Bengali Muslims

Bengali Muslims
বাঙালি মুসলমান

Total population
204,800,000 (worldwide)
Regions with significant populations
Bangladesh	146,000,000
India	30,000,000 (2010)
Pakistan	2,000,000 (2012)[1][2][3][4]
Saudi Arabia	1,200,000 (2010)[5][6]
UAE	700,000 (2013)[7]
Malaysia	500,000 (2009)[8]
UK	500,000 (2011)[9]
Kuwait	230,000 (2008)[10]
Oman	200,000 (2010)[11]
Qatar	150,000 (2014)[12]
USA	143,619 (2007)[13]
Italy	115,746 (2013)[14]
Bahrain	105,000 (2008)[15]
Languages
Bengali with different dialects

Bengali Muslims are adherents of Islam among the Bengali people. The Muslims of Bengal are the second-largest ethnic Muslim community in the world.^[16] They speak the Bengali language and are native to modern-day Bangladesh and the eastern states of India, including West Bengal and Assam. Most Bengali Muslims are members of the Sunni branch of Islam. A minority are members of the Shia and Ahmadiya branches.

The people of the Bengal Delta have multiracial origins, including a hybrid mixture of Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman and Austronesian ancestry. The region was historically separated from India by the mighty Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, allowing the Bengali people to develop an independent language and culture. The delta was a hub of trade routes, including Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean trade; the Silk Road; and the Grand Trunk Road. Islam arrived in the first millennium and greatly influenced Bengali culture and civilization. The influx of Persian, Turkic, Arab and Mongol settlers further added to the rich cultural melting pot of Bengal. The Sultanate of Bengal was a major eastern frontier state in the medieval Muslim world.^[16] The Mughal Empire witnessed the further crystallization of Bengali Muslim identity. In the British Indian Empire, Bengali Muslims played a key role in developing modern political and artistic expression in South Asia. They compromised the demographic majority of East Pakistan, which became independent after a revolutionary liberation war in 1971.

Bengali Muslims share strong cultural similarities with Bengali Hindus, Christians and Buddhists. Within wider Bengali culture, they have distinct social, linguistic and culinary characteristics. Bangladesh has a dominant Bengali Muslim-majority. They are the second largest community in the Indian states of West Bengal and Assam.

History

During the Iron Age, the Bengal delta was a hub of maritime city states, including the kingdoms of Samatata, Pundra and Vanga. They were based in the cities of Wari-Bateshwar, Mahasthangarh and Chandraketugarh. The Greeks and Romans described the land as Gangaridai (nation of the Ganges). According to Greek legends, the region’s military prowess deterred Alexander from pursuing a full-scale invasion of India. Hinduism and Buddhism tussled for dominance in Bengal. The Mauryans, Guptas, Palas, Candras, Senas and Devas ruled the region until Muslim conquest in the 13th century.

One of the oldest standing mosques of Bengal in Rajshahi

Islam first came to Bengal during the latter part of the first millennium. A center of the Silk Road since antiquity, the Ganges delta received the earliest Muslim missionaries during the seventh and eighth centuries. Sufis settled in numerous Bengali ports, towns and cities. Coins of the Abbasid Caliphate found in Bangladesh and West Bengal indicate flourishing mercantile and intellectual contacts during the Islamic Golden Age.^[17] The exchange of knowledge and science saw the House of Wisdom absorbing South Asian mathematics and astronomy, including the concept of zero. Arab trade with Bengal flourished since the 9th century. In 1154, Al-Idrisi noted that merchants from Baghdad and Basra regularly traveled to the Bengali gateway of Chittagong.^[17][18]

After the Delhi Sultanate was established in North India, the Turkic general Bakhtiar Khilji launched the Islamic conquest of Bengal in 1204 after defeating Lakshman Sena of the Sena dynasty. Bengal was incorporated into the Delhi Sultanate and ruled by Persianate Mamluk, Khilji and Tughluq dynasties for a century.

Adina Mosque was the imperial mosque of the Bengal Sultanate and the largest mosque built in the Indian subcontinent

In 1342, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah proclaimed the independent Sultanate of Bengal.^[19] The era was a turning point in Bengali history. Muslim rule united the whole region into a single Bengali political entity under a long-lasting administration. Muslims and Hindus jointly formed the civil and military service. The achievements of previous civilizations were not lost, but absorbed into the new Islamic polity. The construction of mosques, madrasas and Sufi khanqahs reinforced the process of conversion.^[16] The people of the fertile East embraced conversion due to Islamic agrarian reform and synthetic Sufi mythology.^[16] Bengali Muslims also maintained their Indo-Aryan language and script. The Bengal Sultanate was one of the leading states in the eastern frontier of the Muslim world. Sultans from the Ilyas Shahi dynasty engaged in active diplomacy. Embassies were exchanged with Ming China, the Malay sultanates, Safavid Persia, the Ottoman Empire, Portugal and the Ajuraan sultanate.^[19]

Arakan in Burma was brought under Bengali suzerainty for 100 years.^[20]

The Yongle Emperor of China built a special relationship with the Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah. The Chinese sent Admiral Zheng He as an envoy to Bengal several times as part of the treasure voyages in the 15th century.

Map of the Bengal Sultanate in 1500

The Sixty Dome Mosque, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

The Firoz Minaret in Gaur, West Bengal

The Mughal-era Lalbagh Fort

Murshidabad in the 18th century

A mosque on the riverfront of Dhaka in 1823. Dhaka is known as the City of Mosques in Bengal

During the Hussain Shahi dynasty, the Sultans strongly patronized medieval Bengali literature. This marked the start of a renaissance in Bengali culture. Muslim and Hindu poets produced numerous epics, translations of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian texts and pioneered secular works. The region also came under heavy Turkic and Persian influences in administration and architecture. The Sultans built a grand capital city in Gaur, including the imperial mosque in Adina- the largest mosque ever built in the subcontinent.^[16] They also built the Historic Mosque City of Bagerhat. Islamic architecture was shaped by local Bengali terracotta aesthetics. Gold and silver taka were minted in dozens of towns and cities, including Fatehabad, Sonargaon, Jalalabad, Chatgaon and Hughli.^[21] The 14th century traveler Ibn Battuta compared the sultanate to the Nile delta for its wealth and prosperity.^[22]

Many Sufi dervishes and saints were instrumental in conversion and missionary activities. Hazrat Shah Jalal in Sylhet achieved one of the largest conversions in the subcontinent.^[23] The Baro-Bhuyan landlords led by Isa Khan also exerted significant influence in the region, especially in the eastern frontier with Assam.

By the 16th-century, the Mughal Empire controlled most of Bengal. The Mughals instituted agrarian reforms and readapted the Bengali calendar. Mughal rule reinforced the emergence of Bengali Muslim identity. Sufficient autonomy was given to subjects to cultivate their own customs and literature. Bengal became a worldwide trading center in shipbuilding, cotton muslin textiles and fine silk. It generated 50% of the Mughal Empire's GDP, which at the time constituted 25% of global GDP.^[24] Dhaka became the commercial capital of the Empire and one of the most wealthiest cities in the world.^[24] The Nawabs of Bengal gained prominence in the early 18th century, with their capital in Murshidabad. They gave increasing concessions to European trading powers, including the Dutch, French, Danish and English.

The British East India Company took control of Bengal in 1757 after defeating Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah at the Battle of Plassey. The British looted the Bengal treasury, appropriating wealth valued at US$40 billion in modern-day prices.^[24] Due to high colonial taxation, Bengali commerce shrank by 50% within 40 years; while British imports flooded the market. Spinners and weavers starved during famines. Bengal's once industrious cities became impoverished. The East India Company forced opium and indigo cultivation. The permanent settlement dismantled centuries of joint Muslim-Hindu political, military and feudal cooperation. Historians generally regard the period as the most oppressive colonial administration in history.^[24]

The Bengal Presidency was established in 1765. Rural eastern Bengal witnessed the earliest rebellions against British rule, including the Faraizi movement led by Haji Shariatullah and the activities of Titumir. The mutiny of 1857 engulfed much of northern India and Bengal, including in Dhaka and Chittagong.^[25][26] Following the mutiny, the United Kingdom gained direct authority and established the British Raj. At one point in the 19th century, the Bengal Presidency covered all British possessions from the Khyber Pass to the Straits of Malacca.

The colonial capital Calcutta, where Bengali Muslims formed the second largest community, became the second largest city in the British Empire after London. The late 19th and early 20th-century Indian Renaissance brought dramatic social and political change. The imparting of Western law, government and education ushered modern enlightenment, creating a new politically conscious middle class and a new generation of leaders in politics, arts and science. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan pioneered English education among British Indian Muslims, with many Bengali Muslims enrolling in Aligarh Muslim University. The First Partition of Bengal incubated the broader anti-colonial struggle. In 1906, the All India Muslim League was formed during the Muhammadan Education Conference in Dhaka. The University of Dhaka played a key role in emancipating Bengali Muslim society, with progressive groups like the Freedom of Intellect Movement and the Muslim Literary Society. Bengali Muslims were at the forefront of the Indian Independence Movement, including the constitutional struggle for the rights of minorities.

The Partition of British India in 1947 divided Bengal on religious grounds between Hindu-majority West Bengal and Muslim-majority East Bengal, despite calls for a United Bengal. With the creation of the Dominion of Pakistan, the exclave of East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan) became a stronghold of Bengali nationalism. The Awami League was formed in 1949. The Bengali Language Movement reached its peak in 1952. The Six point movement led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman demanded autonomy in the 1960s. Bengali calls for self-determination were met by a brutal military crackdown from West Pakistan. The nine month-long Bangladesh war of independence took place in 1971. The People’s Republic of Bangladesh was established as a secular parliamentary democracy in 1972. However, the new state endured political turmoil and several military coups. The restoration of democracy in 1991 has brought relative calm and economic growth.

Culture

Sufism

A scroll depicting the legend of Pir Ghazi riding a Bengal tiger in the Sundarbans

Sufi saints hold an important place in Bengali Muslim society. Bengali Muslims have a tradition of offering prayers at the dargahs of deceased Sufi preachers. Sufi shrines are centers of festivity and charity.^[27]

Language

Bengali Muslims maintain their indigenous language and script.^[28]

They speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali language, the most easterly branch of the Indo-European languages. The dialect has many Arabic and Persian loanwords.^[29][30]

Literature

Kazi Nazrul Islam

The recorded history of Bengali literature can be traced to the 3rd century BCE.^[31]

Medieval Bengali Muslim literature includes the notable works of Alaol Ali Abbas Husaini and Daulat Quazi. Mir Mosharraf Hossain was the first Bengali Muslim novelist. The highly acclaimed poetry of Kazi Nazrul Islam espoused spiritual rebellion against fascism and oppression. Nazrul also wrote Bengali ghazals. Begum Rokeya was a pioneering Bengali female writer who published Sultana’s Dream, one of the earliest examples of feminist science fiction.

Other Bengali Muslim literary figures include Shamsur Rahman, Jasimuddin, Nurul Momen, Syed Waliullah, Shahidullah Kaisar, Shawkat Osman, Ahsan Habib, Farrukh Ahmed, Syed Ali Ahsan, Syed Shamsul Haque, Abu Zafar Obaidullah, Sufia Kamal, Al Mahmud, Abubakar Siddique, Akhtaruzzaman Elias, Ghulam Murshid, Hasan Azizul Huq, Selina Hossain, Shawkat Ali, Rafiq Azad, Abul Hasan, Abid Azad and Humayun Ahmed. Bengali science fiction is widely popular within the region.

Bengali Muslim writing in English began with Sake Dean Mahomet in England in 1793. Modern Bangladeshi English writers include Tahmima Anam, Kaiser Haq, Zia Haider Rahman and Neamat Imam.

Music

Ali Akbar Khan

A notable feature of Bengali Muslim music is the syncretic Baul tradition. The most famous practitioner was Fakir Lalon Shah. Baul music is included in the UNESCO Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

Nazrul Sangeet is the collection of 4,000 songs and ghazals written by Kazi Nazrul Islam.

South Asian classical music is widely prevalent in the region. Alauddin Khan, Ali Akbar Khan and Gul Mohammad Khan were notable Bengali Muslim exponents of classical music.

Textiles

Bengal is renowned for producing fine muslin and silk textiles- an industry which was strongly promoted by its medieval Muslim rulers. Jamdani and Rajshahi silk are examples of Bengali Muslim textiles.

Cuisine

Beef and roasted onion curry in Bangladesh

Within Bengali cuisine, Muslim dishes include the serving of meat curries, pulao rice, various biryani preparations and dry and dairy-based desserts alongside traditional fish and vegetables. Bakarkhani breads from Dhaka were once immensely popular in the imperial court of the Mughal Empire. Other major breads consumed include the naan and paratha. Different types of Bengali biryani include the Kachi (mutton), Illish pulao (hilsa), Tehari (beef) and Murg Pulao (chicken). Mezban is a renowned spicy beef curry from Chittagong. Halwa and sweetened rice and noodles are typical Muslim desserts in Bengali cuisine.

Festivals

Bengali New Year is based on the Mughal Bengali agrarian calendar

Eid-ul-Fitr at the end of Ramadan is the largest religious festival of Bengali Muslims. The festival of sacrifice takes place during Eid-al-Adha, with cows and goats as the main sacrificial animals. Muharram, or the Prophet’s Birthday, is a national holiday in Bangladesh; and a major festival for Bengali Shia Muslims. Other festivals like Shab-e-Barat feature prayers and exchange of desserts.

Secular festivals are based on the Bengali calendar which was readapted by the Mughal Emperor Akbar. Celebrated by Bengalis of all faiths, they include the Bengali New Year, Spring Festival and Autumn Harvest Festival.

Architecture

17th century Bengali Islamic terracotta architecture

Early Bengali Muslim architecture combined indigenous terracotta architecture and artwork with Turkic and Persian influences.^[32] However, the indigenous Islamic style was later replaced by the Mughal style during the Mughal Empire. The Indo-Saracenic style influenced Islamic architecture in South Asia during the British Raj. A notable example of this period is the Curzon Hall in Dhaka. Modern and contemporary Islamic architecture evolved in the region since the 1950s, with notable examples including the Baitul Mukarram, the Three Leaders Mausoleum and the Chandanpura Mosque in Bangladesh.

Seafaring

A Bengali ivory replica of a royal peacock barge

Bengali Muslims have ancient seafaring and shipbuilding traditions. Country boats in Bangladesh include 150 different types of vessels. Bengali ports were medieval manufacturing hubs for large ships. The volume of shipbuilding swelled extensively during Mughal rule. During the 17th century, Bengali shipyards built warships of the Ottoman Navy. The British Royal Navy also had many warships built in Chittagong, some of which were used in the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.^[33][34]

Demographics

Global community of Bengali-speakers

Bengali Muslims constitute the largest Muslim ethnicity outside the Arab world.^[16] They are also the biggest Indo-Islamic ethnic group.

Bangladesh

Bangladesh is home to approximately 146 million Bengali Muslims, who are the nation’s predominant majority.

India

The Indian state of West Bengal has a 27% Bengali Muslim population. A significant section of Assam's 34% Muslim population includes Bengali Muslims. There are an estimated 30 million Bengali Muslims living in India. Altamas Kabir is an Indian Bengali Muslim jurist who served as the Chief Justice of India. Nafisa Ali is a prominent Bengali Muslim actress in the Indian film industry.

Persecution

Bengali Muslim communities in the state of Assam have faced reprisals on the allegation that they are all illegal Bangladeshis.^[35] despite the 2011 census reports which show that the growth of Bengali Muslim migration is overstated, as it is not higher than Muslim population growth in other states and illegal infiltration has a declining trend from 1971 to 2011.^[36]

The 1983 Nellie massacre which, officially, claimed the lives of over 2000 people^[37] and the 2012 Assam violence are glaring examples.^[38] Despite the violence, the Assam government has been labeling the all ethnic Bengali Muslims as part of an agenda to create a Greater Bangladesh.^[39]

The response to illegal migration by Bangladeshis in India has seen double standards. In 2014, Narendra Modi, the then Prime minster hopeful threatened to expel all "illegal Bangladeshis" but made a distinction between Bengali Hindus and Muslims saying:

“Those,” said Modi, “who are forced to flee Bangladesh and are sons of mother India, love the nation, worship (the Hindu goddess) Ma Durga, speak Bengali language … they will be protected and given the same status as other sons of mother India. But illegal Bangladeshi migrants, who are being brought to India in the name of vote-bank politics, will have to go back to Bangladesh.

^[40]

Pakistan

A substantial Bengali community has resided in the Pakistani port city of Karachi since British Indian partition in 1947. During the union between East and West Pakistan, three Bengali politicians served as the Prime Minister of Pakistan.

United States

Bengali Muslims who worked in British colonies, such as South Africa, were among the first to migrate to the United States. By the 1930s and 1940s, a number of prosperous Asian restaurants in Harlem in New York City were owned and operated by Bengali Muslims.^[41]

Bengali Muslim structural engineer F R Khan designed the Sears Tower in Chicago, which was the world's tallest building for many years.

United Kingdom

Bengali Muslims began migrating to the UK since late eighteenth century, particularly as sailors on the British merchant navy. People from Sylhet migrated to Britain since 1870. Bengali Muslims are the second largest Muslim community in UK and the largest Muslim community in London. An estimated 500,000 Bengali Muslims live in the UK.

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia has over one million Bangladeshi expatriate workers.

See also

• British Bangladeshis
• Bengali Americans

References

Bibliography

• Pradip Kumar Lahiri (1991). Bengali Muslim thought, 1818–1947: its liberal and rational trends. K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 978-81-7074-067-4. 
• Soumitra Sinha (1995). The Quest for Modernity and the Bengali Muslims: 1921 – 47. Minerva Pub. ISBN 978-81-85195-68-1. 
• Mohammad Shah (1996). In search of an identity: Bengali Muslims, 1880–1940. K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 978-81-7074-184-8. 
• Rafiuddin Ahmed (1996). The Bengal Muslims, 1871–1906: a quest for identity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-563919-3. 
• Rafiuddin Ahmed (2001). Understanding the Bengal Muslims: interpretative essays. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-565520-9. 
• Ashoke Kumar Chakraborty; Indian Institute of Advanced Study (2002). Bengali Muslim literati and the development of Muslim community in Bengal. Indian Institute of Advanced Study. 
• Vivek Bald (2013). Bengali Harlem and the Lost Histories of South Asian America. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-07040-0. 

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