K-pop

"KPOP" redirects here. For other uses, see KPOP (disambiguation).

K-pop (an abbreviation of Korean pop;[1] Hangul: 케이팝; RR: kei-pap)[1] is a musical genre originating in South Korea that is characterized by a wide variety of audiovisual elements. Although it comprises all genres of "popular music" within South Korea, the term is more often used in a narrower sense to describe a modern form of South Korean pop music covering a wide range of styles including dance-pop, pop ballad, electronic, rock, metal,[2] hip-hop music and R&B.[3]

In 1992, modern K-pop was ushered in with the formation of Seo Taiji and Boys, whose successful experimentation with different music styles had sparked a paradigm shift in the music industry of South Korea.[4] As a result, the integration of foreign musical elements has now become a common practice in the K-pop industry.[5]

First gaining popularity in East Asia in the late 1990s, K-pop entered the Japanese music market towards the turn of the 21st century. In the late 2000s, it grew from a musical genre into a subculture among teenagers and young adults of East and Southeast Asia.[6] Currently, the spread of K-pop to other regions of the world, via the Korean Wave, is seen in parts of Latin America,[7][8][9] Northeast India,[10][11] North Africa,[12][13] the Middle East,[14][15] Eastern Europe[16][17][18] and immigrant enclaves of the Western world.[19][20][21][22]

Korean pop culture is becoming an increasingly global phenomenon, caused in part by the K-pop industry's adeptness at tapping into social networking services and the video sharing platform YouTube.[23] Since the mid-2000s, the K-pop music market has experienced double digit growth rates. In the first half of 2012, it grossed nearly US$3.4 billion[24] and was recognized by Time magazine as "South Korea's Greatest Export".[25]

Overview

Search volume for K-pop since 2008 according to Google Trends

The hallmarks of K-pop are:

The Bank of Korea has attributed the rapid surge in cultural exports since 1997 to the increased worldwide popularity of K-pop.[34]

While the roots of K-pop run all the way back to the 19th century, it was mostly contained within the Korean Peninsula until the 21st century when it became an integral part of the Korean Wave; a newly coined term describing the rise and spread of South Korean culture first across Asia, and then to the West and to other parts of the world.[41] According to a 2011 survey conducted by the Korean Culture and Information Service, the total number of active members in Hallyu (Korean Wave) fan clubs around the world is estimated to have surpassed 3 million for the first time.[42]

History

The beginnings of Korean popular music
Oppaneun punggakjaengi
(오빠는 풍각쟁이)
A 1938 trot song by Kim Song Kyu and Park Yeong Ho. Sung by Park Hyang Rim.
Problems playing this file? See media help.

The history of Korean popular music can be traced back to 1885 when an American missionary, Henry Appenzeller started teaching American and British folk songs at a school. These songs were called changga in Korean, and they were typically based on a popular Western melody sung with Korean lyrics. The well-known song "Oh My Darling, Clementine" was for example known as "Simcheongga".[note 1] During the Japanese rule (1910–1945) popularity of changga songs rose as Koreans tried to express their feelings against Japanese oppression through music. One of the most popular songs was "Huimangga" (희망가, The Song of Hope). The Japanese confiscated the existing changga collections and published lyrics books of their own.[43]

The first known Korean pop album was "Yi Pungjin Sewol" (This Tumultuous Time) by Park Chae-seon and Lee Ryu-saek from 1925 and contained popular songs translated from Japanese. The first pop song written by a Korean composer is thought to be "Nakhwayusu" (낙화유수, Fallen Blossoms on Running Water) sung by Lee Jeong-suk in 1929.[43] In the mid-1920s, Japanese composer Masao Koga mixed traditional Korean music with Gospel music that American Evangelists introduced in the 1870s. This type of music became known as Enka in Japan, and later in Korea as Trot (Korean: "트로트").[44][45] These songs became extremely popular.[43]

Later, in the 21st century K-pop singers rediscovered the genre of trot, for example singers like Daesung from Big Bang and several members of Super Junior produced trot singles.[46][47]

1940s–1960s: Arrival of Western culture

After the Korean Peninsula was partitioned into North and South following its liberation in 1945 from Japanese occupation, Western culture was introduced into South Korea on a small scale with a few Western style bars and clubs playing Western music. After the Korean War, which started on June 25, 1950 and lasted for 3 years, U.S. troops remained in South Korea for protection. With the continued presence of the U.S. military, American and world culture began to infiltrate South Korea. During this time, Western music became more accepted to a wider crowd of young adults.

Marilyn Monroe entertaining American soldiers in Korea in 1954

The United Service Organizations made it possible for several prominent figures of American entertainment, like Marilyn Monroe or Louis Armstrong to visit the soldiers stationed in Korea. These visits prompted attention from the Korean public. In 1957 the American Forces Korea Network radio started its broadcast, spreading the popularity of Western music. American music started influencing Korean music, as pentatony was gradually replaced by heptachords and popular songs started to be modeled after American ones.[48]

Improvements in the recording systems encouraged the production of LP records in the 1960s, which led to the pursuit of diverse voice tones.[49] Many singers sang for the American troops in Korea at the time, usually in dedicated clubs, the number of which rose to 264. They performed various genres like country music, blues, jazz and rock & roll. Popular Korean singers earned a total of 1.2 million dollars a year which almost equaled the country's export income at the time.[48]

In the 1960s, the South Korean economy started blooming and popular music followed the trend. The appearance of the first commercial radio stations played a significant part in spreading popular music, Korean cinema began to develop. Korean musicians and singers formerly only performing at American clubs started opening up to wider audiences. When The Beatles fever reached the shores of Korea, the first local rock bands appeared, the very first is said to be Add4,[50] founded in 1962.[48] The first talent contest for rock bands in Seoul was organized in 1968. Besides rock and pop, trot songs remained popular.[48]

Some of the Korean singers managed to gain international popularity. The Kim Sisters, Yoon Bok-hee and Patti Kim were the first singers to debut in such countries as Vietnam and United States. The Kim Sisters became the first Korean group to release an album in the United States, they performed various times in Las Vegas and appeared several times on Ed Sullivan's TV show.[51] Han Myeong Suk's 1961 song titled "The Boy in The Yellow Shirt" was covered by French singer Yvette Giraud and was also popular in Japan.[48]

1970s: Korean hippie folk pop

At the end of the 1960s and beginning of the 1970s Korean pop music underwent another transformation. Musicians now tended to university students and graduates and made music fun and self entertaining unlike the earlier generations. These young musicians were heavily influenced by American culture and lifestyle, unlike their predecessors who had to experience war and Japanese oppression. This generational conflict was well reflected in the reception of the folk pop music of the 1970s. The audience consisted mostly of students following the American hippie style in fashion and music alike, with guitars and jeans becoming a symbol of youth.[49] These young people opposed the Vietnam war as much as American hippies did which resulted in the Korean government banning songs with more liberal lyrics. In spite of this, hippie folk pop remained popular among the youth so much so that the local television channel MBC organised a music contest for university students in 1977, which consequently led to the foundation of several modern music festivals.[52]

One of the leading figures of the era was Han Dae-soo, raised in the United States, influenced by Bob Dylan, Leonard Cohen and John Lennon. Han's iconic song "Mul jom juso" (물 좀 주소, Give Me Water) became a hymn for young people in Korea, his daring performances and unique singing style often shocked the public and later he was banned from performing in Korea. Han moved to New York and pursued his musical career there, only returning to his home country in the 1990s.[52] Other notable singers of the period include Song Chang-sik, Young Nam Cho and Hee Eun Yang.

In the 1970s, DJs also started to become popular, deeply impacting teenage culture.[49]

1980s: The era of ballads

The 1980s saw the rise of ballad singers, the genre became popular after the 1985 release of Lee Gwang-jo's "You’re Too Far Away to Get Close to" (가까이 하기엔 너무 먼 당신, Gakkai Hagien Neomu Meon Dangsin). Lee's album sold more than 300,000 copies. Other popular ballad singers included Lee Moon-se (이문세) and Byun Jin-seob (변진섭), nicknamed the "Prince of Ballads". One of the most sought after ballad composers of the era was Lee Young-hoon (이영훈), whose songs were compiled into a modern musical in 2011 titled Gwanghwamun Yeonga (광화문 연가, Gwanghwamun's Song).[53]

In 1980, the Asia Music Forum was launched. National singers from five different Asian countries competed in the event. Cho Yong-pil won first place and earned a high reputation as a Korean singer in Japan.[49] His first album, Chang bakkui yeoja (창 밖의 여자, The Woman outside the Window) was a hit and he became the first Korean singer to take the stage at the Carnegie Hall in New York. He won nearly all relevant awards at major events, including best composer and best song awards. He was invited to perform in Japan and Hong Kong, among other countries. Cho's musical repertoire included rock, dance, trot and folk pop.[53]

1990s: The turning point

DJ DOC, one of the popular hip hop trios of the 1990s[54]

In the 1990s, early Korean pop musicians incorporated American popular music styles like rap, rock and techno in their music.[55] In 1992 the emergence of Seo Taiji & Boys brought a true turning point in the history of K-pop.[56] The trio debuted on MBC's talent show with their song "Nan Arayo" (난 알아요, I Know) and got the lowest rating from the jury.[56] However, the song and the album with the same title became so successful that, according to MTV Iggy, "K-pop music would never be the same" again:[57] "Its new jack swing-inspired beats, catchy rap lyrics and memorable choruses took Korean audiences by storm".[57] The lyrics of Seo Taiji & Boys dealt with the problems of Korean society, which other entertainers of the era failed to do.[57] Their sound paved the way for the "success format" of K-pop songs,[57] and their footsteps were followed by a wave of successful hip hop and R&B artists like Yoo Seungjun, Jinusean, Deux, 1TYM and Drunken Tiger.[56]

In 1995 Korean entrepreneur Lee Soo-man founded South Korea's largest talent agency and record label, SM Entertainment.[58] By the late 1990s, YG Entertainment, DSP Entertainment, JYP Entertainment, and FNC Music had burst onto the scene as well and were producing talent as quickly as the public could consume it.[59]

The success of Seo Taiji & Boys brought a new audience to K-pop: teenagers, which led to the emergence of so-called idol bands: young boy and girl bands.[56] H.O.T. is considered as the first K-pop idol boy band, they debuted in 1995. They were followed by bands like Sechs Kies, S.E.S., Fin.K.L, NRG, Taesaja, Baby V.O.X., Diva, Shinhwa and g.o.d[56] The 1997 Asian financial crisis prompted Korean entertainers to look for new markets: H.O.T. also released a Chinese language album[56] and Diva released an English album in Taiwan.

The 1990s were also a successful period for underground music clubs, punk rock bands like Pipi Band or Crying Nut managed to gain mainstream popularity.[56]

21st century: Rise of Hallyu (Korean Wave)

Main article: Korean Wave

The increasing popularity of K-pop has been termed the “Korean Wave”, which refers to “the popularity of South Korean culture in other Asian countries”.[60] Nowadays, the Korean Wave can be seen not only within Asian countries, but it is also making appearances in the Western music scene. This is due not only to the ways in which other cultures influence K-pop, but also to the idea that the K-pop industry and entertainment houses places immense pressure on their artists to be global performers. “K-pop entails the export of music ‘made in Korea’ to global consumers”.[61] K-pop is created with the goal of not only being popular within Korea and Asia, but also to display ‘Korean culture’ to those outside of Asia.

K-pop industry statistics
Year Total exports in US$ YouTube views
2008 $16.5 million[62]
2009 $31.3 million[62]
2010 $84.9 million[63] 800 million[64]
2011 $180 million[63] 2.2 billion[65]
2012 $235 million[66] 7.0 billion[65]
Exports by country (US$)
Year Japan China
2008 $11.2 million[67] $1.80 million[68]
2009 $21.6 million[69] $2.36 million[69]
2010 $3.60 million[68]
2012 $204 million[70]

Towards the turn of the 21st century, the K-pop genre began spreading out to other regions of the world as part of the global Korean Wave. In 2002, Baby V.O.X.'s single "Coincidence" became popular in many Asian countries because it was released and promoted right away during the World Cup in South Korea and BoA became the first K-pop singer to reach No. 1 on the Japanese Oricon music chart.[71] Shortly afterwards, the South Korean music artist Rain gave a sold-out concert to 40,000 fans in Beijing.[72]

In 2003, the girl group Baby V.O.X. topped the Chinese music charts with their Chinese single I'm Still Loving You from their third album Devotion, thus being the first idol group to do so and making a huge fanbase in China and also charted in various music charts in Thailand with singles What Should I Do and I'm Still Loving You. Since the mid-2000s, a huge portion of the East Asian music market has been dominated by K-pop idol groups.[73]

In 2008, South Korea's cultural exports (including television dramas and computer games) rose to US$2 billion for the first time, maintaining an annual growth rate of over 10%.[74] That year, Japan accounted for almost 68% of all K-pop export revenues, ahead of China (11.2%) and the United States (2.1%).[75] The sale of concert tickets proved to be a lucrative business as fans were willing to fork out large sums to see their idols. For example, TVXQ's Tohoshinki Live Tour in Japan sold over 850,000 tickets at an average cost of US$109 each, generating a total of $US92.6 million in revenues.[76] Over 60% of the K-pop industry's export revenue is derived from the sale of concert tickets.[76]

According to Foreign Policy, the K-pop genre subsequently took off in Southeast Asia before reaching out to the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and South America.[18] In 2012, the number of fans in Turkey surpassed 100,000 for the first time,[77] and reached 150,000 in 2013.[78] That year, there were 70 K-pop fan clubs in Mexico, with at least 60,000 members altogether.[79]

Several singers decided to expand their music careers by releasing English language-studio albums in the hope of bringing over the genre to Western music markets. Such attempts did not yield much success.[80]

In 2012, K-pop's breakthrough into the Western mainstream media occurred through the release of Psy's "Gangnam Style," which racked up over 2 billion views on YouTube as of July 2014, the first ever Internet video to reach one billion views.

Other recent milestones attained by K-pop bands and musicians include:

Characteristics

Hybrid and transnational values

K-pop boy bands HITT (top left), MBLAQ (top right), BIGBANG (bottom left) and EXO (bottom right)

According to a Rolling Stone author, K-Pop embraces "genre fusion" with both singing and rap, while emphasizing solid performances and visuals at the same time.[122] It is a mix of genres like pop, rock, hip hop, R&B and electronic music. K-pop can be described as a globalized music; it is a mixture of Western and European sounds with an Asian flavor of performance. The way these Korean singers perform their songs with synchronized dance moves and complex gestures has increased the popularity of K-pop. It now takes a big place in the music market throughout Asia and the world.[123] As a Chinese K-pop fan describes it: "Korean pop culture skillfully blends Western and Asian values to create its own, and the country itself is viewed as a prominent model to follow or catch up, both culturally and economically". In this article, the author Doobo Shim adds that even if cultural proximity plays a big role in the popularity of K-pop in Asia, that is not enough. For him, this is that 'vision of modernization' inherent to the Korean pop culture that plays a part in making it acceptable.[124]

According to Eun-Young Jung, the transnational and hybrid values of K-pop are responsible for its success. He argues that values in K-pop are not only western or Korean. Indeed, according to how the process of transnationality developed, K-pop does not consist of Japanese and US values that have been mixed to match a marketing process. The cultural imperialism of Japanese and US societies deeply changed Korean popular values at multiple levels and inversely the rise of Korean popular culture started to influence the values of other countries. He says, "Contemporary Korean pop culture is built on such unavoidable transnational flows, as its multi-layered and multi-directional mobility has been creating various socio-cultural contacts taking place across, beyond, and outside national and institutional boundaries." He concludes that K-pop is not only a side genre that tries to survive next to the mainstream US pop, but that contemporary phenomenon are much more complex. He thinks that because of the development of digital technologies (Digital revolution) and globalization, consumers of twenty-first-century pop culture now have the choice between many cultural products from all over the world.[125]

K-pop is well known for its high quality artistic craft, the clean-cut features of its singers, their polite and genteel demeanor, as well as strong emphasis on middle class and suburban values which resonate with people across many different ethnic, national, and religious backgrounds around the world.[126] K-pop music has become diversified into many different genres. Some K-pop musicians offer songs with the mixture of the tunes from Western genres, such as country music. The combination of Asian singers singing Western and European style music contributes to the unique features of K-pop and makes it more global.[127]

Prior to the nineties, the K-pop music industry was relatively stagnant as the youth preferred American pop songs to local ones. Furthermore, live concerts were rarely held, and were often at a small venue. Musicians were also required to perform in accordance to rules set by local television networks. They often had to collaborate with the network’s own studio bands and dancers, which disallowed the country the opportunity to incorporate diverse elements of other musical genres to grow the K-pop scene. However, with restrictions on foreign travel being lifted shortly after, the Korean citizens were able to be exposed to music heard in other countries. Musicians began to experiment with multiple genres, and began appropriating foreign music styles. Local citizens were growing tired of the same old ballads that lacked liveliness and innovation. Not long after, bands began using the strategy of hybridization to enhance their music. Genres such as rap, soul, rock, hip-hop, and reggae were being mixed in a creative fashion. Within just over a decade, the country became the second largest music market in Asia. The quick ascension of K-pop eventually coincided with the rise of the digital age. Global sales were increasing at an exponential rate as new idols were being discovered and systematically produced by different management firms. The singers go through rigorous training regiments to reach a level of perfection in their singing and even their dancing. With the goal of achieving international success, many of the groups are required to elevate their music through the creation of memorable dance moves, and visually appealing music videos.[128]

Use of English for Widest Market Appeal

Recently, K-pop has been dominated by a trend to use increasing amounts of English in songs. This is a part of an effort to achieve a wider pan-Asian market. According to some scholars, "the Korean music industry has been directly influenced by the English boom, partly because Korean-Americans and/or Koreans who studied in the U.S. take full advantage of their English fluency and cultural resources that are not found commonly among those who were raised and educated in Korea."[129] In 1995, the percentage of song titles using English in the top 50 charts was only 8%. This increased to 30% in 2000, 18% in 2005, and 44% in 2010. Similarly, increasing numbers of K-pop bands use English names rather than Korean ones. [129] The economic reason for the increasing use of English lyrics is to appeal to a wider Asian market. Songs that contain high amount of English lyric can be marketed to Japan directly. A good example is Kara’s Jumping which was a very popular song in 2010. This song contained simple English lyrics that are repeated throughout the song. This song was released at the same time in both Korea and Japan.[129]

Interestingly, the use of English has not helped K-pop to penetrate in any significant way in the North American market. Although K-pop bands have attempted to hire successful North American producers to create songs for them, most of these results were not successful. This is because the way K-pop is produced, with the network of training camps, similar singing styles and dance moves, and does not sit well with a North American audience. In addition, according to Dal Yong Jin and Woongjae Ryoo, “K-pop has a tough time making it in America because it strives to differentiate itself from its American counterparts, but, at the same time, it looks and sounds too much like it”.[129] It becomes difficult for K-pop to break into a music industry and offer it something that it already has, or sell the same ideas and culture but repackaged and labelled as something else. Since K-pop can be seen as an appropriated and distilled version of Western music, it is difficult for K-pop to find acceptance in these markets.[129] North American audiences place a heavy emphasis on authentic individual expression in music, which is a fundamentally different purpose then that of the Korean studio system.[129]

The concept of global entertainment

"As the global music market shifts from a tangible product to a digital one, the very nature of what the industries sells is changing. With so much content instantly accessible across the world, they succeed not by selling music but by selling sensations, a product that ratherly crosses languages and cultural barriers." [130] The concept of global entertainment aim to provide sensations rather than only music, by complete products and performances : music, dance, fashion, shows, TV appearance, acting... For the Korean cultural industry, trainee system is an important part of the global entertainment, it was called the cultural technology by the founder of SM Entertainment. It doesn't allow mistakes and program the rookies to become multi-talent stars.[131]

The BBC describes the K-pop group singers Super Junior and the Wonder Girls as "highly produced, sugary boy- and girl-bands with slick dance routines and catchy tunes."[132] K-pop is also recognized for pretty-boys and girl groups[133] that are young and considered attractive.[134][135]

More than 60 boy and girl bands are produced each year in Korea, making way of labeling K-pop as a "star factory". Many of these bands disappear after a few hits.[136] K-pop is a fast paced and high-competition industry, according to the Korea Times it produces easily consumable and disposable one-time hit songs that the audience downloads and then deletes.[137] The majority of K-pop songs spend only a short time on music charts and it is rare for a hit to lead the charts for several weeks.[138] The basic format is usually built upon a catchy chorus part and a spectacular, easy-to-master dance to accompany the song – like "Sorry, Sorry" from Super Junior, "Gee" from Girls' Generation or "Abracadabra" from Brown Eyed Girls. The songs are marketed for one or two months and then are usually forgotten as new ones take their place.[136][137] Singer Insooni complained that "the songs that we sang back in the day are still sung today. But music these days – people perform for three months than [sic] stop. Fans have lost a sense of responsibility."[139]

Visual experience is an integrated part of K-pop, which comprises the artist's physical appearance and clothing as well as the sophisticated visuals of concerts and music videos.[140] K-pop videos are often vivid, colourful, strident, extravagant and compared to traditional pop videos can even be shocking or incomprehensible.[141][142][143]

There are instances of foreign songwriters and producers composing songs for Korean performers, such as will.i.am, Sean Garrett, and American-raised Teddy Park.[144][145][146] Musicians who have collaborated with various K-Pop idols include many notable recording artists from the African American hip hop community, such as Akon, Kanye West, Ludacris, Snoop Dogg and will.i.am.[147][148][149] It is not uncommon for K-pop songs to be composed by songwriters from Norway and Sweden.[150][151] As a music executive told The Wall Street Journal, South Korean music labels want "a mix of U.S. beats but with a Scandinavian songwriting style."[152]

In recent years, K-pop has been overwhelmingly dominated by new generation idol bands and the expansion of genre is almost entirely driven by the Internet. As traditional media records are losing popularity among consumers, the significance of digital records has risen. In order to capture the audience's attention in a shorter period of time, K-pop record labels generally prefer releasing and distributing shortened EP or single formats (as compared to full-length albums). This has led to the widespread use of so-called 'hooks', which refers to catchy choruses that is easy to memorize.[72]

Marketing

Korean talent agencies stage manage the debut of new acts in order to create anticipation for the new act, which will often officially debut live on one of the main television music programs with a "debut stage". For the debut single acts will be have an overall "concept", a marketing hook, which influences the name of the act, clothes, choreography, catch phrases and how they are presented, within bands individual members will have a personal concept, this being a role that they will play within the band, e.g. leader, visual, maknae, rapper etc.

Once a rookie act's debut cycle has ended they enter their second promotional cycle with a "comeback", called as such even when the musician or group in question did not go on hiatus.[33] Each promotional cycle will be presented with its own concept.

In order to make their new albums known to the public, K-pop artists participate in various promotional activities, such as appearing and performing on national television. Popular Korean music programs in which bands and musicians usually make their comeback include the Korean Broadcasting System's Music Bank, the Seoul Broadcasting System's The Music Trend, and Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation's Show! Music Core. The first performance by a K-Pop artist on a music program specifically for the promotion of their new album or single is also known as the "comeback stage".[153] In addition to stage performances, teaser images and video clips are commonly released to the public as part of a "comeback".[154] These are released one after another, often within the space of a few days before the full release.

Agencies may form "sub groups", also known as "sub units", from the members of a band, this allows band members to pursue different individual projects and engagements at the same time. Sub groups will be presented with a variant of their parent groups concept. The first modern K-Pop sub-group was Super Junior-K.R.Y., consisting of members Kyuhyun, Ryeowook and Yesung of Super Junior. The group focused on ballads as opposed to the usual dance-pop style of Super Junior.

Dance

Dance is an integral part of K-pop. When combining multiple singers, the singers often switch their positions while singing and dancing by making prompt movements in synchrony. Since the debut of Seo Taiji & Boys, multiple singers began to switch their positions while singing and dancing, a strategy called "formation changing" (Korean: 자리 바꿈, Jari ba'ggum)[29] and a turning point for the establishment of K-pop choreography (Korean: 안무, Anmu).

The K-pop choreography often includes the so-called "point dance, "(Korean: 포인트 댄스) referring to a dance made up of hooking and repetitive movements within the choreography. The key movements standing out and being easily remembered are supposed to match the characteristics of the lyrics of the song. "Point dance" in a song has almost become a stereotype of K-Pops as shown in the success of the key movements like rubbing hands together side to side as a Korean hand gesture for apology in "Sorry Sorry" from Super Junior.

To choreograph a dance for a song requires the writers to take the tempo into account.[155] A fan's ability to do the same steps must also be considered: "The Korean people really want their fans to be in the music as well. That's why as choreographers we have to simplify movements," according to Ellen Kim, a Los Angeles dancer and choreographer.[155]

Cover dances and YouTube

A new phenomena for the Korean Wave is dance covers. Dance covers and cover groups are a popular hit on the world of YouTube. As the word suggests, it is when an individual, or group of individuals, mimic the dance moves of the original artist, as if they were really them.[156] This involves mimicking the dance moves, the style of dance, as well as facial expressions.

The emergence of YouTube, in 2005, allowed for the circulation of the music videos and dance videos of different K-pop artists.[157] The creation of YouTube also allowed the posting of dance practice videos from the companies which the artists are a part of, through personal YouTube pages, and to the public so that people from all around the world can view the videos.[158] Popular YouTube channels like "MirrorHD", flip the original dance videos released by K-pop artists, so that the video is mirrored.[159] This makes it easier for people to replicate the movements. With this, people can create their own cover dance videos to also post online and get more recognition from people around the world. People upload their dance cover videos on YouTube so that others may view them as well.

Publishing dance videos on YouTube will also help in the spread of K-pop to other parts of the world. Many K-pop groups have also acknowledged dance groups for their support and help in the recognition of K-pop around the world.[159] K-pop girl group T-ARA once acknowledged cover videos by creating a montage video of a few.[159]

Cover dance groups

The K-pop industry targets a young audience.[160] That is why many of the dance cover groups online are often young adults and teens. There is a number of groups and individuals who upload dance cover videos to YouTube for the world to see. Depending on the country, some groups are more recognized than others. While some individuals and groups prefer to film their covers in a simplistic manner, a simple point and shoot, some prefer the more theatrical and cinematic approach.

Vietnam

There are two dance groups that have risen above and beyond the others. They are the most popular among the K-pop community and the most recognized of all dance groups. These two groups are St. 319 and YG Lovers Crew.

St.319 is a group that was formed in 2011, and started out with only 2 members but has since grown in members and popularity.[161] St. 319's viewings on their YouTube videos range from two to three million views.[162] For this reason, this dance group has gathered a huge fan base from all over the world. This group covers all of the most popular K-pop songs and focus on the pop aspects of songs.[163] St. 319's ratings and views outnumber the rest of the dance groups in Vietnam, such as YG Lovers Crew, and are the most popular among the K-pop community.[164]

Another popular group emerging from Vietnam is YG Lovers Crew.[162] This group, in particular covers songs from YG Entertainment, a K-pop based company.[163] This group, in comparison to St. 319, focuses more on hip hop choreography rather than the pop elements.[163] Much like St. 319, this group has acquired a huge fan base in Vietnam and is also one of the most popular and well known K-pop cover dance groups.

Ottawa

In Canada, particularly in Ottawa, K-pop dance cover group Ottawa Hallyu Dance Team, is among other dance cover groups, one of the most popular and well known.This dance cover group has over 600 subscribers on YouTube, and well over 10,000 views on some of their videos.[165] The group was originally formed when members of the group met through a Korean language course class and were asked to form a dance group.[165] From there, the Ottawa Hallyu Dance Team grew in numbers and now consists of 17 active members[165] ranging from different cultures, ages, and ethnicity. This dance cover group is well known for their theatrical and cinematic recording of dance covers, similar to the original K-pop music videos. They are a well-known group within the Ottawa region for they were the first dance cover group to be formed.[165]

Los Angeles

In Los Angeles, California, dance cover group NYX is one that has acquired over 110, 000 subscribers on YouTube and over 15 million views on their channel.[166] The group originally started out with only two members, until they added a third member after both having competed in a K-pop competition in Los Angeles.

Fashion

K-pop also influences fashion, especially in Asia, where clothes and accessories worn by K-pop stars, as well as their hairstyles and the cosmetic brands they use are sought after by young listeners.[167] Fashion brands release copies of clothing worn by idols.[168] Some K-pop idols including G-Dragon from Big Bang have established themselves as a fashion icon by attracting the attention of Western fashion designers, most notably Jeremy Scott, who expressed his interest in working with singer CL from 2NE1.[169][169][170][171][172][173]

In January 2012, Korean artists held a fashion show in Japan, which was attended by 33,000 people.[174] In Thailand authorities worry over the fashion items popularized by Korean pop, as Thai teenagers are willing to wear items unfit for local weather conditions (e.g. leggings) and also use skin whitening products to look like Korean celebrities.[175] In North Korea, despite strong governmental regulations, South Korean fashion is a topic of interest. K-pop popularized high-heel shoes, sleeveless tops and fashionable accessories, although such attire is forbidden in the country.[176]

K-pop as an industry

Agencies

A billboard for the SMTown Live '10 World Tour in Times Square, Manhattan

K-pop has spawned an entire industry such as production houses and event management companies; music publishers; distributors of K-pop music and many K-pop and Hallyu other merchandise and service providers. The three biggest agencies in terms of revenue are S.M. Entertainment, YG Entertainment and JYP Entertainment,[177] often referred to as the "Big Three", whose stocks are traded at the Korea Exchange.[178] In K-pop these record labels also function as agencies for the artists.[177] They started operating as such at the beginning of the 2000s.[177] They are responsible for recruiting, financing, training, marketing and publishing new artists as well as managing their activities and public relations.

In terms of market share the biggest agency is S.M. Entertainment.[178] Their artists started K-pop's Hallyu and managed to break into Japan.[178] The "Big Three" occasionally cooperate, for example Se7en, managed by YG Entertainment received a song from JYP Entertainment founder Park Jin-young in 2012[179] and the representatives of the three agencies judged at the SBS reality talent show "K-pop Star".[180] The "Big Three", together with Star J Entertainment, AM Entertainment and Key East founded the United Asia Management (UAM),[181] which aims to spread K-pop globally as well as facilitate the development of better artist recruitment and management processes.[182] UAM auditions are global and not restricted to Korean talents.[182] Besides musicians, UAM also manages actors, directors, stylists, hair and make-up artists.[182] The merge was highly criticised as it might put pressure on content providers as well as further pressurize other Asian countries, like the Chinese market, which is unable to respond to and compete with the mass production of Korean entertainment companies.[182]

In 2009, DFSB Kollective became the first distributor of K-pop songs on iTunes.[183] The recent overseas expansion by K-pop music agencies has led to significant increases in profit and total revenue.

Total revenues of K-pop record labels (in USD million)
Year of
establishment		 Record label 2008 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Source
1995 S.M. Entertainment 42.5 87.1 129 241 268 286.9 [184]
1996 YG Entertainment 51.8 70.3 96.9 116.6 156.3 [185]
1997 JYP Entertainment 3.1 9.1 17.8 13.5 21.4 48.5 [186]

Sales and market value

The Korean music industry grossed nearly $3.4 billion in the first half of 2012, which amounts to a 27.8% increase from the same period last year, according to Billboard.[24] Before the digital market took hold, the South Korean music industry was nearly destroyed in the early 2000s by the large amount of illegal file sharing, a problem threatening other countries at the time as well. In 2006, however, South Korea's digital music market surpassed the physical market,[187] with more than half of revenue coming from digital sales.[188] K-pop's social media presence on Korean and English websites such as Facebook and YouTube have also had a major impact on the size of its global market.[189] Viki, the video and music streaming website, has influenced global K-pop trends by providing translated subtitles for music videos.[190]

In 2011, 1,100 albums were released in South Korea. The hip-hop genre had the most among them at two-thirds of the total albums.[191] One-third of the albums were from other genres, including rock, modern folk, and crossover.[191] This shows that there is a variety of genres in South Korea outside of what is produced by K-pop idols.[191] Illegal downloads have pushed down prices significantly. In 2012, the average cost of obtaining a K-pop song in South Korea amounted to US$0.10 for a single download, or $0.002 when streamed online.[192]

K-pop is a business model which augments tourism on a global scale. Fans from all over the world are coming to South Korea for tours, and this has contributed positively to the total sales and market value of K-pop. Hence, according to Mfrascog, K-pop is "a model used to drive geographical interest and spawn tourism."[193]

K-pop (in Korea) global music market rank
Year Physical* Digital
2005 27[194]
2006 27[195]
2007 32[196] 23[188]
2008 24[197]
2009 24[198] 14[188]
2010 21[199]
2011 11[195]11[188]
2012 11[195]8[200]
* includes albums, singles and DVDs sold

Trainee system

See also: Slave contracts

Cultural technology, or CT, is a concept popularized by Lee Soo-man, founder of the South Korean music label and talent agency S.M. Entertainment.[5] It is a 3-step process of exporting K-pop overseas as part of the Korean Wave and consist of a tightly controlled training system. Joseph L. Flatley from the American news network The Verge described it as one of the most "extreme" systems of pre-packaging K-pop bands,[201] which are owned by a handful of entertainment agencies.[202] The three steps to the Cultural technology described by Lee Soo-man consists of the following: (1) exporting cultural products; such as placing Korean singers in different countries, (2) creating international collaborations and (3) globalizing the product by cooperating with musicians from different countries to create a global brand. Lee's CT method makes the singers to have different images and styles depending on the nation that they perform in, thus allowing to target the specific audiences in the right way.[203]

The K-pop industry is very serious about the creation of K-pop idols and the launch of new musicians. Much of the time is spent on the production value of its idols where they do not make their debut until their brand and performances have been perfected. A significant amount of effort is invested towards crafting unique and marketable images mixed with sound and strategic promotional, advertising, and marketing decisions to increase the chances of success with the launch of new talent.[204] South Korean entertainment companies such as S.M. Entertainment have created a process to train singers and dancers in its groups. The journey to stardom often starts around age 9 or 10, when tightly supervised trainees begin dance and voice classes at night and live together while attending school.[205] Besides singing and dancing trainees are also taught foreign languages, most notably English, Japanese and Chinese.[206] According to the CEO of Universal Music's Southeast Asian branch, the Korean idol trainee system is unique in the world.[177]

To guarantee the high probability of success of new talent, talent agencies fully subsidize and oversee the professional lives and careers of trainees, often spending in excess of $400,000 USD to train and launch a new artist.[207]

Record charts

Several popular K-pop record charts include the Korea K-Pop Hot 100 and the Gaon Singles Chart. Since the early 2010s, some K-pop records have topped the Oricon Albums Chart of Japan, while others have made it to the Billboard Hot 100 of the United States. In May 2014, Exo became the third K-pop act to enter the Billboard 200 that year after 2NE1 and Girls' Generation.[208]

K-pop culture

Basic notions and conventions

See also: K-pop idol

K-pop uses a set of genre specific expressions.[209] These include traditional Korean honorifics, used by both idols and fans. Besides this traditional social system, K-pop adds its own subculture. As much as age is important, the debut date and popularity of the artist also matters. Younger artists or those who debuted later are called hubae (후배) and they must greet the older and earlier debuted colleagues (선배, seonbae, "senior") with an insa (인사), the traditional deep bow. Failing to do this have met with strong criticism from the industry and the fans alike.[210][211]

Boy and girl groups in Korea are referred to as idols or idol bands.[212] Idol bands have a strict hierarchy. Every band has a leader, chosen by either the members or the managing company based on age, personality and leadership qualities. The leader is a representative of the band as well as responsible for group harmony.[213] The youngest band member is called maknae (막내), which is a special position as it is traditionally regarded that the cuter the maknae the more potential a band has in terms of popularity.[214] The use of the term in Japan was influenced by SS501 when they expanded their activities in the country in 2007. Its Japanese translation "マンネ" was often used to name the group's maknae Kim Hyung-jun in order to differentiate him from their leader with a similar name and spelling, Kim Hyun-joong.[215] Idols are recruited and trained in a trainee system regarded as exceptional in the pop industry.[216]

The Korean pop industry involves the so-called fan service,[140] which is largely based on bromance of a non-sexual nature between band members of male idol groups. Fans pair their favourites into "OTPs" (one true pairing), who in turn reinforce the pairs by acting cute and brotherly with each other on television. The names of such bromantic pairs are contracted from the original stage names of the members, for example the G-Dragon–Seungri OTP is commonly referred to as "GRi". OTP pairs are called "ships", from the English term "relationship", and fans of these "ships" are called "shippers".[217][218]

Gender in K-pop

All female groups such as Girls' Generation have helped level the popularity gap between male and female K-pop bands

The popularity of male and female groups in Korea has swung both ways in recent years. In the 2013 Billboard ranking,[219] female groups only made up 20 percent of the most viewed K-pop videos with male groups making up 40 percent. However, in the 2014 ranking [220] the popularity swung in the favor of the female pop groups when they gained an additional 16 percent and the male groups fell by 12 percent. Although it appears there are not many co-ed pop groups, male and female groups both take alternating turns in the spotlight as is clear from the results of the 2013 and 2014 rankings.

While K-pop has many bands with huge popularity from both genders, there are significant differences in what is considered acceptable topics between males and females. One of the overarching themes is that is acceptable to be a "bad boy", whereas it is considered offensive to be a "bad girl". In South Korean culture, being a bad boy is considered mysterious, and excusable. Oftentimes these "bad boys" are seen as controlling in the relationships, but it is viewed as acceptable. There are dozens of K-pop songs over the past few years that have titles such as "Bad Guy", "I’m a Bad Guy", and "The Bad Guy". All of these songs focus on the same thing that it is acceptable and considered a positive thing to not always be an upstanding and morally correct male in South Korean society.[221]

K-pop is often gender-differentiated when it comes to longevity. Fans are often very dedicated to groups that are considered their "idols", and it is considered shameful to be a fan of multiple groups, especially of the same gender. K-pop is built around dedicated fans, and the majority of K-pop fans are female. With the majority of fans being female, male groups are often more idolized than females, leading to longer and more lucrative careers. Another problem for female groups is that they lose their appeal much quicker than male groups, as female groups often become famous based on sexy and cute appeal that is hard to maintain.

There are many other impacts that gender roles have in reference to K-pop. One of the bigger impacts is with foreign affairs. According to South Korean media, the Ministry of Defense set up many large TV screens across the border in North Korea in order to broadcast music videos by many of the notorious K-pop girl groups such as Wonder Girls, Girls' Generation, After School, 4Minute, and Kara as part of "psychological warfare" against their rival country. Sources close to the country said that the "revealing" outfits worn by the female singers as well as their provocative dances may have a significant impact on the North Korean soldiers.[222]

One of the main criticisms with K-pop is that many bands do not get paid nearly as much as they believe they should. Management company’s have so much leverage at the beginning of a groups’ career that many contracts signed are for many years that pay significantly less than they should. All-girl bands often feel the brunt of this unfair practice. Rainbow, a seven-member girl-band, is immensely popular in South Korea yet receive very little of their profits. After working unbearably long hours for a few years, their parents were heartbroken to hear how little they were being paid. Unfortunately, much of this is attributed to remarkably low profit margins throughout the K-pop industry. In order for pay to improve for the artists, revenues must increase.[223]

Frequently used expressions

Addressing others
KoreanRomanizedExplanation
오빠oppawoman's elder brother; Korean women call older male family members and friends as well as their lovers this way. Fans commonly refer to male idols as oppa.[224]
형hyungman's elder brother; Korean men call older male family members and friends this way. Younger members of idol groups call the older members hyung as well. Failing to do this is regarded as rude and impolite.[225]
언니unniwoman's elder sister; Korean women call older female family members and friends this way. Younger girl group members also refer to older members as unni.[226]
누나noonaman's elder sister; Korean men refer to older women in their family as well as their friend circles this way.[226]
동생dongsaengyounger sibling; regardless of sex, people in close relationship with the speaker are referred to as dongsaengs.[209]
선배seonbaesenior, someone with more experience in the respective field, regardless of age[211][227]
후배hubaejunior; someone with less experience in the respective field, regardless of age.[211]
Other frequent expressions
KoreanRomanizedExplanation
화이팅hwaitingOriginated from the English "fighting", this expression is widely used for encouragement and support.[228]
대박 Daebak As an exclamation, daebak generally means "awesome". It's not a direct translation, but it's the meaning that is conveyed when the word is said.[229]
대상DaesangAt music awards several artists receive Bonsangs for their outstanding achievement in music, then one of the Bonsang winners is awarded with a Daesang, the "Grand Prize".[230]
본상Bonsang
Expression Explanation
All-Kill (AK)
Perfect All-Kill (PK)		 They refer to chart positions as certified by Instiz.net. "AK" means that the song reached number one on the charts of the seven biggest online music portals (including Instiz) of South Korea on the same day. "PK" songs add the criteria that the song must lead the ringtone download charts.[231][232]
mini album A mini album in K-pop means that the record (physical or digital) usually contains two or three songs and their remixes, although some mini albums have as many as ten unique tracks. Roughly equivalent to an EP, it is longer than a single but shorter than a full length album.[209]
title track Title track in K-pop means the main promoted track of the album; it has a music video released, and is promoted on music shows like Inkigayo by live performances.[209]
repackaged album Repackaged album means that after the first promotions of the album are finished, the album is re-released with new design, containing one or two new tracks, out of which one is a "title track" with a new music video.[209]
promotion Promotion in K-pop refers to promoting the "title track" in several televised music shows like Inkigayo. Promotion on TV shows usually last one month, with a "debut stage" for newcomers, a "comeback stage" for regulars and a "goodbye stage" at the end of the cycle.[209]
point dance Point dance consists of hooking and repetitive key movements within the choreography, which matches the characteristics of the lyrics.[31][30]

Appeal and fan base

Big Bang fans (VIPs) hold crown shaped light sticks during a concert: this is the symbol of the fan club
Fan rice for the Korean boyband Exo

A publication in New York magazine calls K-pop "catchy but derivative" and states that Girls' Generation fans admit to liking the group for its members' looks and their personality, radiating what the magazine calls "humility" and friendliness to each and one of the fans. A fan stated to the magazine that when Girls' Generation performs on stage, you get the illusion of the girls sometimes looking right at you and interacting with you personally.[233]

Many K-pop fans travel overseas to get the chance to see Korean bands. Tours from Japan and China bring fans to see K-pop concerts.[234] A K-pop group tour from Japan had more than 7000 fans fly to Seoul to meet boy band JYJ.[235] During JYJ's concert in Barcelona, fans from many parts of the world camped overnight to gain entrance.[236]

Korean fan clubs play an essential role in K-pop, their structure and operation is different from Western fan clubs.[237] Each club has its own name and color. For example, TVXQ fans are called "Cassiopeia" and their official color is "pearl red"; SS501 fans are named "Triple S" and their fandom color is "pearl light green"; and Super Junior's fan club is called "E.L.F." and they use the color "pearl sapphire blue".[237] Colors play an important role in fandoms, as fans express their unity and loyalty this way, especially in concerts where other artists also perform: fans from a certain fan club create their own sectors with the represented colors, usually with light sticks or official balloons and create a "Kpop Ocean".[237][238] If a color is already taken, fanclubs of new artists cannot choose them unless the color they want is taken by a soloist or a group of a different gender.[237] As colors are limited some artists do not have an official color, Big Bang fans for example hold crown shaped yellow light sticks, while Se7en's fans are represented by the number 7.[239]

Official fan clubs have subscription "waves"[237] when fans need to register, usually after paying the club fee and then the fan receives a membership cards and other items such as light sticks and official balloons for an idol. Clubs are well organized, united in nature and frequently participate in charity events to support their idols.[237] They purchase bags of fan rice as gifts to their favorite bands in order to show their love and support. Many fan rice projects are philanthropic acts. When the fans send a rice wreath to their idol to congratulate him/her, the rice goes to a charitable institution in Korea.[126] According to Time magazine, for Big Bang's first show in months, 12.7 tons of rice were donated from 50 fan clubs around the world and stacks of rice bags were lined up like shrines to the K-pop idols. Similarly, K-Pop idol Xander asked his fans to bring donations for victims of typhoon Yolanda instead of a gift for himself.[126] There are businesses dedicated to shipping the rice from farmers to the venues.[240] The rice bags are then donated to people in need.[241] Another way for fan clubs to show devotion is sending lunch to the stars, and there are special catering companies in South Korea for this purpose. The trend started when fans picked up complaints that the stars do not eat properly due to their busy schedules.[242]

A unique feature of K-pop fan clubs is the so-called organized "fan chant" during live performances when fans chant parts of the song lyrics or the names of the idols (in order of birth) at parts of the performance previously decided and organized by the club.[209][243] Standardized phrases are generally chanted during non-vocal part in the song, as to not disturb the singers. There are various websites and video tutorials for fan chants of K-pop songs.

Obsession

Main article: Sasaeng fan

There is a recognized concern of K-pop fans turning to obsession and compulsive behaviors such as stalking and invasion of privacy. These fans are called sasaeng, or "private life" fans. These fans are usually young females, 13 to 22 years old.[244] Some sasaeng fans hire taxis to follow their idols. There are taxi services catering specifically for these fans that are willing to speed after the vans transporting idols. Korean public officials recognize this as a unique but serious concern.[244][245]

During a press conference, the boy band JYJ confirmed they were victims of invasion of privacy and stalking. There were instances of breaking into their private households, where fans would take pictures of them in sleep or steal items.[246] Junsu from JYJ told reporters that obsessive fans have even installed GPS trackers under his car to monitor his every move.[247] Fans also resort to harassing artists by acquiring their phone numbers, hitting them or touching their private parts.[248] Some sasaengs go as far as engaging in prostitution to earn the money necessary for following their idol's every step.[245] Some sasaeng fans have installed CCTV surveillance cameras near Park Yoochun’s home.[249] In another incident, as KBS reports TVXQ member Yunho drank a beverage containing super glue given to him by an anti-fan and had to receive medical attention.[250][251]

Many celebrities have expressed their concern over the sasaeng activities, in 2012 a member of JYJ, which has the most sasaeng fans among all K-pop idols,[244] was accused of resorting to violation and shouting when confronted by stalking fans on the street.[252] Super Junior member Kim Heechul and popular singer-actor Jang Keun-suk have also reacted angrily at sasaeng moves.[244] In response to a growing number of K-pop fans displaying anti-social behaviours, a law was passed on March 11, 2013 to discourage harassment and making it illegal to infringe the privacy of a person. Under the revision, first time offenders making persistent phone calls and sending letters could face a fine of up to 80,000 South Korean won (US$72).[253]

Events

International tours

K-pop concert tours have been held outside of Korea since the mid-2000s. Most Korean artists conduct Asian tours but worldwide tours have also become frequent since 2011, when SM Town held its first non-Asian leg of the SMTown Live '10 World Tour.[254]

Conventions and music festivals

K-pop and social media

The spread of K-pop is further spurred on by ordinary Internet users, bloggers and Hallyu websites. According to a researcher from Yeungnam University, a website called "dkpopnews.net" has played a critical role in spreading the K-pop music genre across Southeast Asia, while in Japan, a Twitter user named "kpop_lov" is recognized to be a "major" source of K-pop information.[255]

On April 6, 2013, the 26th Prime Minister of Australia, Kevin Rudd, sent a birthday greeting to Super Junior's Choi Siwon after a fan known as "MaddyIsOk" requested him to do so on his official Twitter account.[256][257] An article by The Wall Street Journal indicated that K-pop’s staying power will likely be shaped by fans, whose online services have partly evolved into "micro"-businesses and small-scale ventures.[38]

In the United States, a fan website known as "soshified.com" draws over 10 million clicks each month.[258] Some other popular K-pop websites include:

Internet memes

Main article: Gwiyomi

Since February 2013, an Internet meme known as the Gwiyomi song has been spreading across the global K-pop community via social media platforms.

YouTube views

Of the 2.28 billion worldwide K-pop YouTube views in 2011, 240 million came from the United States, which was more than double that of 2010 (94 million).[260]

Psy, whose music video for "Gangnam Style" became the first to reach more than a billion YouTube views[261]
List of most viewed K-pop music videos on YouTube
Rank Artist(s) Title Year Notes Official video(s) Views (millions)
1 Psy Gangnam Style 2012 The most viewed video on Youtube and first to reach 1 billion and 2 billion . YouTube 2518
2 Psy Gentleman 2013 YouTube 931
3 Psy ft. Hyuna Oppa Is Just My Style 2012 YouTube 622
4 Psy ft. Snoop Dogg Hangover 2014 YouTube 246
5 Big Bang Fantastic Baby 2012 First video by a K-pop group to surpass 200 million views on YouTube[262] YouTube 205
6 Girls' Generation Gee 2009 First video by a K-pop group to surpass 100 million views on YouTube[262] YouTube 155
7 Girls' Generation I Got a Boy 2013 YouTube Music Award 2013 - Video of the year YouTube 155
8 2NE1 I Am the Best 2011 YouTube 144
9 Girls' Generation The Boys 2011 Korean Version YouTube 134
10 Psy Daddy 2015 YouTube 119
11 Girls' Generation Mr. Taxi (Dance Ver.) 2011 Japanese Version YouTube 111
12 Big Bang Bang Bang Bang 2015 YouTube 110
13 Hyuna Bubble Pop 2011 YouTube 105
14 Super Junior Mr. Simple 2011 YouTube 104
15 f(x) Electric Shock 2012 YouTube 91
16 GD X Taeyang Good Boy 2014 Big Bang Sub-unit YouTube 92
17 Girls' Generation Oh! 2010 YouTube 90
18 EXO Overdose 2014 Promoted as EXO-K YouTube 91
19 EXO Growl 2013 Korean Version YouTube 90
20 Big Bang Loser 2015 YouTube 84
Last Update: February 12, 2016

PPopularity and impact

See also: Korean Wave

South Korea is emerging in the 21st century as a major exporter of popular culture.[263] As part of the Korean Wave, K-pop has been embraced by the South Korean government as a tool for soft power abroad, particularly towards youth.[264] The Economist has dubbed Korean pop culture as "Asia’s foremost trendsetter".[265]

Prior to the rise of social media networks, K-pop concerts and related events outside East and Southeast Asia were mostly unheard of. However, with the growing acceptance of YouTube during the late-2000s as a popular music sharing platform, K-pop has since become increasingly well known in many parts of the world, including the West.[266] According to The New York Times, "attempts by K-pop stars to break into Western markets had largely failed prior to the proliferation of global social networks." However, K-pop artists are now gaining more international exposure through social media networks such as YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter, making it easier for them to reach a wider audience.[80] Among the consumers of K-pop around the world, there are significant demographic differences depending on location:

Donika Sterling, an American K-Pop fan diagnosed with Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease, was sponsored to meet her favourite idols in South Korea.[267][268]
Region Time period Demographics of K-pop audience
Japan 2010–2012[269][270] Teenagers and middle-aged women from the upper class[271][272]
United States Before 2010 Mostly Korean Americans
Since 2010 Mostly Korean Americans and other Asian Americans,[21][273] but also some Caucasians and a growing number of African Americans[20][22][274]
Rest of the world Since 2010 Mostly teenagers and young adults,[275] especially girls, women in their 20s,[276][277] and some women in their 30s[278]

Globally

Skeptics believed the Korean Wave, and with it K-Pop, would die off in the global market, but that never came to be. In fact K-Pop, with the help of K-Dramas, have spread across the Earth, with France have 20 dedicated website streaming K-Pop music videos and translates K-Dramas into roughly 16 different languages.[279] But, the translations are not always necessary, due to the catchy beats of songs and the sporadic English thrown in the lyrics, those that do not understand Korean can easily listen and feel entranced by the music. These “hook songs” include repetitive choruses and catchy beats such as “Gee” by Girl’s Generation and Mister by Kara provide easy to listen music that the global audience can find appealing. Several songs are accompanied by memorable music videos that have their own dances named after it, such as, Psy’s horse dance, and Super Junior’s Sorry Sorry dance.[280]

Scholars argue that K-Pop is a trend of the Korean manufacturing process, where Korean companies rely on exporting the finished product, such as Samsung and Hyundai, to the center market. They also go on to state that unless Korea obtains technologies and social capital, K-Pop sub culture will remain as a sub culture.[281]

The global expansion of K-Pop can be explained by understanding the power of the Internet along with social media. Each music group boasts their own fan following, known as ‘fandoms’. These fans are known for their participatory culture, as they upload, share, and forward content produced by their idols to wider audiences. With their assistance, K-Pop is able to spread on an international scale, and the development of fandoms overseas become possible. With almost four million of these fans actively participating, there are further implications beyond just this large number. These fans are largely invisible but play a key role in the development of the music industry, leading to the concept of imagined communities to describe these fandoms. Imagined communities consist of a collective group of people in which its members do not engage in face to face interaction, but perceive themselves as part of the group. Moreover, they will utilize social media to encourage other fans to participate in these imagined communities. For instance, some fans will create sites with forums or blogs to promote their followings, or even upload videos of their idol group’s performances. There have been numerous award shows created to reward the hard work of the music groups. However, without the help of their fans (who are in charge of voting for their favorite groups for various categories), they can only get a limited amount of recognition. Thus, fans will take over different social media sites such as Facebook or Twitter and post content related to their biased groups and help promote their cause. YouTube is another popular social media platform where fans will upload videos and actively engage in conversation in the comments section. Beyond just K-pop, these fans will also participate in contributing to other industries such as film. One of their primary goals is to be able to allow audiences consume the content, regardless of their background.[282]

Asia

2NE1 at a concert in Clarke Quay, Singapore

Following the lifting of import/export restrictions between South Korea and Japan which were in place since World War 2, the album Listen to My Heart by BoA was the first album by a Korean artist to debut at the top of the Japanese Oricon charts and become an RIAJ-certified million-seller in Japan.[283] On January 16, 2008, TVXQ (known as Tohoshinki in Japan) reached the top of the Oricon charts, with their sixteenth Japanese single "Purple Line". This made them the first foreign and Korean male group to have a number-one single in Japan.[284][285] Afterwards, the Japanese music market has seen the influx of Korean pop acts including SS501,[286] T-ara, Shinee,[287] Super Junior,[288] Big Bang,[289] Kara, Girls' Generation, 2NE1, 2PM, and Brown Eyed Girls.[290] In 2011, it has been reported that the total sales for K-pop artists' has increased 22.3% during 2010–2011 in Japan. Some artists have been in the top 10 selling artists of 2011 in Japan.[291]

With the undying tension between Japan and Korea, the import of K-Pop and Korean influence to Japan has been met with resistance. Such movements have been named the “Anti-Korean Wave” and people have spoken out saying that K-Pop artists are only entering Japan for “lucrative reasons”. But the chairman of the Presidential Council on National Branding is taking a positive look on this saying, “movements in Japan against the Korean Wave rather prove how successful Korean Wave is.” And as K-Pop grows in Japanese media grows, the opposition intensifies; with one such demonstration against the Korean Wave broadcast on Japan’s Fuji TV, having roughly 500 participants and over 120,000 watching on the Internet.[280]

According to the Korea Foundation for International Culture Exchange, K-pop has been a successful export of Korean culture in Asia. On its "Korean Wave" index, the top country in 2010 was Japan, in a list that also included Taiwan, China, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia and the Philippines.[292]

K-pop has yet to make a major impact in China but there has been considerable success. In 2005 Rain held a concert in Beijing with 40,000 people in attendance.[72] The Wonder Girls won an award in the 5th annual China Mobile Wireless Music Award for having the highest digital sales for a foreign artist with five million digital downloads in 2010.[293] Super Junior and their sub-group Super Junior-M have had successful results on the Kuang Nan Record, CCR and Hit Fm Taiwan music charts.[294]

India

In the Indian state of Manipur, where separatists have banned Bollywood movies, consumers have turned to Korean popular culture for their entertainment needs. The BBC's correspondent Sanjoy Majumder reported that Korean entertainment products are mostly pirated copies smuggled in from neighbouring Burma, and is generally well received by the local population.[10][295]

This has led to the Korean language becoming more popular among young people, with phrases such as "Annyeong-haseyo" (안녕하세요) and "Kamsahamnida" (감사합니다) now commonly heard in everyday speech.[10] In response to the growing Korean cultural influence, Professor Amar Yumnam from Manipur University proposed setting up Korean language classes for students, after a meeting between university officials and diplomats from the Korean Embassy in New Delhi was held in 2011.[296]

In order to capitalize on the popularity of K-pop in Manipur, many hairdressing salons have offered "Korean-style" cuts based on the hairstyles of K-pop boy bands.[10][295] This wave of Korean popular culture is currently spreading from Manipur to the neighbouring state of Nagaland.[297]

Nepal

In Nepal, K-pop gained popularity after the success of Korean dramas and films in the country.[298] K-pop has become influential in the Nepali music industry and K-pop music videos are often used as an accompaniment to Nepali music on YouTube and has become a popular trend in the country.[299]

Malaysia

In Malaysia, among the three main ethnic groups – Malay, Chinese and Indian many prefer to listen to music in their own languages, however the popularity of K-pop alongside movies and TV dramas have managed to become popular among all three ethnic groups. The pan-ethnic popularity has resulted in Malaysian firms tapping into K-pop as it appears to be an easier way to appeal to all three ethnic groups.[300]

Philippines

In 2015 Filipino-Korean singer/comedianne Ryan Bang released Shopping, a P-Pop-K-Pop mashup single.[301]

North America

Rain at the 2011 Time 100 gala at Lincoln Center in New York City

One of the first significant K-pop events to be held in the United States were Rain's 2006 sold-out concerts in New York City and in Las Vegas 6 months later. In 2009, the Wonder Girls became the first K-pop artist to debut on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart.[302] They also joined the Jonas Brothers in the Jonas Brothers World Tour 2009. In 2010, they toured 20 cities in the United States, Canada and Mexico, and were named House of Blues "Artist of the Month" for June.[303]

In 2010 SM Entertainment organized SMTown Live '10 World Tour, touring in Los Angeles, Paris, Tokyo, and New York. In May 2012, SM Town returned to California again with the SMTown Live World Tour III in Anaheim.

In 2010, during the 8th Annual Korean Music Festival, K-pop artists made their first appearances at the Hollywood Bowl.[304] Notable K-pop concerts in the United States in 2011 include the 2011 KBS Concert at the New York Korea Festival, the 2011 K-Pop Masters Concert in Las Vegas, and the Korean Music Wave in Google, the latter held at Google's headquarters in Mountain View, California.[305]

At the start of 2012, Girls' Generation performed the English version of "The Boys" on the late night talk show Late Show with David Letterman and on the daytime talk show Live! with Kelly, becoming the first Korean musical act to perform on each show, and the first Korean act to perform on syndicated television in the United States.[306] In the same year, the group formed their first sub-unit, entitled Girls' Generation-TTS, or simply "TTS", composed of members Taeyeon, Tiffany, and Seohyun. The subgroup's debut EP, Twinkle, peaked at #126 on the Billboard 200, becoming the highest charting K-Pop album on the chart.[307]

In December 2011 2NE1 won MTV Iggy's Best New Band award.[308] In August 2012, as part of their New Evolution Global Tour, 2NE1 held their first American concert in the New York Metropolitan Area at the Prudential Center of Newark, New Jersey.[309]

In September 2012, Junsu became the second K-pop idol to perform in Mexico, after first performance of Wonder Girls in Monterrey in 2009.[310]

In November 2012, as part of their Alive Tour, Big Bang held their first solo concert in America going to the Honda Center in Los Angeles and the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey. The tickets sold out in only a few hours, thus additional dates were added.[311]

On November 13, 2012, the American singer-songwriter Madonna and a few of her backup dancers performed "Gangnam Style" alongside PSY during a concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City. PSY later told reporters that his gig with Madonna had "topped his list of accomplishments".[312]

On January 29, 2013, Billboard, one of America's most popular music magazines, launched Billboard K-Town, an online magazine column on its Billboard.com site, to cover K-pop music; artists, concerts, chart information and news events.[313][314][315]

In March 2013, f(x) performed at K-Pop Night Out at SXSW in Austin, Texas. They, alongside the The Geeks who represented K-rock, represented Korea's entertainment at the festival. f(x) were the first K-pop group to perform at SXSW.[316]

Latin America

K-pop fans in Colombia taking part in a reality show jointly aired by the local Caracol TV and South Korea's Arirang TV in April 2012[317]

In the first Latin America K-pop Competition in 2010, 92 teams from 10 countries participated. In 2011, they were joined by more countries for the second Latin America K-pop Competition.[318]

In 2011, the United Cube Concert was held in São Paulo, Brazil right after the first edition of the K-Pop Cover Dance Festival with MBLAQ as judges.[319]

In March 2012, the boyband JYJ performed in both Chile and Peru. When JYJ arrived at the Jorge Chávez International Airport in Peru for the JYJ World Tour Concert, the band was escorted by airport security officials through a private exit due to safety reasons concerning the large number of fans.[320] At the Explanada Sur del Estadio Monumental in Lima, some fans camped out for days in to see JYJ.[321]

In Colombia, Caracol TV and Arirang TV made a K-pop reality show in April 2012.[317]

In September 2012, Junsu became the first K-pop idol to perform alone in Brazil, he performed in Mexico as well, the concerts sold out well in advance.[310]

In January 2014, Kim Hyung-jun performed in Peru, Chile, and Bolivia, marking him as the first K-pop idol to perform in Bolivia.[322] The tour proved his popularity in the continent as both fans and the media followed him everywhere he went, causing traffic on the roads and police to be called to maintain safety.[323] Fans were also seen pitching their tents outside the concert venue for days before the actual concert.[324][325]

Since 2009, about 260 fan clubs with a total of over 20,000 and 8,000 active members have been formed in Chile and Peru respectively.[326][327]

Europe

Beast performing at the Beautiful Show in Berlin

In London, Beast and 4Minute performed during the United Cube Concert. The MBC Korean Culture Festival was also held in London.[328] When Shinee arrived at the London Heathrow Airport for a concert at the Odeon West End, part of the airport became temporarily overrun by frenzied fans. The reservation system of Odeon West End crashed for the first time one minute after ticket sales began as the concert drew an unexpectedly large response.[329] Shinee also had a 30 minute performance at the Abbey Road Studio, which is reserved for top singers and groups such as the Beatles, Stevie Wonder. The ticket demand for this showing was so high that the fashion magazine, Elle U.K., gave away forty tickets through a lottery. The performance was also televised in Japan through six different Japanese sports channels.[280] In 2011, the Korean boyband Big Bang flew to Belfast and won the Best Worldwide Act during the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards in Northern Ireland.[330]

In May 2011, Rain became the first K-pop artist to perform in Germany during the Dresden Music Festival.[331] later followed by JYJ performed in Berlin and Barcelona. In February 2012, the boyband BEAST held the Beautiful Show in Berlin. According to the local Berliner Zeitung, many fans who attended the Beautiful Show came not just from Germany but also from neighbouring countries such as France and Switzerland.[332]

K-pop fans in Warsaw holding a South Korean-Polish flag as well as banners of various boy bands

The SMTown Live '10 World Tour was held in Paris, followed by the Super Junior Super Show 4 Tour, also in Paris. In February 2012, the Music Bank World Tour drew more than 10,000 fans to the Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy[333]

In 2012, Big Bang won the Best Fan category in the Italian TRL Awards.[334]

In Barcelona, Spain, K-pop parties are periodically held in Razzmatazz nightclub, one of the most popular nightspots in the Spanish city. In February 2011, Teen Top performed in Barcelona's concert hall Apolo.

K-pop is becoming increasingly popular in Poland. In 2011, the K-pop Star Exhibition was held in the Warsaw Korean Culture Center, as well as a K-pop party which attracted fans all across Poland. Fans told The Warsaw Voice; "we want to express our admiration for Korean music and our hope that some day they will perform in Poland."[335] There have also been K-pop flash mobs in other European cities including Prague, and Warsaw.[336][337]

In Russia, K-pop is seeing a surge in popularity since 2011 and is spreading from major cities such as Moscow and St. Petersburg to more rural areas of the country and all the way to the Siberia.[16] During the 2011 K-pop Cover Dance Festival, 57 Russian dance teams took part to win a trip to South Korea.[338] During the second round of the competition, the boyband Shinee flew to Moscow as judges of the competition and they also performed in front of the Russian fans and participated in a flash mob.[339] On February 3, 2014, Park Jung-min became the first ever Korean singer to hold a solo concert in Moscow.[340] In addition, a K-pop magazine called K-Plus has been launched in Moscow by Russian youths in 2012 where the magazine will widely cover Korean pop culture centered on K-pop and Korean dramas. As of 2012, the number of Russian K-pop fans has reached 50,000.[16]

Middle East and Africa

In Turkey, Korean culture is catching on quickly and Internet-savvy generation of Turks are using their computers and phones to explore cultures around the world and a large chunk of the pre-teen demographic is flocking to South Korean culture.[341] In 2012, the total number of active members in K-Pop fan clubs across Turkey surpassed 100,000 members.[77]

The boyband ZE:A appeared for a meet and greet session for fans in Dubai[342] and a concert in Abu Dhabi.[343] In Cairo, hundreds of K-pop fans came to Maadi Library’s stage theater to see the final round of the K-POP Korean Song Festival, organized by the Korean Embassy. Fans drew banners in Korean and many were screaming along to the Korean songs.[344]

K-pop is becoming increasingly popular in Israel and the Palestinian Territories since the late 2000s and early 2010s. In July 2011, local K-pop fans met South Korea's Ambassador to Israel Ma Young-sam and Israeli fans traveled to Paris for the SMTown Live '10 World Tour in Europe.[345] In a region troubled by a raging conflict between two different peoples, it is hoped that a larger infusion K-pop would serve as a bridge towards peace by utilizing the genre to help young Israelis and Palestinians take their minds off of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. According to Dr. Nissim Atmazgin, a professor of East Asian Studies at Hebrew University, "Many young people look at K-pop as culture capital -- something that makes them stand out from the crowd." And sociologists at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem reportedly have shown that K-Pop may be possible solution to bring Israelis and Palestinians together. In Israel, there are over 5000 K-pop followers and 3000 followers in the Palestinian territories as of 2012.[346] As of 2012, the most popular K-pop bands in Israel are the male bands Super Junior and Shinee while other popular bands include 2NE1, Big Bang, FT Island, G-Dragon, Taeyang, TVXQ, MBLAQ, Rain, Girl's Generation, and T-ara. Many dedicated Israeli and Palestinian K-pop fans tend to see themselves as "cultural missionaries" and actively introduce K-pop to their friends and relatives, further spreading the Hallyu wave within their communities.[347]

Oceania

Concerts in Australia include the 2011 K-Pop Music Festival, at the ANZ Stadium in Sydney,[348] featuring Girls' Generation, TVXQ, B2ST, SHINee, 4minute, miss A, 2AM, and MBLAQ. While, in New Zealand, a K-pop Festival is planned to take someplace sometime during the summer of 2012/2013, starring Girls' Generation, 2PM and Kara and the South Korean Embassy will be backing New Zealand's first national K-pop competition.[349] NU'EST visited Sydney in August 2012 at Sydney Harbour and at the University of New South Wales, as they were judges of a major K-pop concert that was being held there. 4Minute also went to Sydney in 2013 and were judges at the same kpop contest.[350] Psy toured Australia in October 2012, after his single "Gangnam Style" reached number one in Australia on the ARIA charts.[351]

Current issues

K-pop and foreign policy

On May 7, 2013, U.S. President Barack Obama cited Psy's "Gangnam Style" as an example of how people around the world are being "swept up by Korean culture -- the Korean Wave."[352]

On May 25, 2010, South Korea responded to an alleged North Korean sinking of a navy ship by declaring "psychological warfare" and broadcasting 4Minute's newly released single HuH across the Korean Demilitarized Zone.[353] In response, North Korea affirmed its decision to "destroy" any speakers set up along the border.[354] According to South Korean media, the Ministry of Defense had considered setting up large TV screens across the border to broadcast music videos by several popular K-pop girl groups such as Girls' Generation, Wonder Girls, After School, Kara and 4Minute as part of "psychological warfare" against North Korea. A spokesman representing the ministry told reporters that the "revealing" outfits worn by the performers and their "provocative" dances could have a considerable impact on North Korean soldiers.[355]

In September 2012, North Korea uploaded a video with a Photoshopped image of South Korea's current president Park Geun-hye performing the dance moves of "Gangnam Style". The video labels her as a "devoted" admirer of the Yushin system of autocratic rule set up by her father, Park Chung-hee.[356][357]

Since the early 2010s, several political leaders have acknowledged the global rise of Korean pop culture, most notably U.S. President Barack Obama, who made an official visit to South Korea in 2012 and mentioned about the strong influences of social media networks in the digital age, and added that it is "no wonder so many people around the world have caught the Korean wave, Hallyu."[358] A few months later, U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon delivered a speech in front of the National Assembly of South Korea, where he noted South Korea's "great global success" in the fields of culture, sports and the arts, before pointing out that the Korean Wave as well as the recent rise of Korean popular music is "making its mark on the world".[359]

...when K-Pop artists travel to Europe, I’ll try to
convince them to stop by Turkey, too

“
”

—Former South Korean President Lee Myung-bak, who invited
Jaejoong to meet his Turkish fans at Ankara University[360]

This had occurred a few days after U.S. State Department spokeswoman Victoria Nuland remarked in a daily press briefing that her daughter "loves Korean pop",[361] which sparked a media frenzy in South Korea after a journalist from the country's publicly funded Yonhap News Agency arranged an interview with Nuland and described Nuland's teenage daughter as "crazy about Korean music and dance".[362]

In November 2012, the British Minister of State for the Foreign Office Hugo Swire addressed a group of South Korean diplomats at the House of Lords, where he emphasized the close ties and mutual cooperation shaping South Korea–United Kingdom relations and added: "As "Gangnam Style" has demonstrated, your music is global too."[363] In February 2013, the Vice President of Peru Marisol Espinoza gave an interview with South Korea's Yonhap News Agency, where she voiced her desire for more South Korean companies to invest in her country and named K-pop as "one of the main factors that made Peruvian people wanting to get to know South Korea more".[364]

According to an article published by the international relations magazine Foreign Policy, the spread of Korean popular culture across Southeast Asia, parts of South America, and parts of the Middle East is illustrating how the gradual cessation of European colonialism is giving way and making room for unexpected soft power outside the West.[365] On the other hand, an article published by The Quietus magazine expressed concern that discussions about Hallyu as a form of soft power seems to bear a whiff of the "old Victorian fear of Yellow Peril".[366]

Criticism

The K-pop genre has received substantial criticism for its:

In 2002, Time reported that television producers were arrested for "accepting under-the-table payments guaranteeing TV appearances to aspiring singers and musicians. According to Seoul District Prosecutor Kim Kyu Hun, the arrests of Hwang Yong Woo and Kim Jong Jin were just the first in a wide-ranging investigation into systemic corruption in South Korea's music business". Companies investigated included SidusHQ, SM Entertainment and others.[59]

K-pop companies are also criticized for taking advantage of their "idols" through overworking and restrictive contracts that were described as "slave contracts" in a BBC report.[370] In July 2009, SM Entertainment was taken to court by TVXQ and a Super Junior member alleging that working conditions had caused adverse health effects and other problems.[375][376] Court decision in the TVXQ lawsuit determined their contract void and as a result the fair trade commission released contract templates to regulate conditions.[370]

Regarding the quality of music, K-pop has been criticized for its heavily manufactured character, which involves the "pre-packaging" of idol bands and songs produced for fast consumption. The genre is also labeled to have copied Western patterns, lacking originality and lyrics were noted to be shallow. Repeated song patterns and formats as well as the use of Autotune is also sometimes considered to be a negative aspect of K-pop. It has also been regarded as "artificial", where visuals matter over singing ability.[136][137][377][378][379]

K-pop has been criticized for overtly relying on American sound and being "copycats" of Western music patterns. Some Korean artists have even been involved in accusations of plagiarism.[377][380] New York magazine calls K-pop songs "catchy but derivative".[233] The genre is often called bubblegum pop.[57][136] Lyrics have been criticized for being shallow and lifeless and for containing meaningless or non-existing English words.[378]

Despite its growing popularity, some commentators have remained doubtful of K-pop's ability to break into Western music markets. CNN published an article written by freelance journalist Esther Oh, who wrote that big music markets "simply don't care".[381] The New Yorker's staff writer John Seabrook described Girls' Generation as being a dominant girl group positioned to "conquer the West", but also added that some analysts in the music industry consider K-pop's idol groups too robotic to become mainstream.[382]

According to Soyoung Kim a staff writer from The Harvard Crimson provides her option on the portrayal of women in the K-Pop Industry. Kim believes that these women are often depicted as hyper-sexualized; "a hybrid between children and sexually devolved adults".[373] In 2009 Girls Generation released their top hit song "Gee" and it had been number one on various charts. However, the song has been criticized by their portrayal of women being "clueless" and need for "dependence on men". The companies are triggering the male audience and "suggests that women’s societal role" by depicting them girls as mannequins in a store window.

K-pop Companies are often criticized for the living environment of the idols. In the SBS broadcast of "Roommate", Seo Kang Joon revealed that the conditions in which he and his group, 5urprise live. The broadcast showed the 5urprise members sleeping on the ground together in a small one bedroom dorm. Joon stated, "We only eat ramyun in our dorms. Or sometimes we go to restaurants and eat Korean food, because we really wanted to eat meat".[374]

Regulations

In 2014, South Korea passed law to regulate its music industry, protecting underage K-pop stars from unhealthy labor practices and overtly sexualized performances, as well as raising awareness of rules that guarantee the right to "learn, rest and sleep." According to the Hollywood Reporter, "Korea’s entertainment business is notoriously improvisational and unregulated. In-demand K-pop stars — many of whom are teenage ‘idols’ — have been known to rehearse and perform without sleep."[383]

List of K-pop artists

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Not to be confused with the pansori story of the same name.

References

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Bibliography

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