Chinese salvationist religions
Part of a series on |
Chinese folk religion |
---|
Theory
Model humanity: |
Practices |
Institutions and temples |
Internal traditions Major cultural forms
Main philosophical traditions: Ritual traditions: Devotional traditions: Confucian churches and sects: |
Related religions |
Chinese folk religion's portal |
Chinese salvationist religions (救度宗教 jiùdù zōngjiào) is a sociological category[1] that defines a centuries-old religious stream of China, distinguished by a concern for salvation (moral fulfillment) of the person and the society.[2] The 20th-century expression of this kind of religions has been studied under the definition of redemptive societies (救世团体 jiùshì tuántǐ).[3] Chinese scholarship tends to describe them as folk religious sects (民間宗教 mínjiān zōngjiào, 民间教门 mínjiān jiàomén or 民间教派 mínjiān jiàopài).[4]
Many of these religions are rooted in the White Lotus tradition[4] (or the stream of "Chinese Maternism", as mentioned by Philip Clart[5]); others claim a Taoist legacy and are based on the recovery of ancient scriptures attributed to important immortals such as Lü Dongbin and Zhang Sanfeng, and have contributed to the popularisation of neidan;[6] other ones are distinctively Confucian and advocate the realisation of a "great commonweath" (datong 大同) on a world scale, as dreamt of in the Book of Rites.[7] Scholars have also highlighted important influences from Manichaeism and shamanic traditions.[8]
They are, at their core, distinct from the communitarian and ritual spheres of the Chinese folk religion: they are neither ascribable to the lineage cult of ancestors and progenitors, nor to the communal-liturgical religion of village temples, neighbourhood, corporation, or national temples.[9]
In the Ming and Qing periods they were generally banned by the imperial authorities as xiéjiào (邪教), "evil religion".[10] With the collapse of the Qing state in 1911 they enjoyed an unprecedented period of freedom and thrived, and many were officially registered by the republican government.[11] The founding of the People's Republic in 1949 saw them suppressed once again,[12] although since the 1990s and 2000s the climate was relaxed and some of them have been granted forms of recognition.[13]
Another category that overlaps with that of the sects of salvation is that of the secret societies (秘密社会 mìmì shèhuì, or 秘密结社 mìmì jiéshè),[14] religious communities of initiatory and secretive character, including rural militias and fraternal organisations which became very popular in the early republican period, and often labeled as "heretical doctrines" (宗教異端 zōngjiào yìduān).[15] Recent scholarship has created the label of "secret sects" (祕密教門 mìmì jiàomén) to distinguish the peasant "secret societies" with a positive dimension of the Yuan, Ming and Qing periods, from the negatively viewed "secret societies" of the early republic that became instruments of anti-revolutionary forces (the Guomindang or Japan).[16]
Salvation religions and secret societies are collectively known as huìdàomén (会道门 "churches, ways and gates"), as their names interchangeably use the terms huì (会 "church", "society", "association", "congregation"; when referring to their corporate form), dào (道 "way") or mén (门 "gate[way]", "door"). Their cell congregations and points of worship are usually called táng (堂 "church", "hall") or tán (坛 "altar"). They are characterised by egalitarianism; a foundation through a charismatic figure and a direct divine revelation; a millenarian eschatology and a voluntary path of salvation through joining; an embodied experience of the numinous through healing and cultivation; and an expansive orientation through good deeds, evangelism and philanthropy.[17] Their practices are focused on their moral teachings, body cultivation, and recitation of scriptures.[18] Western scholars often mistakenly identify them as "Protestant" churches.[19]
Many of the redemptive religions of the 20th and 21st century aspire to become the repository of the entirety of the Chinese tradition in the face of Western modernism and materialism,[20] advocating an "Eastern solution to the problems of the modern world",[21] or even interacting with the modern discourse of an Asian-centered universal civilisation.[21] The Vietnamese religions Minh Đạo and Caodaism emerged from the same matrix.[22]
Chronological record of major sects
Earliest influences (Yuan, 1277-1377)[23]
- White Lotus (白蓮教 Báilián jiào)
- Maitreya teachings (弥勒教 Mílè jiào)
Ming (1367-1644) and Qing (1644-1911)[23]
- Hongyang (弘阳 "Great Sun") or Hunyuan (混元 "Primordial Muddle") teaching[24]
- Huangtiandao (黃天道 "Way of the Yellow Sky") or Xuangu teaching (悬鼓 "Suspended Drum")[25]
- Luo teaching (罗教 Luó jiào, "religion of Luo (Menghong)"[26]): Patriarch Luo was reportedly polemical towards the Bailian, Maitreyan, and Huangtian sects[25]
- Taishangmen (太上門 "Gate of the Highest Supreme")
- Tiandimen (天地門 "Gate of the Heaven and the Earth"), or the Church of the Heaven and the Earth (天地会 Tiāndì Huì)[27]
Other Qing-period sects that continued the Maitreyan and Luoist teachings:[4]
- Dacheng teaching (大乘教 "Great Vehicle") and Yuandun teaching (圆顿教 "Sudden Stillness"), the eastern branch of Luoism from which departed the Chinese religions of fasting (斋教 zhāijiāo) and Xiantiandao[28][29]
- Denghua teaching (燈花教 "Flower of Light")
- Mohou Yizhu teaching (末後一著教)
- Qinglian teaching (青莲教 "Black [Blue, or Green] Lotus"), Qing dynasty name of Xiantiandao[29]
- Sanyi teaching (三一教 "Three-One"), founded by Li Zhao'en on the base of Confucian principles[30]
Republic of China (1912–49)
- Zaili teaching (在理教 Zàilǐ jiào, "Abiding Principle")—registered in 1913[31]
- Daode Xueshe (道德学社 "Community for the Study of the Way and its Virtue")—1916[31]
- Xiantiandao (先天道 "Way of the Former Heaven"), group of sects focusing on the universal principle as the Mother:
- Shengdao (圣道 "Holy Way"), best known by its incorporate name of Tongshanshe (同善社 "Community of the Goodness")—1917[31]
- Guiyidao (皈依道, "Way of the Return to the One"), best known by its corporate name of School of the Way of the Return to the One or simply School of the Way (道院 Dàoyuàn)—1921-27[32][29]
- Yiguandao (一貫道 "Consistent Way")—1947[33]
- Yixin Tiandao Longhua Hui (一心天道龙华会 "Dragon Flower Church of the Heart-bent Heavenly Way")—1932[33][29]
- Yuanmingdao (圆明道 "Way of the Bright Circle")
- Yaochidao (瑤池道 "Way of the Jasper Lake")
- Guigendao (归根道 "Way of the Return to the Root")[29]
- Jiushi teaching (救世教 Jiùshì jiào, "Life Healing"), also known by its corporate name Wushanshe (悟善社 "Community of the Awakening to the Goodness")—1919[31]
- Wanguo Daodehui (万国道德会 "Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue")—1921[31]
- Jiugongdao (九宫道, "Way of the Nine Palaces")—1926[33]
- Tiande (天德圣教 Tiāndé shèngjiào, "holy teaching of the Heavenly Virtue")—1930[33]
- De teaching (德教 Dé jiào, "teaching of Virtue")—started in 1945[22]
- Zhenkong teaching (真空教 Zhēnkōng jiào, "True Emptiness") or Zhenkongdao (真空道 "Way of the True Emptiness")—1948[33]
- Confucian Church (孔教会 Kǒngjiào Huì)[20]
- Xixinshe (洗心社 "Community of the Pure Heart")—carried out Kang Youwei's project of a Confucian church[20]
Late 20th century[23]
- Confucian Way of the Gods (儒宗神教 Rúzōng Shénjiào)—started in 1853, formally established in 1979
- Tiandi Church (天帝教 Tiāndì jiào, "Heaven God")—established in 1979[6]
- Qigong (气功 "Cultivation of the Spirit")
- Falungong (法轮功 "Cultivation of the Wheel of Law")
21st century
- Confucian religious groups in China mainland (Confucian churches)[34]
- Weixinism (唯心教 Wéixīn jiào, "Only Heart")
Other sects
- Baguadao (八卦道 "Way of the Eight Trigrams")
- Baiyang teaching (白阳教 Báiyáng jiào, "White Sun")[35]
- Changshandao[36]
- Changsheng teaching (长生教 Chángshēng jiào, "Eternal Life"), Changshengdao (长生道 "Way of the Eternal Life")[35]
- Church of Maitreya the King of the Universe (宇宙弥勒皇教 Yǔzhòu mílè huáng jiào)
- Dadao Hui (大刀会 "Church of the Big Sword")[35]
- Datong Hui (大同会 "Church of the Great Harmony")[35]
- Dayi teaching (大易教 Dàyì jiào, "Great Simplicity")
- Dongyue Hui[36]
- Gengshen Hui[36]
- Guixiangdao (跪香道 "Way of the Kneeling to Incense")[37]
- Holy Church of the Middle Flower (中华圣教 Zhōnghuá shèngjiào)
- Hongsan teaching (红三教 Hóngsān jiào, "Red Three")[37]
- Huangjidao (皇极道 "Way of the Imperial Pole")[37]
- Huangsha Hui (黄沙会 "Church of the Yellow Sands")[37]
- Huangxiandao (黄仙道 "Way of the Yellow Immortal")
- Huazhaidao (华斋道 "Way of Flowers and Fasting")[37]
- Hunyuan teaching (混元教 Hùnyuán jiào, "Primordial Confusion")
- Jiugendao (旧根道 "Way of the Old Source")[37]
- Laojundao (老君道 "Way of the Venerable Master")[37]
- Laorendao (老人道 "Way of the Venerable Men")[37]
- Mount Li Maternism (骊山老母教 Líshān Lǎomǔ jiào)[36]
- Puhuamen (普化门 "Gate of the Universal Change")[37]
- Pujidao (普济道 "Way of the Universal Help")[37]
- Pudu teaching (普度教 Pǔdù jiào, "Universal Judgement"), Pududao (普度道 "Way of the Universal Judgment")[37]
- Qixing teaching[36]
- Qiugongdao[36]
- Renxuehaodao (人学好道 "Way of Men Learning the Goodness")[37]
- Sanfengdao (三峰道 "Way of the Three Peaks")[37]
- Salvationism of the Ancient Heaven (先天救教 Xiāntiān jiùjiào)
- Shengxiandao (圣仙道 "Way of the Sages and the Immortals")[37]
- Shenmendao (神门道 "Way of the Godly Gate")[37]
- Sifangdao (四方道 "Way of the Four Manifestations")[37]
- Suibiandao[36]
- Taishangmen (太上门 "Gate of the Highest Supreme")[37]
- Tianbing Dizijun (天兵弟子军 "Discipling Army of the Heavenly Soldiers")[37]
- Tianguangdao (天光道 "Way of the Heavenly Light")[38]
- Tianhuadao (天花道 "Way of the Heavenly Flower")[38]
- Tianmingdao (天明道 "Way of the Heavenly Bright")[38]
- Tianxian miaodao (天仙庙道 "Way of the Temple of the Heavenly Immortals")
- Wanquandao (万全道 "Way of the Endless Whole" or "Surefire Way")[38]
- Wugong Hui[36]
- Xiaodao Hui (小刀会 "Church of the Small Sword")[36]
- Xuanmen Zhenzong (玄门真宗, "True School of the Mysterious Door")
- Xuanyuan teaching (軒轅教 Xuānyuán jiào, "teaching of Xuanyuan")
- Yinjiezhi Hui[36]
- Yuanshuai Hui[36]
- Yuxumen (玉虚门 "Gate of the Jade Vacuity")[38]
- Zhongfangdao (中方道 "Way of the Middle Abode")[38]
- Zhongjiao Daoyi Hui[36]
- Zhongyongdao (中庸道 "Way of the Golden Mean")[38]
- Zhongxiao Tianfu (忠孝天府 "Heavenly House of Filial Loyalty")[38]
- Zhutian Hui[36]
- Zishenguo ("Zishen nation")[38]
See also
- Chinese folk religion
- Taoism—Taoist schools
- Confucianism—Confucian church
- Chinese Manichaeism
- White Lotus
- Japanese new religions, some of which are related to Chinese sects
- In Vietnam
References
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. pp. 17-18
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. p. 19; passim
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. p. 17
- 1 2 3 Palmer, 2011. p. 12
- ↑ Clart 1997, passim.
- 1 2 Palmer, 2011. p. 27
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. p. 28
- ↑ Ma, Meng. Popular Religion and Shamanism.
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. pp. 19-20
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. p. 23
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. p. 3
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. p. 13, p. 23
- ↑ Religions & Christianity in Today's China. Vol. IV, 2014, No. 1. ISSN 2192-9289. pp. 22-23
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. pp. 12-13
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. p. 13
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. p. 13"
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. pp. 19
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. p. 19
- ↑ Ownby (2008). § 2: «Western scholars cast Chinese sects in the role of Protestant dissenters and celebrate (or occasionally condemn) their willingness to challenge the status quo.»
- 1 2 3 Palmer, 2011. p. 29
- 1 2 Palmer, 2011. p. 10
- 1 2 Palmer, 2011. p. 6
- 1 2 3 4 5 Palmer, 2011. p. 22
- ↑ Seiwert, 2003. p. 320
- 1 2 Seiwert, 2003. p. 270
- ↑ Seiwert, 2003. p. 217
- ↑ Ownby (1995).
- ↑ Ma, Meng. 2011. p. 173-175
- 1 2 3 4 5 Palmer (2011), p. 4.
- ↑ Seiwert, 2003. p. 343
- 1 2 3 4 5 Palmer, 2011. p. 4
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. pp. 4-5
- 1 2 3 4 5 Palmer, 2011. p. 5
- ↑ Palmer, 2011. p. 7
- 1 2 3 4 Munro (1994), p. 269.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 I (1995), p. 32.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Munro (1994), p. 270.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Munro (1994), p. 271.
Sources
- Palmer, David (2011). "Redemptive Societies in Cultural and Historical Context". Journal of Chinese Theatre, Ritual and Folklore / Minsu Quyi (173): 1–12.
- Munro, Robin; Mickey Spiegel (1994). Detained in China and Tibet: A Directory of Political and Religious Prisoners. Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1564321053.
- List first published in: "Appendix: Sects and Societies Recently or Currently Active in the PRC". Chinese Sociology & Anthropology 21 (4): 103–104. 1989. doi:10.2753/CSA0009-46252104102.
- Ownby, David (1995). "The Heaven and Earth Society as Popular Religion". The Journal of Asian Studies 54 (4): 1023–1046. doi:10.2307/2059958.
- Ownby, David (2008). "Sect and Secularism in Reading the Modern Chinese Religious Experience". Archives de sciences sociales des religions 144. doi:10.4000/assr.17633.
- I, Yuan (1995). "State Dominance and Peasant Resistance in Post-1949 South China" (PDF). Issues & Studies 31 (9): 55–89.
- D. A. Palmer. Chinese Redemptive Societies and Salvationist Religion: Historical Phenomenon or Sociological Category?. On: Journal of Chinese Ritual, Theatre and Folklore, V. 172, 2011, p. 21-72
- Évelyne Micollier. Recomposition des faits religieux et tension identitaires. L’exemple de la « nouvelle religion » Yiguandao. On: Perspectives Chinoises, No. 48, July–August 1998.
- Hubert Michael Seiwert. Popular Religious Movements and Heterodox Sects in Chinese History. Brill, 2003. ISBN 9004131469
- Philip Clart. University of Missouri-Columbia. Confucius and the Mediums: Is There a "Popular Confucianism"?. On: T'uong Pao LXXXIX. Brill, 2003.
- Philip Clart. University of British Columbia. The Phoenix and the Mother: The Interaction of Spirit Writing Cults and Popular Sects in Taiwan. On: Journal of Chinese Religions, n. 25, Fall 1997.
- Xisha Ma, Huiying Meng. Popular Religion and Shamanism. Brill, 2011. ISBN 9004174559
|
|