subtropical cyclones and Tropical cyclones

Extratropical cyclone

Main article: Extratropical cyclone

An extratropical cyclone is a synoptic scale low-pressure weather system that does not have tropical characteristics, being connected with fronts and horizontal gradients in temperature and dew point otherwise known as "baroclinic zones".[29]

The descriptor "extratropical" refers to the fact that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside of the tropics, in the middle latitudes of the planet. These systems may also be described as "mid-latitude cyclones" due to their area of formation, or "post-tropical cyclones" where extratropical transition has occurred,[29][30] and are often described as "depressions" or "lows" by weather forecasters and the general public. These are the everyday phenomena which along with anti-cyclones, drive the weather over much of the Earth.

Although extratropical cyclones are almost always classified as baroclinic since they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient within the westerlies, they can sometimes become barotropic late in their life cycle when the temperature distribution around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with radius.[31] An extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone, if it dwells over warm waters and develops central convection, which warms its core.[32] One intense type of extratropical cyclone that strikes during wintertime is a nor'easter.

Polar low
Main article: Polar low
Polar low over the Barents Sea on February 27, 1987

A polar low is a small-scale, short-lived atmospheric low-pressure system (depression) that is found over the ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Polar lows are cold-core so they can be considered as a subset of extratropical cyclones. Polar lows were first identified on the meteorological satellite imagery that became available in the 1960s, which revealed many small-scale cloud vortices at high latitudes. The most active polar lows are found over certain ice-free maritime areas in or near the Arctic during the winter, such as the Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, Labrador Sea and Gulf of Alaska. Polar lows dissipate rapidly when they make landfall. Antarctic systems tend to be weaker than their northern counterparts since the air-sea temperature differences around the continent are generally smaller . However, vigorous polar lows can be found over the Southern Ocean. During winter, when cold-core lows with temperatures in the mid-levels of the troposphere reach −45 °C (−49 °F) move over open waters, deep convection forms which allows polar low development to become possible.[33] The systems usually have a horizontal length scale of less than 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) and exist for no more than a couple of days. They are part of the larger class of mesoscale weather systems. Polar lows can be difficult to detect using conventional weather reports and are a hazard to high-latitude operations, such as shipping and gas and oil platforms. Polar lows have been referred to by many other terms, such as polar mesoscale vortex, Arctic hurricane, Arctic low, and cold air depression. Today the term is usually reserved for the more vigorous systems that have near-surface winds of at least 17 m/s.[34]

Subtropical

Subtropical Storm Andrea in 2007
Main article: Subtropical cyclone

A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical cyclone and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone. They can form between the equator and the 50th parallel.[35] As early as the 1950s, meteorologists were unclear whether they should be characterized as tropical cyclones or extratropical cyclones, and used terms such as quasi-tropical and semi-tropical to describe the cyclone hybrids.[36] By 1972, the National Hurricane Center officially recognized this cyclone category.[37] Subtropical cyclones began to receive names off the official tropical cyclone list in the Atlantic Basin in 2002.[35] They have broad wind patterns with maximum sustained winds located farther from the center than typical tropical cyclones, and exist in areas of weak to moderate temperature gradient.[35]

Since they form from initially extratropical cyclones which have colder temperatures aloft than normally found in the tropics, the sea surface temperatures required for their formation are lower than the tropical cyclone threshold by three degrees Celsius, or five degrees Fahrenheit, lying around 23 degrees Celsius.[38] This means that subtropical cyclones are more likely to form outside the traditional bounds of the hurricane season. Although subtropical storms rarely have hurricane-force winds, they may become tropical in nature as their cores warm.[39]

Tropical

Main article: Tropical cyclone
2013 Atlantic hurricane season summary map

A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low-pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapour contained in the moist air. They are fueled by a different heat mechanism than other cyclonic windstorms such as nor'easters, European windstorms, and polar lows, leading to their classification as "warm core" storm systems.[10]

Cyclone Catarina, a rare South Atlantic tropical cyclone viewed from the International Space Station on March 26, 2004

The term "tropical" refers to both the geographic origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively in tropical regions of the globe, and their formation in Maritime Tropical air masses. The term "cyclone" refers to such storms' cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. Depending on their location and strength, tropical cyclones are referred to by other names, such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, or simply as a cyclone.

While tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they are also able to produce high waves and damaging storm surge.[40] They develop over large bodies of warm water,[41] and lose their strength if they move over land.[42] This is the reason coastal regions can receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions are relatively safe from receiving strong winds. Heavy rains, however, can produce significant flooding inland, and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the coastline. Although their effects on human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions.[43] They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes, which makes them an important part of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's troposphere.

Many tropical cyclones develop when the atmospheric conditions around a weak disturbance in the atmosphere are favorable. Others form when other types of cyclones acquire tropical characteristics. Tropical systems are then moved by steering winds in the troposphere; if the conditions remain favorable, the tropical disturbance intensifies, and can even develop an eye. On the other end of the spectrum, if the conditions around the system deteriorate or the tropical cyclone makes landfall, the system weakens and eventually dissipates. A tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air masses;[10] From an operational standpoint, a tropical cyclone is usually not considered to become subtropical during its extratropical transition.[44]

Upper level types

Polar cyclone

Main article: Polar cyclone

A polar, sub-polar, or Arctic cyclone (also known as a polar vortex)[45] is a vast area of low pressure which strengthens in the winter and weakens in the summer.[46] A polar cyclone is a low-pressure weather system, usually spanning 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) to 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi), in which the air circulates in a counterclockwise direction in the northern hemisphere, and a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, the polar cyclone has two centers on average. One center lies near Baffin Island and the other over northeast Siberia.[45] In the southern hemisphere, it tends to be located near the edge of the Ross ice shelf near 160 west longitude.[47] When the polar vortex is strong, westerly flow descends to the Earth's surface. When the polar cyclone is weak, significant cold outbreaks occur.[48]

TUTT cell

Under specific circumstances, upper cold lows can break off from the base of the Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough (TUTT), which is located mid-ocean in the Northern Hemisphere during the summer months. These upper tropospheric cyclonic vortices, also known as TUTT cells or TUTT lows, usually move slowly from east-northeast to west-southwest, and generally do not extend below 20,000 feet in altitude. A weak inverted surface trough within the trade wind is generally found underneath them, and they may also be associated with broad areas of high-level clouds. Downward development results in an increase of cumulus clouds and the appearance of a surface vortex. In rare cases, they become warm-core, resulting in the vortex becoming a tropical cyclone. Upper cyclones and upper troughs which trail tropical cyclones can cause additional outflow channels and aid in their intensification process. Developing tropical disturbances can help create or deepen upper troughs or upper lows in their wake due to the outflow jet emanating from the developing tropical disturbance/cyclone.[49][50]

Mesoscale

The following types of cyclones are not identifiable in synoptic charts.

Mesocyclone

Main article: Mesocyclone

A mesocyclone is a vortex of air, 2.0 kilometres (1.2 mi) to 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) in diameter (the mesoscale of meteorology), within a convective storm.[51] Air rises and rotates around a vertical axis, usually in the same direction as low-pressure systems in both northern and southern hemisphere. They are most often cyclonic, that is, associated with a localized low-pressure region within a supercell.[52] Such storms can feature strong surface winds and severe hail. Mesocyclones often occur together with updrafts in supercells, where tornadoes may form. About 1700 mesocyclones form annually across the United States, but only half produce tornadoes.[11]

Tornado

Main article: Tornado

A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Also referred to as twisters, a collequial term in America, or cyclones, although the word cyclone is used in meteorology, in a wider sense, to name any closed low-pressure circulation.

Dust devil

Main article: Dust devil

A dust devil is a strong, well-formed, and relatively long-lived whirlwind, ranging from small (half a metre wide and a few metres tall) to large (more than 10 metres wide and more than 1000 metres tall). The primary vertical motion is upward. Dust devils are usually harmless, but can on rare occasions grow large enough to pose a threat to both people and property.

Waterspout

Main article: Waterspout

A waterspout is a columnar vortex forming over water that is, in its most common form, a non-supercell tornado over water that is connected to a cumuliform cloud. While it is often weaker than most of its land counterparts, stronger versions spawned by mesocyclones do occur.

Steam devil

Main article: Steam devil

A gentle vortex over calm water or wet land made visible by rising water vapour.

Other planets

Cyclone on Mars, imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope

Cyclones are not unique to Earth. Cyclonic storms are common on Jovian planets, such as the Small Dark Spot on Neptune. It is about one third the diameter of the Great Dark Spot and received the nickname "Wizard's Eye" because it looks like an eye. This appearance is caused by a white cloud in the middle of the Wizard's Eye.[8] Mars has also exhibited cyclonic storms.[7] Jovian storms like the Great Red Spot are usually mistakenly named as giant hurricanes or cyclonic storms. However, this is inaccurate, as the Great Red Spot is, in fact, the inverse phenomenon, an anticyclone.[53]

References

  1. ↑ Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). "Cyclonic circulation". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2008-09-17.
  2. ↑ Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). "Cyclone". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2008-09-17.
  3. ↑ BBC Weather Glossary (July 2006). "Cyclone". British Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2006-08-29. Retrieved 2006-10-24.
  4. ↑ "UCAR Glossary — Cyclone". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2006-10-24. External link in |publisher= (help)
  5. ↑ National Hurricane Center (2012). Glossary of NHC terms. Retrieved on 2012-08-13.
  6. ↑ I. Orlanski (1975). "A rational subdivision of scales for atmospheric processes". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 56 (5): 527–530.
  7. 1 2 David Brand (1999-05-19). "Colossal cyclone swirling near Martian north pole is observed by Cornell-led team on Hubble telescope". Cornell University. Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
  8. 1 2 Samantha Harvey (2006-10-02). "Historic Hurricanes". NASA. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
  9. 1 2 Nina A. Zaitseva (2006). "Cyclogenesis". National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved 2006-12-04.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Stan Goldenberg (2004-08-13). "Frequently Asked Questions: What is an extra-tropical cyclone?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
  11. 1 2 3 Forces of Nature. Tornadoes : the mesocyclone. Retrieved on 2008-06-15.
  12. 1 2 National Weather Service Key West summary of waterspout types: http://www.srh.noaa.gov/eyw/HTML/spoutweb.htm
  13. ↑ "Frequently asked questions". Hurricane Research Division.
  14. 1 2 Chris Landsea and Sim Aberson (August 13, 2004). "Subject: A11) What is the "eye"? How is it formed and maintained ? What is the "eyewall"? What are "spiral bands"?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved 2009-12-28.
  15. ↑ "The Atmosphere in Motion" (PDF). University of Aberdeen. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  16. ↑ Chris Landsea (2009-02-06). "Subject: D3) Why do tropical cyclones' winds rotate counterclockwise (clockwise) in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved 2009-12-28.
  17. ↑ "Are the winds on one side of a hurricane faster than on the other side?". Ask the Experts: Hurricanes. USA Today. November 11, 2007. Retrieved September 9, 2011.
  18. ↑ Kerry Emanuel (January 2006). "Anthropogenic Effects on Tropical Cyclone Activity". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2008-02-25.
  19. ↑ Cyclogenesis. Retrieved on 2006-12-04.
  20. ↑ Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). "Cyclogenesis". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-12-28.
  21. ↑ COMET Program Flow Interaction With Topography
  22. ↑ Raymond D. Menard, and J.M. Fritsch (June 1989). "A Mesoscale Convective Complex-Generated Inertially Stable Warm Core Vortex". Monthly Weather Review 117 (6): 1237–1261. Bibcode:1989MWRv..117.1237M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1989)117<1237:AMCCGI>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
  23. ↑ Glenn Elert (2006). "Density of Air". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
  24. ↑ St. Louis University (2004-09-06). "What is a trowal?". National Weather Association. Archived from the original on June 8, 2008. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
  25. ↑ Nina A. Zaitseva (2006). "Definition for Cyclogenesis". National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
  26. ↑ Cyclon in a board
  27. ↑ Chris Landsea (2009-02-06). "Subject: A15) How do tropical cyclones form ?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
  28. ↑ Chris Landsea (2000-01-04). "Climate Variability table — Tropical Cyclones". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved 2006-10-19.
  29. 1 2 Dr. DeCaria (2005-12-07). "ESCI 241 – Meteorology; Lesson 16 – Extratropical Cyclones". Department of Earth Sciences, Millersville University, Millersville, Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on September 3, 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-21. External link in |publisher= (help)
  30. ↑ Robert Hart and Jenni Evans (2003). "Synoptic Composites of the Extratropical Transition Lifecycle of North Atlantic TCs as Defined Within Cyclone Phase Space" (PDF). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2006-10-03. External link in |publisher= (help)
  31. ↑ Ryan N. Maue (2008). "Chapter 3: Cyclone Paradigms and Extratropical Transition Conceptualizations". Florida State University. Archived from the original on 2008-05-10. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
  32. ↑ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. "Frequently Asked Questions: What is an extra-tropical cyclone?". NOAA. Retrieved 2006-07-25.
  33. ↑ Erik A. Rasmussen and John Turner (2003). Polar lows: mesoscale weather systems in the polar regions. Cambridge University Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-521-62430-5. Retrieved 2011-01-27.
  34. ↑ E. A. Rasmussen and J. Turner (2003). Polar Lows: Mesoscale Weather Systems in the Polar Regions. Cambridge University Press. p. 612. ISBN 978-0-521-62430-5.
  35. 1 2 3 Chris Landsea (2009-02-06). "Subject: A6) What is a sub-tropical cyclone?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved 2009-12-27.
  36. ↑ David B. Spiegler (April 1973). "Reply" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review 101 (4): 380. Bibcode:1973MWRv..101..380S. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1973)101<0380:R>2.3.CO;2. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
  37. ↑ R. H. Simpson and Paul J. Hebert (April 1973). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1972" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review 101 (4): 323. Bibcode:1973MWRv..101..323S. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1973)101<0323:AHSO>2.3.CO;2. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
  38. ↑ David Mark Roth (2002-02-15). "A Fifty year History of Subtropical Cyclones" (PDF). Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Retrieved 2006-10-04. External link in |publisher= (help)
  39. ↑ Chris Landsea (2009-02-06). "Frequently Asked Questions: What is a sub-tropical cyclone?". NOAA. Retrieved 2009-12-27.
  40. ↑ James M. Shultz, Jill Russell and Zelde Espinel (2005). "Epidemiology of Tropical Cyclones: The Dynamics of Disaster, Disease, and Development". Oxford Journal. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
  41. ↑ Chris Landsea (2009-02-06). "Frequently Asked Questions: How do tropical cyclones form?". NOAA. Retrieved 2006-07-26.
  42. ↑ Sim Aberson (2009-02-06). "Subject : C2) Doesn't the friction over land kill tropical cyclones?". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2008-02-25.
  43. ↑ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005 Tropical Eastern North Pacific Hurricane Outlook. Retrieved on 2006-05-02.
  44. ↑ Padgett, Gary (2001). "Monthly Global Tropical Cyclone Summary for December 2000". Retrieved 2006-03-31.
  45. 1 2 Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). "Polar vortex". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
  46. ↑ Halldór Björnsson (2005-01-19). "Global circulation". Veðurstofa Íslands. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
  47. ↑ Rui-Rong Chen, Don L. Boyer, and Lijun Tao (December 1993). "Laboratory Simulation of Atmospheric Motions in the Vicinity of Antarctica". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 50 (24): 4058–4079. Bibcode:1993JAtS...50.4058C. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1993)050<4058:LSOAMI>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
  48. ↑ James E. Kloeppel (2001-12-01). "Stratospheric polar vortex influences winter freezing, researchers say". University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign via the Internet Wayback Machine. Archived from the original on 2001-12-24. Retrieved 2009-12-27.
  49. ↑ Clark Evans (January 5, 2006). "Favorable trough interactions on tropical cyclones". Flhurricane.com. Retrieved 2006-10-20.
  50. ↑ Deborah Hanley, John Molinari, and Daniel Keyser (October 2001). "A Composite Study of the Interactions between Tropical Cyclones and Upper-Tropospheric Troughs". Monthly Weather Review (American Meteorological Society) 129 (10): 2570–84. Bibcode:2001MWRv..129.2570H. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<2570:ACSOTI>2.0.CO;2.
  51. ↑ Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). "Mesocyclone". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2006-12-07.
  52. ↑ National Weather Service Forecast Office State College, Pennsylvania (2006-07-16). "Splitting Storm and Anti-cyclonic Rotating Mesocyclone in a Thunderstorm over Elk County July 10th, 2006". Retrieved 2008-06-15.
  53. ↑ Ellen Cohen (2009). "Jupiter's Great Red Spot". Hayden Planetarium. Retrieved 2007-11-16. External link in |publisher= (help)

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