Chinglish

This article is about the word. For the play, see Chinglish (play).
A warning sign in Guilin states in Chinese: (When there are) thunderstorms / Please do not climb the mountain. This sign demonstrates the complexity of translation. "Lighting-prone area/ Please do not climbing."

Chinglish refers to spoken or written English language that is macaronically influenced by the Chinese language.[1] Meanwhile, in Hong Kong, Macau, and Guangdong, the term "Chinglish" refers mainly to Cantonese-influenced English. This term is commonly applied to ungrammatical or nonsensical English in Chinese contexts, and may have pejorative or deprecating connotations.[2] Other terms used to describe the phenomenon include "Chinese English", "China English", and "Sinicized English".[3] The degree to which a Chinese variety of English exists or can be considered legitimate is disputed.[4]

Terminology

The English word Chinglish is a portmanteau of Chinese and English. The Chinese equivalent is Zhōngshì Yīngyǔ (simplified Chinese: 中式英语; traditional Chinese: 中式英語; literally: "Chinese-style English").

Chinglish can be compared with other interlanguage varieties of English, such as Britalian (from Italian), Czenglish (from Czech), Denglisch (German), Dunglish (Dutch), Franglais (French), Greeklish (Greek), Spanglish (Spanish), Swenglish (Swedish), Hunglish (Hungarian), Heblish (Hebrew), Engrish (Japanese), Hinglish (Hindi), Konglish (Korean), Singlish (in Singapore) and Tinglish (Thai).

The Oxford English Dictionary defines the noun and adjective.

Chinglish, n. and a. colloq. (freq. depreciative). Brit. /ˈtʃɪŋglɪʃ/, U.S. /ˈtʃɪŋ(g)lɪʃ/. Forms: 19– Chinglish, 19– Chenglish [rare]. [Blend of Chinese n. and English n. Compare earlier Japlish n., Spanglish n. Compare also Hinglish n.2, Singlish n.2]

A. n. A mixture of Chinese and English; esp. a variety of English used by speakers of Chinese or in a bilingual Chinese and English context, typically incorporating some Chinese vocabulary or constructions, or English terms specific to a Chinese context. Also: the vocabulary of, or an individual word from, such a variety. Cf. Singlish n.2

B adj. Of or relating to Chinglish; expressed in Chinglish.[5]

This dictionary cites the earliest recorded usage of Chinglish (noted as a jocular term) in 1957 and of Chinese English in 1857.[6]

Chinglish commonly refers to a mixture of English with Modern Standard Mandarin, but it occasionally refers to mixtures with Cantonese,[7] Shanghainese and Taiwanese Hokkien.[8]

Chinglish contrasts with some related terms. Chinese Pidgin English was a lingua franca that originated in the seventeenth century. Zhonglish, a term for Chinese influenced by English, is a portmanteau of Zhōngwén (中文 "Chinese language") and "English".[9][10]

Some peculiar Chinese English cannot be labeled Chinglish because it is grammatically correct, and Mair calls this emerging dialect "Xinhua English or New China News English", based on the Xinhua News Agency. Take for instance, this headline: "China lodges solemn representation over Japan's permission for Rebiya Kadeer's visit". This unusual English phrase literally translates the original Chinese tichu yanzheng jiaoshe (提出嚴正交涉 "lodge solemn representation"), combining tichu "put forward; raise; pose bring up", yanzheng "serious; stern; unyielding; solemn", and jiaoshe "mutual relations; negotiation; representation".[11] "Pure Chinese" is an odd English locution in a Web advertisement: "孔子學院/ CONFUCIUS INSTITUTE/ Teach you pure Chinese." This Kongzi Xueyuan (孔子學院) is Chinese for the Confucius Institute, but Mair notes that "pure Chinese" curiously implies "impure Chinese".[12]

One author divides Chinglish into "instrumental" and "ornamental" categories. "Instrumental Chinglish is actually intended to convey information to English speakers. Ornamental Chinglish is born of the fact that English is the lingua franca of coolness. Meaning aside, any combination of roman letters elevates a commodity – khaki pants, toilet paper, potato chips – to a higher plane of chic by suggesting that the product is geared toward an international audience."[13]

History

English first arrived in China in 1637, when British traders reached Macao and Guangzhou (or Canton).[14] In the 17th century, Chinese Pidgin English originated as a lingua franca for trade between British people and mostly Cantonese-speaking Chinese people. This proto-Chinglish term "pidgin" originated as a Chinese mispronunciation of the English word "business".[15] Following the First and Second Opium War between 1839–1842, Pidgin English spread north to Shanghai and other treaty ports.[16] Pidgin usage began to decline in the late 19th century when Chinese and missionary schools began teaching Standard English.[17] In 1982, the People's Republic of China made English the main foreign language in education.[18] Current estimates for the number of English learners in China range from 300 to 500 million.[19]

Chinglish may have influenced some English expressions that are "calques" or "loan translations" from Chinese Pidgin English, for instance, "lose face" derives from diulian 丟臉 "lose face; be humiliated." Some sources claim "long time no see" is a Chinglish calque from hǎojiǔbújiàn 好久不見 "long time no see".[20][21] More reliable references note this jocular American English phrase "used as a greeting after prolonged separation" was first recorded in 1900 for a Native American's speech, and thus more likely derives from American Indian Pidgin English.[22][23]

Chinese officials carried out campaigns to reduce Chinglish in preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing and the Expo 2010 in Shanghai.

Soon after the International Olympic Committee selected Beijing in 2001, the Beijing Tourism Bureau established a tipster hotline for Chinglish errors on signs, such as emergency exits at the Beijing airport reading "No entry on peacetime".[24] In 2007, the Beijing Speaks Foreign Languages Program (BSFLP) reported they had, "worked out 4,624 pieces of standard English translations to substitute the Chinglish ones on signs around the city", for instance, "Be careful, road slippery" instead of "To take notice of safe: The slippery are very crafty." BSFLP chairperson Chen Lin said, "We want everything to be correct. Grammar, words, culture, everything. Beijing will have thousands of visitors coming. We don't want anyone laughing at us."[25] Reporting from Beijing, Ben Macintyre lamented the loss of signs like "Show Mercy to the Slender Grass" because, "many of the best examples of Chinglish are delightful, reflecting the inventiveness that results when two such different languages collide".[26] The Global Language Monitor doubted that Beijing's attempt to eradicate Chinglish could succeed; noting that "we share the charm and joy of the Olympic Games" is found on the official website of the Beijing Olympics.[27] "Hundreds of scholars have proofed the site and decided that the word charm is most appropriate in describing the Games."[28]

In Shanghai, for Expo 2010, a similar effort was made to replace Chinglish signage. A New York Times article by Andrew Jacobs[29] reported on accomplishments by the Shanghai Commission for the Management of Language Use. "Fortified by an army of 600 volunteers and a politburo of adroit English speakers, the commission has fixed more than 10,000 public signs (farewell "Teliot" and "urine district"), rewritten English-language historical placards and helped hundreds of restaurants recast offerings." [30] James Fallows attributed many Shanghai Chinglish errors to "rote reliance on dictionaries or translation software", citing a bilingual sign reading "餐廳 Translate server error" (canting 餐廳 means "dining room; restaurant"). While conceding that "there's something undeniably Colonel Blimp-ish in making fun of the locals for their flawed command of your own mother tongue", Fallows observed a Shanghai museum with "Three Georges Dam" banners advertising a Three Gorges Dam exhibit, and wrote, "it truly is bizarre that so many organizations in China are willing to chisel English translations into stone, paint them on signs, print them on business cards, and expose them permanently to the world without making any effort to check whether they are right."[31] On a Chinese airplane, Fallows was given a wet wipe labeled "Wet turban needless wash", translating mianxi shijin (免洗濕巾 lit. "wash-free moist towel").[32] Shanghai's Luwan District published a controversial "Bilingual Instruction of Luwan District for Expo" phrasebook with English terms and Chinese characters approximating pronunciation: "Good morning! (古的貓寧)" [pronounced gu de mao ning] (which could be literally translated as "ancient cat tranquility") and "I'm sorry (俺麼搔瑞)" [an me sao rui] (which is nonsensical).[33]

Chinglish is pervasive in present-day China "on public notices in parks and at tourist sites, on shop names and in their slogans, in product advertisements and on packages, in hotel names and literature, in restaurant names and on menus, at airports, railway stations and in taxis, on street and highway signs – even in official tourist literature."[34]

The Global Language Monitor predicts Chinglish will thrive, and estimates that roughly 20 percent of new English words derive from Chinglish, for instance, shanzhai (山寨; literally "mountain stronghold; mountain village") meaning "counterfeit consumer goods; things done in parody"[35][36] — Huang Youyi, president of the China Internet Information Center, predicts that linguistic purism could be damaged by popular Chinese words of English origin (such as OK and LOL). "If we do not pay attention and we do not take measures to stop Chinese mingling with English, Chinese will no longer be a pure language in a couple of years."[37]

Specifying Chinglish to mean "Chinese words literally translated into English", an experiment in linguistic clarity found that mathematical terms are more readily understandable in Chinglish than English.[38] English words for mathematics typically have Greek and Latin roots, while corresponding Chinese words are usually translations of neologisms from Western languages; thus quadrilateral (from Latin quadri- "four" and latus "sided") is generally less informative than Chinese sibianxing 四邊形 (literally, "four-side-shape"). For example, compare the semantic clarity of English axiom, Chinese gongli 公理, and Chinglish (literal translation) "universal-principle"; median, zhongshu 中数, and "centre-number"; or trapezoid, tixing 梯形, and "ladder-figure". The study involved three groups of mathematics teachers who rated the clarity of 71 common mathematical terms. Group 1 with native speakers of Chinese judged 61% of the Chinese terms as clear; Group 2 with native speakers of English judged 45% of the English terms as clear. Group 3 with English-speaking teachers (both native and nonnative speakers) judged the comparative clarity of English and Chinglish word pairs: more clear for 42.3% of the Chinglish and 5.6% of the English, equally clear for 25.4% of the Chinglish-English pairs, and neither clear for 19.7%.

Features

Chinglish is the combination of the Chinese culture and the English language. China English has linguistic characteristics that are different from the normative English in all linguistic levels, including phonology, lexicon, syntax, and discourse.[39]

At the phonological level, Chinglish does not differentiate between various vowel qualities because they don't exist in Chinese. As a result, there is no contrast between the two sounds for Chinglish speakers. For example, ‘cheap’ and ‘chip’ would be the same pronunciation. Another phonological feature is that speakers are unaware of the “graduation” [40] of words which are said in different tones depending on the context. The word ‘for’ is stressed and said differently in the phrases “what is it for?” and “this is for you.” To a Chinglish speaker, the two are the same. In addition, Chinglish speakers use Chinese phonological units to speak English, which gives them the notable accent.

At the lexical level, China English manifests itself through many ways such as transliteration and loan translations. Transliteration has brought many interesting words and expressions from the Chinese language into English. Speakers are able to merge the two because of pinyin, a Latin alphabet used to write Chinese. In loan translations, Chinese words have been translated directly into English. This phenomenon can be found in a lot of compound words like red bean, bean curd, and teacup. The other way that loan translations are made is when speakers translate Chinese terms into English. These words come from the Chinese culture and are ideas, thoughts, or expressions that do not exist in English. For example, ‘spring rolls’ would otherwise not have meaning in English if not for Chinglish speakers making it a loan translation to describe the food. In addition, speakers use subordinate conjunctions differently and also exhibit copula absence in their speech. Examples include "Because I am ill, so I can't go to school" and "The dress beautiful." [41]

As Chinese grammar does not distinguish between definite and indefinite articles, Chinese speakers struggle with when to use or not use the English definite article "the".

At the syntactic level, Chinese thinking has influenced Chinglish speakers to utilize a different sequence and structure to make sentences. For English speakers, a common sequence is subject → predicate → object → adverbial.[42] On the other hand, the Chinese sequence is subject → adverbial → predicate → object. Chinese speakers tend to leave the most important information at the back of the sentence, while English speakers present it at the front.

Linguists and language teachers employ error analysis to fathom Chinglish. Liu et al. list four characteristic features of Chinglish mistranslations,[43]

Chinglish reflects the influence of Chinese syntax and grammar.[45] For instance, Chinese verbs are not necessarily conjugated and there is no equivalent article for English "the", both of which can create awkward translations.

Causes

Chinglish has various causes, most commonly erroneous Chinese dictionaries and translation software (mentioned above by Fallows).

One should differentiate root and ancillary causes of Chinglish. The root causes are outdated Chinese-English dictionaries and incorrect English as a foreign language textbooks. Ancillary causes include misspelling, mediocre English-language teaching, sloppy translation, and reliance on outdated translation technology. Liu, Feather and Qian warn that

today's English-language publishers and teachers in China are passing on obsolete translations and incorrect rules of language to students. In turn, Chinglish gets duplicated across society, particularly now during today's period of rapid opening to the outside world and the widespread use of English. The resultant flood of Chinglish will perpetuate unless it is corrected now.[46]

Common causes include:

Vocabulary

Wrong using of words could be a part of Chinglish (for example, a Chinglish speaker would say "to enter Jingzhang Expressway" rather than "to put in Jingzhang Expressway"). Some words are generally confused by most Chinglish speakers, for example, they would use "emergent" to refer to "emergency" or "urgent", because of the misuse of some dictionaries.[52]

In Chinglish, "I know" is generally used instead of the term "I see", which are used to tell others that you understand what they said.

"See", "watch", "read", "look", all of them refer to "看" in Chinese. For example, "看电影" means "to see a film" or "to watch movie", "看书" means "to read a book", "看着我" means "to look at me". Because of that, Chinglish speakers always use "look" instead of "see", "watch", or "read". The same phenomena can be found in the use of "speak", "say", and "talk". For Chinglish speakers, the expression "Can you say Chinese?" means "Do you speak Chinese?"[53]

The other misuse of vocabulary is that of "to turn on/off" and "open/close". Chinese speakers use "关" to refer to turn off things like electrical appliance or to close something like door and window. Accordingly, a Chinglish speaker would say "close the light" instead of "turn off the light". In the same way, they would say "open the TV" instead of "turn on the TV". (In spite of this, Chinglish speakers seldom or never use "turn off the window" to mean "close the window".)[54]

Examples

Collections of Chinglish are found on numerous websites (see below) and books.[55][56][57] Owing to the ubiquity of Chinglish mistakes throughout the Sinophone world, the following examples will exclude common misspellings (e.g., "energetically Englsih-friendly environment")[58] and typographical errors (a bilingual bus sign reading "往 不知道 To unknow"; wang 往 means "to; toward" and buzhidao 不知道 "don't know")[59] that can occur anywhere in the English-speaking world.

A sign over a sink in Xicheng advising of "No soliciting and whoring prostitutes"
A multilingual sign on a door uses the unusual Scottish English word steek ("shut") instead of close.
A sign at the bus station in ShaoWu, Fujian province.
A light-colored sign with Chinese characters and "Note that the level of gap" written on it in blue
The ubiquitous "Mind the gap" in Chinglish on a Shanghai Ferry dock
From a pair of shorts purchased in Huwei, Taiwan

See also

References

  1. ↑ Jing, Xiao and Zuo, Niannian. (2006). "Chinglish in the oral work of non-English majors". CELEA Journal Vol. 29, No. 4
  2. ↑ Nury Vittachi (2000) From Yinglish to sado-mastication. World Englishes 19 (3), 405–414 doi:10.1111/1467-971X.00189
  3. ↑ He, Deyuan & Li, David C.S. (2009). Language attitudes and linguistic features in the 'China English' debate. World Englishes Vol. 28, No. 1
  4. ↑ Hu, Xiaoqiong. (2004). "Why China English should stand alongside British, American, and the other ‘world Englishes’." English Today. 78 (20.2). 26–33
  5. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary online edition, 2004.
  6. ↑ Maurice Freedman (1957, 1970). Chinese Family and Marriage in Singapore, Johnson Reprint Corp., p. 101. "The noun ‘keep’ is sometimes used in Chinese-English. [Note] Sometimes jocularly referred to as ‘Chinglish’." S.v., lingua. Matthew C. Perry and Robert Tomes (1857). The Americans in Japan: an abridgment of the government narrative of the U.S. expedition to Japan. D. Appelton. p. 179. "Many of the women speak a little of the lingua called Chinese English, or, in the cant phrase, pigeon [sic]."
  7. ↑ "Foreign tongues: Hong Kong.(corruption of English and Chinese in Hong Kong)" The Economist 2 March 1996.
  8. ↑ Daniel J. Bauer, "Chinglish a problem for teachers", The China Post 10 May 2009.
  9. ↑ Victor Mair, "Xinhua English and Zhonglish", Language Log, 4 February 2009.
  10. ↑ Victor Mair, "Zhonglish: a high-impact ride?", Language Log, 13 June 2010.
  11. ↑ Victor Mair, "Protests, Complaints, and Representations", Language Log, 29 July 2009.
  12. ↑ Victor Mair, "Pure Chinese?", Language Log, 28 August 2010.
  13. ↑ Abigail Lavin (2008), "Feudal to Translate", Weekly Standard 31 March 2008.
  14. ↑ Yamuna Kachru and Cecil L. Nelson (2006), World Englishes in Asian Contexts. Hong Kong University Press, p. 157.
  15. ↑ Online Etymology Dictionary
  16. ↑ Kachru and Nelson (2006), p. 158.
  17. ↑ McArthur, Tom. (2002). Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  18. ↑ Lam, A. (2002). English in education in China: policy changes and learners’. experiences. World Englishes, 21(2), 245–256
  19. ↑ McArthur (2002)
  20. ↑ Andrew Jacobs (2 May 2010). "Shanghai Is Trying to Untangle the Mangled English of Chinglish". New York Times. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  21. ↑ Wiktionary
  22. ↑ 'Oxford English Dictionary, online edition, 2004, s.v. long, a., 7.c.
  23. ↑ Eric Partridge, Tom Dalzell, Terry Victor (2006). The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English: J-Z, p. 1229.
  24. ↑ BBC News (2006/10/15) – Beijing stamps out poor English
  25. ↑ Beijing getting rid of badly translate signs [sic], China Daily 27 February 2007. In addition, this article misspells "Chinglis".
  26. ↑ Who could resist the temptation of a plate of worm pig stomach?, The Times 15 August 2008.
  27. ↑ Olympic Spirit, The Official Website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games
  28. ↑ Will the Beijing Olympics Finally Eradicate Chinglish?, Global Language Monitor, 30 July 2008.
  29. ↑ A Sampling of Chinglish, New York Times, 2 May 2010.
  30. ↑ Jacobs (2010).
  31. ↑ James Fallows, "Uncle! Or let's make that, 叔叔!", The Atlantic, 6 August 2010
  32. ↑ Mark Lieberman, "Wet turban needless wash", Language Log, 5 August 2010.
  33. ↑ Chinglish booklet stirs debate ahead of Expo, People's Daily Online 21 January 2010.
  34. ↑ Huimei Liu, Frank Feather, and Wei Qian (2004), Lost in Translation: Millions of Tourists to China are Confused by a Myriad of "Chinglish" Misinterpretations, US-China Foreign Language 2.10, p. 17.
  35. ↑ Global Language Monitor: Many Chinglish into English, People's Daily Online, 7 February 2006.
  36. ↑ Chinglish: Creativity for English Language, CCTV International, 26 February 2007.
  37. ↑ Malcolm Moore, "Chinese language 'damaged by invasion of English words'", The Telegraph, 15 March 2010.
  38. ↑ Yi Han and Herbert P. Ginsberg (2001), "Chinese and English Mathematics Language: The Relation Between Linguistic Clarity and Mathematics Performance", Mathematical Thinking and Learning 3, pp. 201–220.
  39. ↑ Pingxia, Liu, and Quynh Lê. "China English and Its Linguistic Features." Ed. Thao Lê. Language, Society and Culture Journal 25 (2008): n. pag. Web. 6 August 2014. <http://www.educ.utas.edu.au/users/tle/journal/issues/2008/25-3.pdf>.
  40. ↑ Pingxia, Liu, and Quynh Lê. "China English and Its Linguistic Features." Ed. Thao Lê. Language, Society and Culture Journal 25 (2008): n. pag. Web. 6 August 2014. <http://www.educ.utas.edu.au/users/tle/journal/issues/2008/25-3.pdf>.
  41. ↑ Wang, You. "Chinglish: An Emerging New Variety of English Language?" Journal of Cambridge Studies 4.1 (2009): 28–34. Print.
  42. ↑ Pingxia, Liu, and Quynh Lê. "China English and Its Linguistic Features." Ed. Thao Lê. Language, Society and Culture Journal 25 (2008): n. pag. Web. 6 August 2014. <http://www.educ.utas.edu.au/users/tle/journal/issues/2008/25-3.pdf>.
  43. ↑ Huimei Liu, Frank Feather, and Wei Qian (2004), Lost in Translation: Millions of Tourists to China are Confused by a Myriad of "Chinglish" Misinterpretations, US-China Foreign Language 2.10, pp. 18–20.
  44. ↑ Liu, Feather, and Qian (2004), p. 23.
  45. ↑ Li, Wenzhong. (1993). "China English and Chinglish". Foreign Language Teaching and Research Journal, Vol.4.
  46. ↑ Liu, Feather, and Qian (2004), pp. 25–27.
  47. ↑ Chinglish, by Kira Simon–Kennedy, SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS, Number 224 May 2012
  48. ↑ Victor H. Mair, ed., “Developments in Chinese Language and Script During the 20th and 21st Centuries”
  49. ↑ 李光霞. 中式英语与中介语理论[J]. 河南机电高等专科学校学报, 2006(1). 3.
  50. 1 2 Causes of and Remedies for Chinglish in Chinese College Students’ Writings Ping Wang1, Weiping Wang
  51. ↑ On Objective Causes of Chinglish and Strategies of Error Avoidance
  52. ↑ 百度百科-中式英语"
  53. ↑ 百度百科-中式英语"
  54. ↑ 百度百科-中式英语"
  55. ↑ Pinkham, Joan (2000). The Translator's Guide to Chinglish. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
  56. ↑ Radtke, Oliver Lutz (2007). Chinglish: Found in Translation. China: Gibbs-Smith. p. 110. ISBN 1-4236-0335-4.
  57. ↑ Radtke, Oliver Lutz (2009). More Chinglish: Speaking in Tongues. Gibb禁s-Smith.
  58. ↑ Mark Swofford, "Taiwan's energetically Englsih-friendly environment ", Pinyin news, 12 December 2007.
  59. ↑ Victor Mair, "A Bus to Don't Know", Language Log, 6 September 2010.
  60. 1 2 Scenes from Habitat for Humanity in Sichuan
  61. ↑ David Feng (July 2006). "To Take Notice of Safe". Retrieved 5 December 2007.
  62. ↑ Victor Mair, "GAN: WHODUNNIT, AND HOW, AND WHY?", Language Log, 31 May 2006.
  63. ↑ Victor Mair. "The Etiology and Elaboration of a Flagrant Mistranslation". Language Log, 9 December 2007. Accessed 30 April 2008.
  64. ↑ Victor Mair, THE SHRIMP DID WHAT TO THE CABBAGE?, Language Log, 11 September 2006.
  65. ↑ Victor Mair, "Mind your manners with the empress", Language Log, 14 July 2010.
  66. ↑ Victor Mair, Bumf box, Language Log, 2 May 2009.
  67. ↑ Mark Lieberman, "Braised enterovirus, anyone?", Language Log, 16 July 2008.
  68. ↑ Victor Mair, "Fried enema", Language Log, 5 April 2010.
  69. ↑ Victor Mair, "Wait Till You Hear a Weak Pyridaben Carbazole Sound", Language Log, 30 June 2010.
  70. ↑ Victor Mair, "4 Uygur Theater", Language Log, 12 June 2009.
  71. ↑ Allison Busacca and Marcia Allert, Strange Signs from Abroad, New York Times, 11 May 2010
  72. ↑ Victor Mair, "Weird Signs", Language Log, 14 May 2010.
  73. ↑ "episode iii, the backstroke of the west". Winterson. Retrieved 17 May 2008.
  74. ↑ "episode iii, the backstroke of the west redux". Winterson. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
  75. ↑ "Top ten Star Wars myths and legends: Do not want". VirginMedia.com. Retrieved 30 December 2008.
  76. ↑ Chinglish by Kira Simon–Kenned SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS Number 224 May 2012 Developments in Chinese Language and Script During the Twentieth and Twenty-first Centuries edited and with an introduction by Victor H. Mair http://sinoplatonic.org/complete/spp224_chinese_scripts.pdf
  77. ↑ Chinglish by Kira Simon–Kenned SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS Number 224 May 2012 Developments in Chinese Language and Script During the Twentieth and Twenty-first Centuries edited and with an introduction by Victor H. Mair http://sinoplatonic.org/complete/spp224_chinese_scripts.pdf
  78. ↑ Chinglish by Kira Simon–Kenned SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS Number 224 May 2012Developments in Chinese Language and Script During the Twentieth and Twenty-first Centuries edited and with an introduction by Victor H. Mair http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp224_chinese_scripts.pdf

External links

Look up Chinglish in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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