Ceasefires in Myanmar

Ceasefires in Burma have been heavily utilised by the Burmese government as a policy to contain ethnic rebel groups and create tentative truces. The first ceasefire was arranged by the State Law and Order Restoration Council in 1989, specifically spearheaded by Khin Nyunt, then the chief of Military Intelligence, with the Kokang-led National Democratic Alliance Army, which had recently split from the Communist Party of Burma due to internal conflicts.^[1]

Background

November 1963 peace talks collapsed and members of the Communist Party of Burma walking back to their rebel bases after the end of conference in Rangoon.

The internal conflict in Burma began after the country's independence in 1948, as successive central governments of Burma (or Myanmar) fought myriad ethnic and political rebellions. Some of the earliest insurgencies were by Burmese-dominated "multi-colored" leftists and by the Karen National Union (KNU). The KNU fought to carve out an independent Karen state from large swaths of Lower Burma. Other ethnic rebellions broke out only in the early 1960s after the central government refused to consider a federal style government. By the early 1980s, politically oriented armed insurgencies had largely withered away, but ethnic-based insurgencies remained alive and well during the conflict.

In the 1980s, rebel groups controlled most of the country's periphery. The two major organisations fighting against the Burma Socialist Programme Party-led government, were 2 umbrella groups, the pro-Chinese Communist Party of Burma (allied to local Kokang Chinese, Wa and Shan groups), based along the Chinese-Burmese border and the pro-West National Democratic Force (made up of ethnic Mon, Karen, Karenni and Shan opposition groups), based along the Thai-Burmese border.^[1]

By the late 1980s, the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) had weakened considerably, because of waning Chinese financial support and internal strife. During the 1988 Uprising, the CPB failed to seize the opportunity to invoke political change. A month later, the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), a council of military men, staged a coup d'etat. Consequently, ethnic Wa and Kokang armed forces led a mutinee against CPB, forming the United Wa State Party (UWSP) and National Democratic Alliance Army (NDAA) respectively.^[1] SLORC used this opening to arrange ceasefires with the armed rebel groups that had just mutineed, under a policy designed by Khin Nyunt, who was then the Chief of Military Intelligence.^[1]

National Reconciliation after 1988

Government troops heavily used 4 cuts counter insurgency tactics in ethnic areas in 1990s.^[2] Most ethnic groups became armed struggle after first military coup in 1962 and successive military governments used four cuts counter insurgency policy in ethnic areas. The “four cuts” policy involved cut off communications among rebel armed groups as well as local people, cut off information among people and trade route in designated territories, searches and destruction of any possible supplies in the areas ^[3] On the other hand, the military government forced ethnics groups to sign ceasefire agreements with ethnic rebels groups while government troops were trying to root out their main bases in 1990s. In meanwhile, ethnic minorities’ political parties which won seats in 1990 elections and formed the second largest pro-democracy block after NLD were severely oppressed in cities. By the end of the century, there were 20 armed opposition groups ceased fire with governments^[4] However, government made political dialogues with neither cease fire groups nor winning political parties. Therefore, some ethnic groups didn't cease fire with government and continued armed struggle. The ethnic populations were the most suffered from a result of long-standing hostilities with the central government. They have been treated as enemies of the state and second class citizens ^[2]

Agreements

The signed ceasefire agreements have been nothing more than temporary military truces to suspend fighting and preserve the status quo, allowing the rebel groups to retain administrative control of their territories. Weaker or splinter rebel groups typically wield forfeit their territories to the government.^[1] Most agreements simply stipulated that the groups would be allowed to retain their arms and territories until the promulgation of a new Constitution.

As part of the ceasefires, the government began the Border Area Development Programme in 1989, which became a ministry-level body in 1992, as Ministry for the Progress of Border Areas and National Races and has built road infrastructure, schools and hospitals in rebel-occupied territories.^[5]

On 31 March 2015, Burmese President Thein Sein signed a nationwide ceasefire draft along with many ethnic leaders and government officials.^[6]

Border Guard Forces

In April 2009, a government entourage, led by Lieutenant-General Ye Myint, met with the Wa, Shan and Kokang rebel groups, and established a blueprint to absorb rebel groups' armies and transition them to the command of the Tatmadaw, a necessary qualification of the 2008 Constitution, to allow the ethnic groups to participate in the 2010 elections.^[7] This blueprint would establish the Border Guard Forces (BGF), with each battalion made of 326 soldiers, including 18 officers and 3 commanders (one of whom would be from the Tatmadaw).^[7] A specific BGF would only be deployed within its territory and be paid the same salaries as normal soldiers.^[7] The deadline was initially set for June 2009 but extended 5 times.^[8] 4 rebel groups, namely the New Democratic Army - Kachin (NDAK), Kachin Defence Army (4th Brigade of the KIA), Pa-O National Organisation (PNO) and the Democratic Karen Buddhist Army, accepted the transition's terms.^[9]

In August 2009, in the Kokang incident, the Kokang-led militia, the National Democratic Alliance Army (NDAA), which had signed a ceasefire agreement in 1989, was attacked by Tatmadaw troops, for rejecting the Border Guard Force proposal, leading to 30,000 refugees streaming to the Burmese-Chinese border.^[10] Similar demands were placed on the United Wa State Army (UWSA), the Kachin Independence Army (KIA), the National Democratic Alliance Army-Eastern Shan State (NDAA), leading to break-outs of fighting in 2009.^[11]

List of ceasefires

Since 1989, the Burmese government has signed the following ceasefire agreements^[12][13]

References