Commercial Crew Development

Commercial Crew Program logo
NASA Commercial Crew and Cargo
Initiative Period
Development
Commercial Cargo Development 2006 - 2013
Commercial Space Transportation Capabilities 2007 - 2010
Commercial Crew Development (phase 1) 2010 - 2011
Commercial Crew Development (phase 2) 2011 - 2012
Commercial Crew integrated Capability (phase 3)
(base period milestones) 		2012 - 2014
Commercial Crew integrated Capability (phase 4)
(optional period milestones) 		2014 - 2017
Certification
Certification Products Contract (crew) 2012 - 2014
Commercial Crew Transportation Capability 2014 - 2017
Services
Commercial Resupply Services (cargo) 2011 - 2016
ISS Crew Transportation Services (crew) 2017 -
NASA's COTS program
Private spaceflight companies

Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) is a multiphase space technology development program, funded by the U.S. government, and administered by NASA. The program is intended to stimulate development of privately operated crew vehicles to low Earth orbit. It is run by the Commercial Crew and Cargo Program Office (C3PO) at NASA.[1] William Gerstenmaier, NASA's Associate Administrator for Human Exploration and Operations for NASA, stated in 2012 that most likely only one competitor would be chosen to deliver crew to the International Space Station.[2] This spacecraft is expected to begin doing so around 2017.[3]

In the first phase of the program, NASA provided a combined $50 million in 2010 to five American companies, intended to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector.

A second set of Commercial Crew Development proposals were solicited by NASA in October 2010 for technology development project durations of up to 14 months.[4] In April 2011, NASA announced that they would award up to nearly $270 million to four companies as they meet their CCDev 2 objectives.

NASA awarded Space Act Agreements for the third phase, named CCiCap, in August 2012 and is to last until 2014.[5] CCiCap is followed by CCtCap with Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) Part 15 contracts. The CCtCap FAR contracts forming the fourth and final phase were awarded to SpaceX and Boeing in September 2014.[6]

Requirements

The key high-level requirements for the Commercial Crew vehicles include:

Program overview

Flag left aboard ISS by the crew of STS-135 is to be retrieved by the next crew launched on an American vehicle

The NASA Commercial Crew Development program followed the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS), a NASA program for developing commercial launch capability to send cargo to low Earth orbit. In December 2009, NASA provided the following description for the Commercial Crew Development program.[10]

The objectives of the Commercial Crew & Cargo Program are to implement U.S. Space Exploration policy with investments to stimulate the commercial space industry; facilitate U.S. private industry demonstration of cargo and crew space transportation capabilities with the goal of achieving safe, reliable, cost effective access to low-Earth orbit; and create a market environment in which commercial space transportation services are available to Government and private sector customers.
The Commercial Crew & Cargo Program is applying Recovery Act funds to stimulate efforts within the private sector to develop and demonstrate human spaceflight capabilities. NASA plans to use funds appropriated for "Exploration" under the American Recovery & Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) through its C3PO to support efforts within the private sector to develop system concepts and capabilities that could ultimately lead to the availability of commercial human spaceflight services. These efforts are intended to foster entrepreneurial activity leading to job growth in engineering, analysis, design, and research and to promote economic recovery as capabilities for new markets are created.
ARRA provided $400 million for space exploration related activities. Of this amount, $50 million is to be used for the development of commercial crew space transportation concepts and enabling capabilities. This effort is known as CCDev. The purpose of this activity is to provide funding to assist viable commercial entities in the development of system concepts, key technologies, and capabilities that could ultimately be used in commercial crew human space transportation systems. This development work must show, within the timeframe of the agreement, significant progress on long lead capabilities, technologies and commercial crew risk mitigation tasks in order to accelerate the development of their commercial crew space transportation concept.

Contract funding for the CCDev program is quite different from traditional space industry contractor funding used on the Space Shuttle, Apollo, Gemini, and Mercury programs. Contracts are explicitly designed to fund only specific subsystem technology development objectives that NASA wants for NASA purposes; all other system technology development is funded by the commercial contractor. Contracts are issued for fixed-price, pay-for-performance milestones. "NASA's contribution is fixed."[11]

Funding and effect on schedule

Requested vs appropriated funding by year

The first flight of the Commercial Crew program was planned to occur in 2015, but insufficient funding has caused delays.[12][13] NASA Administrator, Charles Bolden, has attributed the delays of the CCDev program to insufficient funding from Congress.[14][15] Michael López-Alegría, President of the Commercial Spaceflight Federation, has also attributed the delays in the program to funding.[16]

For the fiscal year (FY) 2011 budget, US$500 million was requested for the CCDev program, but only $270 million was granted by Congress.[17] For the FY 2012 budget, US$850 million was requested but Congress approved a budget only $406 million, and as a result the first flight of Commercial Crew was delayed from 2016 to 2017.[13] For the 2013 budget, US$830 million was requested but Congress approved only $488 million.[18] For the FY 2014 budget, $821 million was requested, Congress approved $696 million.[12][19]

For commercial crew in FY 2015, NASA received an appropriation of $805 million from Congress, the largest annual amount since the beginning of the program, which was nearly the full amount of the $848 million requested by the Obama administration.[20]

Phases

CCDev 1

Construction of the CST-100 pressure vessel was one of Boeing's CCDev 1 milestones

Under CCDev phase 1, NASA has entered into funded Space Act Agreements with several companies working on technologies and systems for human spaceflight. Funding was provided as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. A total of $50 million for 2010 was awarded to five American companies, intended to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector.[10][21][22] The phase 1 amount was originally intended to be $150 million, most of which was diverted to the Constellation program by Senator Richard Shelby (R-AL).[23] All 53 delivery milestones for the five companies were scheduled to be completed by the end of 2010.[11]

Proposals selected

NASA awarded development funds to five companies under CCDev 1:

Proposals received

During the evaluation phase of CCDev1 proposals were received from the following participants:[33]

CCDev 2

The construction of a Dragon crew mock-up was one of SpaceX's CCDev 2 milestones, it is seen here during an event

A second set of Commercial Crew Development proposals was sought by NASA in October 2010. These could be both new concepts and proposals that mature the design and development of system elements, such as launch vehicles and spacecraft. NASA originally planned to issue about $200 million of Space Act Agreements in March 2011.[4]

On April 18, 2011, NASA awarded nearly $270 million to four companies for developing U.S. vehicles that could fly astronauts after the Shuttle.[34]

In August 2011, NASA provided status on the progress milestones of each of the four companies developing crew vehicle technologies under CCDev 2.[35] There are nine to eleven specific milestones, spread over second quarter 2011 through second quarter 2012, that each company must meet in order to receive their "performance based" funding for CCDev 2.[36]

Proposals selected

Winners of funding in the second round of the Commercial Crew Development program, or CCDev, were as follows:[37]

Blue Origin proposed advancing technologies in support of a biconic nose cone design orbital vehicle, including launch abort systems and restartable LOX/LH2 (liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen) engines.[38] This is different from the company's New Shepard VTVL spacecraft.[39] Blue Origin has since completed all of their CCDev 2 milestones.[40] In November 2014, NASA announced 3 additional unfunded milestones which include further testing of Blue Origin’s propellant tank, BE-3 engine and pusher escape system.[41]
Sierra Nevada Corporation proposed for phase 2 extensions of its Dream Chaser spaceplane technology.[42] Like the Orbital Sciences proposal, the Dream Chaser was also a lifting body design.[43] Sierra Nevada will utilize Virgin Galactic to market Dream Chaser commercial services and will use Virgin’s WhiteKnightTwo carrier aircraft as a platform for drop trials of the Dream Chaser atmospheric test vehicle in 2012.[42][44][45]
SpaceX proposed[46] to develop an "integrated launch abort system design" for the Dragon spacecraft, with reputed advantages over the more traditional tractor tower approaches used on prior manned space capsules. The system would be part of their Draco maneuvering system, which is currently used on the Dragon capsule for in-orbit maneuvering and de-orbit burns.[47] SpaceX finished completing all of their CCDev 2 milestones by August 2012.[40]
Boeing proposed additional development for the 7-person CST-100 spacecraft, beyond the objectives for the $18 million received from NASA in CCDev 1. The capsule will have both personnel and cargo configurations, and is explicitly designed to be launched by multiple different rockets, and be reusable up to 10 times.[48]

Proposals selected without NASA funding

Proposals not selected

Proposals that were not awarded funds in the second round of the Commercial Crew Development program, or CCDev, were as follows:

Commercial Crew integrated Capability

Flight testing of the Dream Chaser Engineering Test Article was one of Sierra Nevada's CCiCap milestones

The Commercial Crew integrated Capability (CCiCap) initiative is the third round of the crew development program and was originally called CCDev 3.[66] For this phase of the program, NASA wanted proposals to be a complete end-to-end design, including spacecraft, launch vehicles, launch services, ground and mission operations and recovery. In September 2011, NASA released a draft request for proposals (RFP).[67]

The government contracting approach for CCiCap was originally intended to utilize a new contracting mechanism, one that differed from the Space Act Agreement fixed-price milestone-based contracts of the previous phases. As of October 2011, NASA was planning to award competitive contracts under the more traditional Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR) system instead of using Space Act Agreements.[67] But after some months of planning for the switch to new style contracting approach, NASA announced in mid-December 2011 it would resume use of Space Act Agreements because of Congressional funding reductions to the program for Fiscal Year 2012.[68][69] FAR contracts are planned to be used for the certification of Commercial Transportation Services to the ISS.[70] The final RFP was released on February 7, 2012, with proposals due on March 23, 2012.[71][72]

The funded Space Act Agreements were awarded on August 3, 2012 and amended on August 15, 2013. CCiCap contracts were planned to be completed by August 2014.[5][73] NASA hopes that facilitating development of this U.S. capability will provide safe, reliable, and cost effective human transportation to Low-Earth Orbit (LEO).[66]

Proposals selected

Winners of funding in the third round of the Commercial Crew Development program, announced on August 3, 2012, were:[5]

Sierra Nevada Corporation proposed for further development of its Dream Chaser spaceplane/Atlas V system.
SpaceX proposed further development for the Dragon spacecraft/Falcon 9 system.
Boeing proposed further development for the CST-100 spacecraft/Atlas V system.

Proposals that passed acceptability screening

Proposals not selected

Development achievements

NASA reported that as of November 2014 Boeing had completed its CCiCap milestones;[41] Sierra Nevada had completed 10 of 13 its milestones; SpaceX had completed 13 of 18 its milestones. SpaceX received an extra milestone that is to be completed by March 2015.[75] The milestones are listed in the appendixes to the Funded Space Act Agreements.[N 1][76]

In May 2014, Boeing, Sierra Nevada Corporation, and Space Exploration Technologies completed reviews detailing how each plans to meet NASA's certification requirements to transport space station crew members to and from the ISS. This completes the first phase of certifying the new Crew Transportation Systems.[77]

Preparation for the next phase

In June 2014, Boeing announced that they intend to send out preliminary layoff notices to 215 employees—approximately 170 in Houston and 45 in Florida—to prepare for the possibility that Boeing would not be selected to continue the work into the next phase, following the expected NASA downselect in late-summer 2014. These advance notices to employees are required under the WARN legislation required under US law, and must be issued 60 days in advance of the time any large layoff is expected to take effect. If Boeing is selected to continue, the actual layoffs would not occur, and Boeing would intend to hire personnel for an additional 75 new positions. Sierra Nevada "is not preparing any WARN notices to its Dream Chaser workforce."[78]

Certification Products Contract (CPC) phase 1

The first phase of the Certification Products Contract (CPC) will involve the review of the integrated crew transportation systems through the creation of a certification plan that will result in the development of engineering standards, tests and analyses of the crew transportation systems designs.[79] This phase of CPC is expected to run from 22 January 2013 to 30 May 2014.[79]

Proposals selected

Winners of funding of phase 1 of the Certification Products Contract, announced on December 10, 2012, were:[79]

Certification Products Contract (CPC) phase 2

The second phase of the Certification Products Contract is expected to begin in mid-2014 and will involve a full and open competition.[79] It will include the final development, testing and verifications necessary to allow crewed demonstration flights to the ISS.[79] Phase 2 is called CCtCap.[80]

Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap)

NASA has proposed a next phase of a program to begin purchasing commercial astronaut transportation services with the Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) solicitation. Contract award and funding occurred in 2014. Flights of NASA astronauts on CCtCap-provided vehicles will occur no earlier than 2017.[81]

In a change from previous commercial crew development programs where commercial providers tested the developed technology to NASA contractual requirements, CCtCap will include "Joint Test Teams" (JTT) with NASA personnel operating in a more traditional NASA acquisition approach whereby NASA oversees some design choices, with the NASA offering non-firm-fixed-price 'cost sharing' to pay for the tests.[81]

The draft CCtCap contract Request For Proposals (RFP) was issued by NASA on July 19, 2013. The response date was August 15, 2013.[80]

According to the letter and Executive Summary:

There are four separate Contract Line Items (CLINs) for CTS certification, ISS mission support, special studies, and additional cargo capability (if proposed).[82]:p. 4

NASA is to supply four Docking System Block 1 Units on a no charge-for-use basis. The first unit will be available in February 2016.[82]:p. 8

NASA held a Commercial Crew Pre-proposal Conference at Kennedy Space Center on December 4, 2013, after formally requesting proposals for CCtCap in late November.[83]

NASA's 2014 budget for CCtCap is US$696 million, reduced from an Obama Administration request of US$821 million.[81]

In May 2014, NASA announced that each awardee has to perform at least one crewed test flight to verify the spacecraft can dock to the space station and all its systems perform as expected. NASA intends to meet its station crew rotation requirements by including at least two, and as many as six, crewed, post-certification missions in the contracts.[84] NASA also intends that CCtCap will allow U.S. providers to supply other customers.[84]

Awards

On September 16, 2014, NASA announced that Boeing and SpaceX have received contracts to provide crewed launch services to the ISS. For completing the same contract requirements, Boeing can receive up to US$4.2 billion, while SpaceX can receive up to US$2.6 billion.[6] Both Boeing (CST-100 flying on United Launch Alliance (ULA) Atlas V) and SpaceX (Dragon V2 flying on Falcon 9) were awarded for the same set of requirements: completing development and certification of their crew vehicle, then flying up to six operational flights to the ISS following a certification flight. The contracts include at least two of the operational flights for each company.[85]

Total program award of US$6.8 billion covers both development costs through CCtCap program funding—US$3.42 billion over the years 2015-2019, with US$848 million in the commercial crew budget request for FY 2015—as well as US$3.4 billion for operational crew resupply to the ISS—12 flights with 4 astronauts on each flight where NASA assumed the same per-seat price of US$70.7 million that it will pay for each Soyuz seat in 2016.[85][86] With the program awards in September, NASA did not release the number of proposals it received, or any details about the selection process, but had stated that such information would be released "at an 'appropriate' but unspecified date."[85]

On September 26, 2014, Sierra Nevada Corporation submitted a protest of the CCtCap awards, stating to have undercut Boeing by $900 million, while scoring close to its competitors in the other criteria.[87] The Government Accountability Office (GAO) had until January 5, 2015 to rule on the protest.[88] By October 1, 2014, NASA had instructed Boeing and SpaceX to halt work on the CCtCap contracts.[89] On October 8, 2014, NASA instructed Boeing and SpaceX to proceed with contract work during the GAO review.[90] In January 2015 the GAO denied Sierra Nevada Corporation's protest.[91]

CCtCap contract progress

As of December 2014 both SpaceX and Boeing have started work on their Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) contracts.[92]

Flights

As of February 2016, the SpaceX Dragon V2.0 is scheduled to carry out an in flight abort test in 2016 prior to an unmanned test flight to the ISS in 2017.[93] Following this, a manned test flight should launch 2017. The Boeing CST-100 is scheduled for an unmanned test flight in April 2017 followed by a manned test flight in July 2017. The first contracted crew delivery, known as USCV-1, is tentatively scheduled for late 2017.[94]

On May 28, 2015, NASA awarded Boeing the first contract to launch a crew to the International Space Station with the CST-100 spacecraft under the CCtCap initiative. The launch, tentatively scheduled for late 2017, is provisional on its certification.[95]

Funding summary

The funding of all commercial crew contract awardees for each phase of the CCP program is as follows—CCtCap values are maximums and include post development operational flights—in millions of US$:

Funding Summary
Round
(years)		 CCDev1[96]
(2010–2011)		 CCDev2[97][98]
(2011–2012)		 CCiCap[5][73]
(2012–2014)		 CPC1[79]
(2013–2014)		 CCtCap[86] Total
(2010–2017)
Manufacturers of spacecraft
The Boeing Company 18.0 92.3 + 20.61 460.0 + 203 9.9 4,200.0 4,820.9
Blue Origin 3.7 22.0 – – – 25.7
Sierra Nevada Corporation 20.0 80.0 + 25.61 212.5 + 153 10.0 – 362.1
SpaceX – 75.0 440.0 + 203 9.6 2,600.0 3,144.6
Excalibur Almaz – 02 – – – 0
Manufacturers of launch vehicles
United Launch Alliance 6.7 0 – – – 6.7
Alliant Techsystems (ATK) – 0 – – – 0
Others
Paragon Space Development Corporation 1.4 – – – – 1.4
Total: 49.8 315.5 1,167.5 29.6 6,800.0 8,307.4

1 Additional amount awarded in 2011.
2 Space Act Agreement signed in 2011 in the frame of CCDev2.[57]
3 Additional amount awarded in 2013.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The Agreements and amendments are linked to from the CCiCap page of the NASA web site and in the External links below.[76]

References

  1. ↑ Commercial Crew & Cargo Program Office, NASA website, June 3, 2014, accessed December 16, 2015.
  2. ↑ "Recent Developments in NASA’s Commercial Crew Acquisition Strategy". United States House Committee on Science, Space and Technology. 14 September 2012. Retrieved 23 September 2012.
  3. ↑ Leone, Dan (20 June 2012). "NASA Banking on Commercial Crew To Grow ISS Population". Space News. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
  4. 1 2 "NASA Seeks More Proposals On Commercial Crew Development". press release 10-277. NASA. October 25, 2010.
  5. 1 2 3 4 "NASA Announces Next Steps in Effort to Launch Americans from U.S. Soil". NASA. August 3, 2012. Retrieved August 3, 2012.
  6. 1 2 Bolden, Charlie. "American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil". NASA.gov. Retrieved September 16, 2014.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Bayt, Rob (July 26, 2011). "Commercial Crew Program: Key Driving Requirements Walkthrough". NASA. Retrieved July 27, 2011.
  8. 1 2 3 "Commercial Crew Program - fact sheet" (PDF). NASA. February 2012. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
  9. ↑ Memi, Ed (July 2005). "Space Shuttle upgrade lets astronauts at ISS stay in space longer". Boeing. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
  10. 1 2 "Selection Statement For Commercial Crew Development" (PDF). JSC-CCDev-1. NASA. December 9, 2008. Retrieved February 10, 2011.
  11. 1 2 "Moving Forward: Commercial Crew Development Building the Next Era in Spaceflight" (PDF). Rendezvous. NASA. 2010. pp. 10–17. Retrieved February 14, 2011. Just as in the COTS projects, in the CCDev project we have fixed-price, pay-for-performance milestones," Thorn said. "There’s no extra money invested by NASA if the projects cost more than projected.
  12. 1 2 Norris, Guy (31 May 2013). "NASA Chief Repeats Warnings On Commercial Crew Delays". Aviation Week. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
  13. 1 2 Clark, Stephen (2011-11-23). "Reduced budget threatens delay in private spaceships". Spaceflightnow. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
  14. ↑ Bolden, Charles (30 April 2013). "Launching American Astronauts from U.S. Soil". Retrieved 1 May 2013. If NASA had received the President's requested funding for this plan, we would not have been forced to recently sign a new contract with Roscosmos for Soyuz transportation flights. Because the funding for the President's plan has been significantly reduced, we now won’t be able to support American launches until 2017. Even this delayed availability will be in question if Congress does not fully support the President's fiscal year 2014 request for our Commercial Crew Program, forcing us once again to extend our contract with the Russians.
  15. ↑ Leone, Dan (4 March 2015). "NASA Making Plans for Russia’s Secession From ISS". SpaceNews. Retrieved 5 March 2015. Had we gotten the funding that was first requested when I became the NASA administrator [in 2009], we would have been all joyously going to the Kennedy Space Center later this year to watch the first launch of some commercial spacecraft with our crew members on it.
  16. ↑ "CSF President Michael Lopez-Alegria Statement on NASA Contract Extension with Roscosmos". Commercial Spaceflight Federation. 2 May 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
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  18. ↑ McAlister, Phillip (18 April 2013). "Commercial Spaceflight Update" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
  19. ↑ Joe Pappalardo (September 16, 2014). "Is the Relationship Between NASA and Private Space About to Sour?". Popular Mechanics.
  20. ↑ Clark, Stephen (2014-12-14). "NASA gets budget hike in spending bill passed by Congress". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved 2014-12-15.
  21. ↑ "NASA Selects Commercial Firms to Begin Development of Crew Transportation Concepts and Technology Demonstrations for Human Spaceflight Using Recovery Act Funds". press release (NASA). February 1, 2010. Retrieved February 2, 2010.
  22. ↑ "Commercial Crew and Cargo Program" (PDF).
  23. ↑ "Shelby wins battle on stimulus funding".
  24. ↑ Jeff Foust. "Blue Origin proposes orbital vehicle".
  25. 1 2 3 4 "CCDev awardees one year later: where are they now?". NewSpace Journal. February 4, 2011. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
  26. ↑ NASA Selects Boeing for American Recovery and Reinvestment Act Award to Study Crew Capsule-based Design
  27. ↑ "Boeing CCDev". Commercial Crew & Cargo. NASA. Retrieved February 28, 2013.
  28. ↑ "CCDev Information". NASA. July 20, 2010.
  29. ↑ "SNC receives largest award of NASA's CCDev Competitive Contract". SNC. February 1, 2010.
  30. ↑ Bourzac, Katherine (January 18, 2011). "A Private Space Shuttle Replacement". Technology Review. MIT. Retrieved January 22, 2011. This spacecraft, the size of a business jet, will take cargo and up to eight people into low Earth orbit, where the space station is located, and then return and land on commercial airport runways.
  31. ↑ "NASA Selects United Launch Alliance for Commercial Crew Development Program". February 2, 2010.
  32. ↑ "United Launch Alliance CCDev". Commercial Crew & Cargo. NASA. Retrieved February 28, 2013.
  33. ↑ JSC-CCDev-1 "Selection Statement for Commercial Crew Development". NASA via hobbyspace.com, December 8, 2009.
  34. ↑ Dean, James. "NASA awards $270 million for commercial crew efforts". space.com, April 18, 2011.
  35. ↑ Bergin, Chris (August 1, 2011). "NASA oversight of CCDev-2 Partners reveals progress milestones". NASA Spaceflight. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
  36. ↑ "CCDev 2 Milestone Schedule" (pdf). NASA. August 16, 2011. Retrieved August 20, 2011.
  37. ↑ Morring, Frank, Jr. (2011-04-22). "Five Vehicles Vie To Succeed Space Shuttle". Aviation Week. Retrieved 2011-02-23. the CCDev-2 awards, ... went to Blue Origin, Boeing, Sierra Nevada Corp. and Space Exploration Technologies Inc. (SpaceX).
  38. ↑ , p. 2-1
  39. ↑ " Blue Origin Technology". Blue Origin. Retrieved February 1, 2016.
  40. 1 2 3 4 5 "Commercial Crew Program Update" (PDF). NASA. December 2012. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
  41. 1 2 "RELEASE 14-317 NASA Commercial Crew Partners Continue System Advancements". NASA.gov. NASA. Retrieved March 5, 2015.
  42. 1 2 Orbital Aims For Station With Lifting Body. Aviation Week, 2010-12-17, accessed 2010-12-20. "will use Virgin to market its services. But Sierra is also in discussions about using Virgin’s WhiteKnightTwo carrier aircraft as a platform for drop trials of the Dream Chaser atmospheric test vehicle"
  43. ↑ Companies submit plans for new NASA spacecraft. Daily Record, 2010-12-17, accessed 2010-12-20.
  44. 1 2 Virgin joins forces with two companies on CCDev, NewSpace Journal, 2010-12-16, accessed 2010-12-18.
  45. ↑ Trivers, Elise (2011-02-05). "NASA Deputy Administrator Lori Garver touts Colorado's role in space exploration". Boulder Daily Camera. 00:18. Retrieved 2011-02-06. Behind me is the Dream Chaser. It's the core structure that will become an atmospheric flight test vehicle in 2012 for drop tests. We're gonna take it up on the Virgin Galactic White Knight 2, the big airplane, that's gonna carry it underneath, drop it, and we'll do approach and landing tests, much like what was done for the Space Shuttle before it flew into space.
  46. ↑ "Commercial Crew Development (CCDEV) video" (video). SpaceX. 2011-01-14. 3:40. Retrieved 2011-01-17.
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  51. ↑ Bergin, Chris. "NASA and ULA agree SAA to complete the human rating of Atlas V". nasaspaceflight.com, July 18, 2011.
  52. ↑ "NASA inks agreement with maker of Atlas V rocket"
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  56. ↑ "Commercial Crew Program Forum Presentation", p. 7. commercialcrew.nasa.gov, September 16, 2011.
  57. 1 2 "CCP and Excalibur Sign Space Act Agreement". NASA.
  58. ↑ "Excalibur Almaz, NASA sign commercial spaceflight deal"
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  61. ↑ Jumping into the New Space Race, Orbital Sciences Unveils Mini-Shuttle Spaceplane Design, Popular Science, 2010-12-16, accessed 2010-12-18. "Orbital Sciences isn’t the kind of independent, private, “new space” enterprise as, say, SpaceX. It’s a consortium of defense and aviation heavy-hitters: Northrop would build the plane, and the rockets would be provided by United Launch Alliance (read: Boeing and Lockheed)."
  62. ↑ "Orbital may wind down its commercial crew effort". NewSpace Journal. 2011-04-22. Retrieved 2011-04-25. CEO Dave Thompson said ... "I don’t, at this time, anticipate that we’ll continue to pursue our own project in that race. We’ll watch it and if an opportunity develops we may reconsider. But at this point, I would not anticipate a lot of activity on our part in the commercial crew market."
  63. ↑ "(press release) Paragon Space Development Corporation Completes All Development Milestones on the NASA Commercial Crew Development Program" (PDF). Paragon. 2011-01-31.
  64. ↑ Boyle, Alan (2011-02-11). "Let's talk about the final frontier". Cosmic Log. MSNBC. Retrieved 2011-02-13. the proposal calls for the development of a spaceship that could be sent into space on a variety of launch vehicles. ... "Up to eight crew, Soyuz-like architecture (recoverable reusable crew element, expendable orbital/cargo module). Incorporates HMX's patented integral abort system (uses OMS/RCS propellant in separate abort engines). Can fly on Atlas 401 [a configuration for the Atlas 5 rocket], F9 [SpaceX's Falcon 9] or Taurus II (enhanced) but with a reduced cargo and crew capability on the latter vehicle. Goal is to be the lowest-price provider on a per-seat basis. Nominal land recovery with water backup."
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  66. 1 2 "COMMERCIAL CREW INTEGRATED CAPABILITY". NASA. 2012-01-23. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
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  71. ↑ "CCiCap Solicitation". NASA. 2012-02-07. Retrieved 11 February 2012.
  72. ↑ "Commercial Crew Integrated Capability Pre-Proposal Conference". NASA. February 14, 2012. Retrieved February 14, 2012.
  73. 1 2 "NASA Announces Additional Commercial Crew Development Milestones". Space Ref. SpaceRef Interactive Inc. August 15, 2013. Retrieved August 16, 2013.
  74. 1 2 3 4 Commercial Crew Integrated Capabilities Selection Statement
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  76. 1 2 "Commercial Crew Program (CCP) - Commercial Crew Integrated Capability (CCiCap)". commercialcrew.nasa.gov. NASA. Retrieved July 10, 2014.
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