Caribbean

This article is about a group of islands. For the indigenous inhabitants of Caribbean region and people of Caribbean descent, see Caribbean people. For the body of water surrounding them, see Caribbean Sea. For other uses, see Caribbean (disambiguation).
Caribbean
Area 2,754,000 km2 (1,063,000 sq mi)
Land area 239,681 km2 (92,541 sq mi)
Population (2009) 39,169,962[1]
Density 151.5/km2 (392/sq mi)
Ethnic groups Afro-Caribbean, White Caribbean, Indo-Caribbean, Chinese Caribbean,Middle Eastern-Caribbean,[2] Arawak (Kalinago, Taíno)
Demonym Caribbean, Caribbean person, West Indian
Languages Spanish, English, French, Dutch, French Creole, English Creole, Caribbean Hindustani, among others
Government 13 sovereign states
17 dependent territories
Largest cities List of metropolitan areas in the West Indies
Santo Domingo
Havana
Port-au-Prince
Santiago de los Caballeros
Kingston
Santiago de Cuba
San Juan
Holguín
Cap-Haïtien
Fort-de-France
Port of Spain
Internet TLD Multiple
Calling code Multiple
Time zone UTC-5 to UTC-4

The Caribbean (/ˌkærᵻˈbiːən/ or /kəˈrɪbiən/; Spanish: Caribe; Dutch:  Caraïben ; Caribbean Hindustani: कैरिबियन (Kairibiyana); French: Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles) is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean), and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, and north of South America.

Situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs, and cays. (See the list.) These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea.[3] The Caribbean islands, consisting of the Greater Antilles on the north and the Lesser Antilles on the south and east (including the Leeward Antilles), are part of the somewhat larger West Indies grouping, which also includes the Lucayan Archipelago (comprising The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands) north of the Greater Antilles and Caribbean Sea. In a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana are also included.

Geopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America[4][5][6][7][8] and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15, 1954, to October 10, 2010 there was a country known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states, all of which were Dutch dependencies.[9] While from January 3, 1958, to May 31, 1962, there was also a short-lived country called the Federation of the West Indies composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories, all of which were then British dependencies. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations.

Etymology and pronunciation

The region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest.[10]

The two most prevalent pronunciations of "Caribbean" are KARR-ə-BEE-ən, with the primary accent on the third syllable, and kə-RIB-ee-ən, with the accent on the second. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the stressed-second-syllable variant has been established for over 75 years.[11] It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer KARR-ə-BEE-ən while North American speakers more typically use kə-RIB-ee-ən,[12] although not all sources agree.[13] Usage is split within Caribbean English itself.[14]

Definition

Map of the Caribbean

The word "Caribbean" has multiple uses. Its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, and the plantation system.

Geography and geology

The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies: Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin. These islands include Aruba (possessing only minor volcanic features), Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua. Others possess rugged towering mountain-ranges like the islands of Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Dominica, Montserrat, Saba, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Thomas, Saint John, Tortola, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Trinidad & Tobago.

Cayo de Agua in Los Roques archipelago, Venezuela.

Definitions of the terms Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles often vary. The Virgin Islands as part of the Puerto Rican bank are sometimes included with the Greater Antilles. The term Lesser Antilles is often used to define an island arc that includes Grenada but excludes Trinidad and Tobago and the Leeward Antilles.

The waters of the Caribbean Sea host large, migratory schools of fish, turtles, and coral reef formations. The Puerto Rico trench, located on the fringe of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea just to the north of the island of Puerto Rico, is the deepest point in all of the Atlantic Ocean.[16]

The region sits in the line of several major shipping routes with the Panama Canal connecting the western Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.

Climate

The climate of the area is tropical to subtropical in Cuba, The Bahamas and Puerto Rico. Rainfall varies with elevation, size, and water currents (cool upwellings keep the ABC islands arid). Warm, moist tradewinds blow consistently from the east creating rainforest/semidesert divisions on mountainous islands. Occasional northwesterlies affect the northern islands in the winter. The region enjoys year-round sunshine, divided into 'dry' and 'wet' seasons, with the last six months of the year being wetter than the first half.

Hurricane Season is from June to November, but they occur more frequently in August and September and more common in the northern islands of the Caribbean.Hurricanes that sometimes batter the region usually strike northwards of Grenada and to the west of Barbados. The principal hurricane belt arcs to northwest of the island of Barbados in the Eastern Caribbean.

Water temperatures vary from 31 °C (88 °F) to 22 °C (72 °F) all around the year. The air temperature is warm, in the 20s and 30s °C (70s, 80s, and 90s °F) during the year, only varies from winter to summer about 2–5 degrees on the southern islands and about 10–20 degrees difference can occur in the northern islands of the Caribbean. The northern islands, like the Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and The Dominican Republic, may be influenced by continental masses during winter months, such as cold fronts.

Aruba: Latitude 12°N

Climate data for Oranjestad, Aruba (1981-2010, extremes 1951-2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 32.5
(90.5)		 33.0
(91.4)		 33.9
(93)		 34.4
(93.9)		 34.9
(94.8)		 35.2
(95.4)		 35.3
(95.5)		 36.1
(97)		 36.5
(97.7)		 35.4
(95.7)		 35.0
(95)		 34.8
(94.6)		 36.5
(97.7)
Average high °C (°F) 30.0
(86)		 30.4
(86.7)		 30.9
(87.6)		 31.5
(88.7)		 32.0
(89.6)		 32.2
(90)		 32.0
(89.6)		 32.6
(90.7)		 32.7
(90.9)		 32.1
(89.8)		 31.3
(88.3)		 30.4
(86.7)		 31.5
(88.7)
Daily mean °C (°F) 26.7
(80.1)		 26.8
(80.2)		 27.2
(81)		 27.9
(82.2)		 28.5
(83.3)		 28.7
(83.7)		 28.6
(83.5)		 29.1
(84.4)		 29.2
(84.6)		 28.7
(83.7)		 28.1
(82.6)		 27.2
(81)		 28.1
(82.6)
Average low °C (°F) 24.5
(76.1)		 24.7
(76.5)		 25.0
(77)		 25.8
(78.4)		 26.5
(79.7)		 26.7
(80.1)		 26.4
(79.5)		 26.8
(80.2)		 26.9
(80.4)		 26.4
(79.5)		 25.8
(78.4)		 25.0
(77)		 25.9
(78.6)
Record low °C (°F) 21.3
(70.3)		 20.6
(69.1)		 21.4
(70.5)		 21.5
(70.7)		 21.8
(71.2)		 22.7
(72.9)		 21.2
(70.2)		 21.3
(70.3)		 22.1
(71.8)		 21.9
(71.4)		 22.0
(71.6)		 20.5
(68.9)		 20.5
(68.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 39.3
(1.547)		 20.6
(0.811)		 8.7
(0.343)		 11.6
(0.457)		 16.3
(0.642)		 18.7
(0.736)		 31.7
(1.248)		 25.8
(1.016)		 45.5
(1.791)		 77.8
(3.063)		 94.0
(3.701)		 81.8
(3.22)		 471.8
(18.575)
Source: DEPARTAMENTO METEOROLOGICO ARUBA,[17] (extremes)[18]

Puerto Rico: Latitude 18°N

Climate data for Mayagüez, Puerto Rico
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °F (°C) 95
(35)		 96
(36)		 97
(36)		 98
(37)		 98
(37)		 98
(37)		 99
(37)		 99
(37)		 99
(37)		 99
(37)		 98
(37)		 97
(36)		 99
(37)
Average high °F (°C) 83
(28)		 85
(29)		 87
(31)		 88
(31)		 89
(32)		 91
(33)		 92
(33)		 92
(33)		 92
(33)		 90
(32)		 89
(32)		 86
(30)		 88.7
(31.4)
Average low °F (°C) 63
(17)		 64
(18)		 66
(19)		 69
(21)		 73
(23)		 74
(23)		 75
(24)		 76
(24)		 76
(24)		 74
(23)		 70
(21)		 67
(19)		 70.6
(21.3)
Record low °F (°C) 48
(9)		 43
(6)		 50
(10)		 57
(14)		 57
(14)		 60
(16)		 64
(18)		 65
(18)		 59
(15)		 61
(16)		 47
(8)		 55
(13)		 43
(6)
Average precipitation inches (mm) 1.1
(28)		 2.05
(52)		 1.54
(39)		 4.84
(123)		 10.67
(271)		 5.16
(131)		 6.61
(168)		 11.77
(299)		 12.64
(321)		 7.44
(189)		 7.8
(198)		 4.84
(123)		 67.44
(1,713)
Source: The Weather Channel [19]

Cuba: at Latitude 22°N

Climate data for Havana
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 32.5
(90.5)		 33.0
(91.4)		 35.9
(96.6)		 36.4
(97.5)		 36.9
(98.4)		 37.2
(99)		 38.0
(100.4)		 36.1
(97)		 37.5
(99.5)		 35.4
(95.7)		 35.0
(95)		 34.8
(94.6)		 38
(100.4)
Average high °C (°F) 25.8
(78.4)		 26.1
(79)		 27.6
(81.7)		 28.6
(83.5)		 29.8
(85.6)		 30.5
(86.9)		 31.3
(88.3)		 31.6
(88.9)		 31.0
(87.8)		 29.2
(84.6)		 27.7
(81.9)		 26.5
(79.7)		 28.8
(83.8)
Daily mean °C (°F) 22.2
(72)		 22.4
(72.3)		 23.7
(74.7)		 24.8
(76.6)		 26.1
(79)		 27.0
(80.6)		 27.6
(81.7)		 27.9
(82.2)		 27.4
(81.3)		 26.1
(79)		 24.5
(76.1)		 23.0
(73.4)		 25.2
(77.4)
Average low °C (°F) 18.6
(65.5)		 18.6
(65.5)		 19.7
(67.5)		 20.9
(69.6)		 22.4
(72.3)		 23.4
(74.1)		 23.8
(74.8)		 24.1
(75.4)		 23.8
(74.8)		 23.0
(73.4)		 21.3
(70.3)		 19.5
(67.1)		 21.6
(70.9)
Record low °C (°F) 4.0
(39.2)		 5.6
(42.1)		 5.4
(41.7)		 11.5
(52.7)		 16.8
(62.2)		 19.7
(67.5)		 18.2
(64.8)		 19.3
(66.7)		 19.1
(66.4)		 11.9
(53.4)		 10.0
(50)		 7.5
(45.5)		 4
(39.2)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 64.4
(2.535)		 68.6
(2.701)		 46.2
(1.819)		 53.7
(2.114)		 98.0
(3.858)		 182.3
(7.177)		 105.6
(4.157)		 99.6
(3.921)		 144.4
(5.685)		 180.5
(7.106)		 88.3
(3.476)		 57.6
(2.268)		 1,189.2
(46.817)
Source: World Meteorological Organisation (UN),[20] Climate-Charts.com[21]
Puerto Rico's south shore, from the mountains of Jayuya
Puerto Cruz beach in Margarita Island, Venezuela
San Andres (island), Colombia.
Grand Anse beach, St. George's, Grenada
A church cemetery perched in the mountains of Guadeloupe.

Island groups

Greater Antilles

Lesser Antilles

Historical groupings

Spanish Caribbean Islands in the American Viceroyalties 1600.
Political evolution of Central America and the Caribbean from 1700 to present
The mostly Spanish-controlled Caribbean in the 16th century

All islands at some point were, and a few still are, colonies of European nations; a few are overseas or dependent territories:

The British West Indies were united by the United Kingdom into a West Indies Federation between 1958 and 1962. The independent countries formerly part of the B.W.I. still have a joint cricket team that competes in Test matches, One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. The West Indian cricket team includes the South American nation of Guyana, the only former British colony on the mainland of that continent.

In addition, these countries share the University of the West Indies as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in the Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories such as Trinidad.

Modern-day island territories

Islands in and near the Caribbean
Maritime boundaries between the Caribbean (island) nations

Continental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands

Biodiversity

The Caribbean islands are remarkable for the diversity of their animals, fungi and plants, and have been classified as one of Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots because of their exceptionally diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems, ranging from montane cloud forests to cactus scrublands. The region also contains about 8% (by surface area) of the world's coral reefs[22] along with extensive seagrass meadows,[23] both of which are frequently found in the shallow marine waters bordering island and continental coasts off the region.

For the fungi, there is a modern checklist based on nearly 90,000 records derived from specimens in reference collections, published accounts and field observations.[24] That checklist includes more than 11250 species of fungi recorded from the region. As its authors note, the work is far from exhaustive, and it is likely that the true total number of fungal species already known from the Caribbean is higher. The true total number of fungal species occurring in the Caribbean, including species not yet recorded, is likely far higher given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have been discovered.[25] Though the amount of available information is still small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to some Caribbean islands. For Cuba, 2200 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the island;[26] for Puerto Rico, the number is 789 species;[27] for the Dominican Republic, the number is 699 species;[28] for Trinidad and Tobago, the number is 407 species.[29]

Many of the ecosystems of the Caribbean islands have been devastated by deforestation, pollution, and human encroachment. The arrival of the first humans is correlated with extinction of giant owls and dwarf ground sloths.[30] The hotspot contains dozens of highly threatened animals (ranging from birds, to mammals and reptiles), fungi and plants. Examples of threatened animals include the Puerto Rican amazon, two species of solenodon (giant shrews) in Cuba and the Hispaniola island, and the Cuban crocodile.

Saona Island, Dominican Republic

The region's coral reefs, which contain about 70 species of hard corals and between 500–700 species of reef-associated fishes[31] have undergone rapid decline in ecosystem integrity in recent years, and are considered particularly vulnerable to global warming and ocean acidification.[32] According to a UNEP report, the caribbean coral reefs might get extinct in next 20 years due to population explosion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas and global warming.[33]

Some Caribbean islands have terrain that Europeans found suitable for cultivation for agriculture. Tobacco was an important early crop during the colonial era, but was eventually overtaken by sugarcane production as the region's staple crop. Sugar was produced from sugarcane for export to Europe. Cuba and Barbados were historically the largest producers of sugar. The tropical plantation system thus came to dominate Caribbean settlement. Other islands were found to have terrain unsuited for agriculture, for example Dominica, which remains heavily forested. The islands in the southern Lesser Antilles, Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, are extremely arid, making them unsuitable for agriculture. However, they have salt pans that were exploited by the Dutch. Sea water was pumped into shallow ponds, producing coarse salt when the water evaporated.[34]

The natural environmental diversity of the Caribbean islands has led to recent growth in eco-tourism. This type of tourism is growing on islands lacking sandy beaches and dense human populations.[35]

Plants and animals of the Caribbean

Demographics

A linen market in Dominica in the 1770s
Street scene, Pinar del Río, Cuba

At the time of European contact, the dominant ethnic groups in the Caribbean included the Taíno of the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles, the Island Caribs of the southern Lesser Antilles, and smaller distinct groups such as the Guanajatabey of western Cuba and the Ciguayo of western Hispaniola. The population of the Caribbean is estimated to have been around 750,000 immediately before European contact, although lower and higher figures are given. After contact, social disruption and epidemic diseases such as smallpox and measles (to which they had no natural immunity)[36] led to a decline in the Amerindian population.[37] From 1500 to 1800 the population rose as slaves arrived from West Africa[38] such as the Kongo, Igbo, Akan, Fon and Yoruba as well as military prisoners and captured slaves from Ireland, who were deported during the Cromwellian reign in England.[39] Immigrants from Britain, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and Denmark also arrived, although the mortality rate was high for both groups.[40]

The population is estimated to have reached 2.2 million by 1800.[41] Immigrants from India, China, and other countries arrived in the 19th century.[42] After the ending of the Atlantic slave trade, the population increased naturally.[43] The total regional population was estimated at 37.5 million by 2000.[44]

The majority of the Caribbean has populations of mainly Africans in the French Caribbean, Anglophone Caribbean and Dutch Caribbean, there are minorities of mixed-race and European peoples of Dutch, English, French, Italian and Portuguese ancestry. Asians, especially those of Chinese and Indian descent, form a significant minority in the region and also contribute to multiracial communities. All of their ancestors arrived in the 19th century as indentured laborers.

The Spanish-speaking Caribbean have primarily mixed race, African, or European majorities. Puerto Rico has a European majority with a mixture of European-African (mulatto), and a large West African minority. One third of Cuba's (largest Caribbean island) population is of African descent, with a sizable Mulatto (mixed African–European) population, and European majority. The Dominican Republic has the largest mixed race population, primarily descended from Europeans, West Africans, and Amerindians.

Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago

Larger islands such as Jamaica, have a very large African majority, in addition to a significant mixed race, Chinese, Europeans, Indian, Lebanese, Latin American, and Syrian populations. This is a result of years of importation of slaves and indentured labourers, and migration. Most multi-racial Jamaicans refer to themselves as either mixed race or Brown. The situation is similar for the Caricom states of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago has a multi-racial cosmopolitan society due to the arrival of the Africans, Indians, Chinese, Syrians, Lebanese, Native Amerindians and Europeans. This multi-racial mix has created sub-ethnicities that often straddle the boundaries of major ethnicities and include Chindian, Mulatto and Dougla.

Indigenous groups

Language

Spanish, English, French, Dutch, Haitian Creole, and Papiamento are the predominant official languages of various countries in the region, though a handful of unique creole languages or dialects can also be found from one country to another.

Religion

Christianity is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (84.7%).[45] Other religious groups in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Buddhist, Rastafari, and Afro-American religions such as Santería and Vodou.

Politics

Regionalism

Flag of the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM)
Insignia of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America

Caribbean societies are very different from other Western societies in terms of size, culture, and degree of mobility of their citizens.[46] The current economic and political problems the states face individually are common to all Caribbean states. Regional development has contributed to attempts to subdue current problems and avoid projected problems. From a political and economic perspective, regionalism serves to make Caribbean states active participants in current international affairs through collective coalitions. In 1973, the first political regionalism in the Caribbean Basin was created by advances of the English-speaking Caribbean nations through the institution known as the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM)[47] which is located in Guyana.

Certain scholars have argued both for and against generalizing the political structures of the Caribbean. On the one hand the Caribbean states are politically diverse, ranging from communist systems such as Cuba toward more capitalist Westminster-style parliamentary systems as in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Other scholars argue that these differences are superficial, and that they tend to undermine commonalities in the various Caribbean states. Contemporary Caribbean systems seem to reflect a "blending of traditional and modern patterns, yielding hybrid systems that exhibit significant structural variations and divergent constitutional traditions yet ultimately appear to function in similar ways."[48] The political systems of the Caribbean states share similar practices.

The influence of regionalism in the Caribbean is often marginalized. Some scholars believe that regionalism cannot exist in the Caribbean because each small state is unique. On the other hand, scholars also suggest that there are commonalities amongst the Caribbean nations that suggest regionalism exists. "Proximity as well as historical ties among the Caribbean nations has led to cooperation as well as a desire for collective action."[49] These attempts at regionalization reflect the nations' desires to compete in the international economic system.[49]

Furthermore, a lack of interest from other major states promoted regionalism in the region. In recent years the Caribbean has suffered from a lack of U.S. interest. "With the end of the Cold War, U.S. security and economic interests have been focused on other areas. As a result there has been a significant reduction in U.S. aid and investment to the Caribbean."[50] The lack of international support for these small, relatively poor states, helped regionalism prosper.

Following the Cold War another issue of importance in the Caribbean has been the reduced economic growth of some Caribbean States due to the United States and European Union's allegations of special treatment toward the region by each other.

United States effects on regionalism

The United States under President Bill Clinton launched a challenge in the World Trade Organization against the EU over Europe's preferential program, known as the Lomé Convention, which allowed banana exports from the former colonies of the Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific states (ACP) to enter Europe cheaply.[51] The World Trade Organization sided in the United States' favour and the beneficial elements of the convention to African, Caribbean and Pacific states has been partially dismantled and replaced by the Cotonou Agreement.[52]

During the US/EU dispute, the United States imposed large tariffs on European Union goods (up to 100%) to pressure Europe to change the agreement with the Caribbean nations in favour of the Cotonou Agreement.[53]

Farmers in the Caribbean have complained of falling profits and rising costs as the Lomé Convention weakens. Some farmers have faced increased pressure to turn towards the cultivation of illegal drugs, which has a higher profit margin and fills the sizable demand for these illegal drugs in North America and Europe.[54][55]

European Union effects on regionalism

The European Union has also taken issue with US based taxation extended to US companies via the Caribbean countries. The United States has not been in favor of shutting off the practice yet, mainly due to the higher costs that would be passed on to US companies via taxation. Caribbean countries have largely countered the allegations by the OECD by signing more bilateral information sharing deals with OECD members, thus reducing the dangerous aspects of secrecy, and they have strengthened their legislation against money laundering and on conditions under which companies can be based in their nations. The Caribbean nations have also started to more closely cooperate in the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and other instruments to add oversight of the offshore industry.

One of the most important associations that deal with regionalism amongst the nations of the Caribbean Basin has been the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Proposed by CARICOM in 1992, the ACS soon won the support of the other countries of the region. It was founded in July 1994. The ACS maintains regionalism within the Caribbean on issues unique to the Caribbean Basin. Through coalition building, like the ACS and CARICOM, regionalism has become an undeniable part of the politics and economics of the Caribbean. The successes of region-building initiatives are still debated by scholars, yet regionalism remains prevalent throughout the Caribbean.

Venezuela's effects on regionalism

The President of Venezuela, Hugo Chavez launched an economic group called the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA), which several eastern Caribbean islands joined. In 2012, the nation of Haiti, with 9 million people, became the largest CARICOM nation that sought to join the union.[56]

Regional institutions

Here are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:

Cuisine

Main article: Caribbean cuisine

Favorite or national dishes

See also

References

  1. ↑ Country Comparison :: Population. CIA. The World Factbook
  2. ↑ McWhorter, John H. (2005). Defining Creole. Oxford University Press US. p. 379. ISBN 0-19-516670-1.
  3. ↑ Asann, Ridvan (2007). A Brief History of the Caribbean (Revised ed.). New York: Facts on File, Inc. p. 3. ISBN 0-8160-3811-2.
  4. ↑ Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49), United Nations Statistics Division
  5. ↑ North America Atlas National Geographic
  6. ↑ "North America" Atlas of Canada
  7. ↑ "North America". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia; "... associated with the continent is Greenland, the largest island in the world, and such offshore groups as the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Queen Charlotte Islands, and the Aleutian Islands."
  8. ↑ The World: Geographic Overview, The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency; "North America is commonly understood to include the island of Greenland, the isles of the Caribbean, and to extend south all the way to the Isthmus of Panama."
  9. ↑ The Netherlands Antilles: The joy of six, The Economist Magazine, April 29, 2010
  10. ↑ "Carib". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2008-07-11. Retrieved 2008-02-20. inhabited the Lesser Antilles and parts of the neighbouring South American coast at the time of the Spanish conquest.
  11. ↑ In the early 20th century, only the pronunciation with the primary stress on the first syllable was considered correct, according to Frank Horace Vizetelly, A Desk-Book of Twenty-five Thousand Words Frequently Mispronounced (Funk and Wagnalls, 1917), p. 233.
  12. ↑ Ladefoged, Peter and Johnstone, Keith (2011). A Course in Phonetics. Cengage Learning. pp. 86–. ISBN 978-1-4282-3126-9.
  13. ↑ See, e.g., Elster, supra.
  14. ↑ Allsopp, Richard and Allsopp, Jeannette (2003). Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage. University of the West Indies Press. p. 136–. ISBN 978-976-640-145-0.
  15. ↑ Background of the business forum of the Greater Caribbean of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS) at the Wayback Machine (archived March 27, 2010). acs-aec.org
  16. ↑ ten Brink, Uri. "Puerto Rico Trench 2003: Cruise Summary Results". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
  17. ↑ "Summary Climatological Normals 1981-2010" (PDF). Departamento Meteorologico Aruba. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
  18. ↑ "Climate Data Aruba". Departamento Meteorologico Aruba. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
  19. ↑ "Average Weather for Mayaguez, PR - Temperature and Precipitation". Weather.com. Retrieved 2012-06-07.
  20. ↑ "World Weather Information Service – Havana". Cuban Institute of Meteorology. June 2011. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
  21. ↑ "Casa Blanca, Habana, Cuba: Climate, Global Warming, and Daylight Charts and Data". Retrieved 2010-06-26.
  22. ↑ Mark Spalding; Corinna Ravilious; Edmund Peter Green (10 September 2001). World Atlas of Coral Reefs. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23255-6. Retrieved 25 June 2012.
  23. ↑ Littler, D. and Littler, M. (2000) Caribbean Reef Plants. OffShore Graphics, Inc., ISBN 0967890101.
  24. ↑ Minter, D.W., Rodríguez Hernández, M. and Mena Portales, J. (2001) Fungi of the Caribbean. An annotated checklist. PDMS Publishing, ISBN 0-9540169-0-4.
  25. ↑ Kirk, P. M. and Ainsworth, Geoffrey Clough (2008). Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi. CABI. ISBN 978-0-85199-826-8.
  26. ↑ "Fungi of Cuba – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
  27. ↑ "Fungi of Puerto Rico – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
  28. ↑ "Fungi of the Dominican Republic – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
  29. ↑ "Fungi of Trinidad & Tobago – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
  30. ↑ "North American Extinctions v. World". Thegreatstory.org. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
  31. ↑ "Caribbean Coral Reefs". coral-reef-info.com.
  32. ↑ Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Mumby, P. J.; Hooten, A. J.; Steneck, R. S.; Greenfield, P.; Gomez, E.; Harvell, C. D.; Sale, P. F.; et al. (2007). "Coral Reefs Under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification". Science 318 (5857): 1737–42. doi:10.1126/science.1152509. PMID 18079392.
  33. ↑ "Caribbean coral reefs may disappear within 20 years: Report". IANS. news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
  34. ↑ Rogoziński, Jan (2000). A Brief History of the Caribbean. Penguin. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-452-28193-6.
  35. ↑ Rogoziński, Jan (2000). A Brief History of the Caribbean. Penguin. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-452-28193-6.
  36. ↑ Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M. ABC-CLIO. p. 413. ISBN 0-313-34102-8.
  37. ↑ Engerman, p. 486
  38. ↑ The Sugar Revolutions and Slavery, U.S. Library of Congress
  39. ↑ To Hell or Barbados: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland, O'Callaghan S, Brandon Press, 2001, ISBN 0-86322-287-0.
  40. ↑ Engerman, pp. 488–492
  41. ↑ Engerman, Figure 11.1
  42. ↑ Engerman, pp. 501–502
  43. ↑ Engerman, pp. 504, 511
  44. ↑ Table A.2, Database documentation, Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) Population Database, version 3, International Center for Tropical Agriculture, 2005. Accessed on line February 20, 2008.
  45. ↑ Christianity in its Global Context
  46. ↑ Gowricharn, Ruben. Caribbean Transnationalism: Migraton, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion, Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006. p. 5 ISBN 0-7391-1167-1
  47. ↑ Hillman, p. 150
  48. ↑ Hillman, p. 165
  49. 1 2 Serbin, Andres (1994). "Towards an Association of Caribbean States: Raising Some Awkward Questions". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36 (4): 61–90. JSTOR 166319.
  50. ↑ Hillman, p. 123
  51. ↑ The U.S.-EU Banana Agreement at the Wayback Machine (archived May 6, 2009) See also: "Dominica: Poverty and Potential". BBC. 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
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  54. ↑ "World: Americas St Vincent hit by banana war". BBC News. 1999-03-13. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
  55. ↑ "Concern for Caribbean farmers". Bbc.co.uk. 2005-01-07. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
  56. ↑ Edmonds, Kevin (2012-03-06). "ALBA Expands its Allies in the Caribbean". Venezuela Analysis. Retrieved March 9, 2012.
  57. ↑ "CANTO Caribbean portal". Canto.org. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
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