Aromanian language

Dialects of Aromanian

Aromanian (limba armãneascã, armãneshce, armãneashti, rrãmãneshti), also known as Macedo-Romanian or Vlach, is an Eastern Romance language spoken in Southeastern Europe. Its speakers are called Aromanians or Vlachs (a broader term and an exonym in widespread use to define Romance communities in the Balkans).

Aromanian shares many features with modern Romanian, including similar morphology and syntax, as well as a large common vocabulary inherited from Latin. An important source of dissimilarity between Romanian and Aromanian is the adstratum languages; whereas Romanian has been influenced to a greater extent by the Slavic languages, Aromanian has been more influenced by Greek, with which it has been in close contact throughout its history.

Geographic distribution

The greatest number of Aromanian speakers are found in Greece, with substantial numbers of speakers also found in Albania, Bulgaria, Serbia, and in the Republic of Macedonia. Macedonia is the only country where Aromanians are officially recognized as a national minority. In Albania the Aromanians are recognized as a cultural or linguistic minority.

Large Aromanian-speaking communities are also found in Romania, where some Aromanians migrated from Greece, Albania, Bulgaria and Serbia, mainly after 1925. Aromanians may have settled in Turkey due to the influence of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. Today, there are a few Aromanians living in Turkey.

Official status

The Aromanian language has a degree of official status in the Republic of Macedonia where Aromanian is taught as a subject in some primary schools (in Skopje, Bitola, Štip and Kruševo). In the Republic of Macedonia Aromanian speakers also have the right to use the language in court proceedings. Since 2006 the Aromanian language has been the second official municipal language (after Macedonian) in the city of Kruševo (Crushuva), even though it is spoken by ~ 10% of the municipal population.^[3] The language has no official status in any other country, despite the even higher numbers of Aromanians in some other countries, e.g. Greece.

History

Dictionary of four Balkan languages (Greek, Albanian, Aromanian and Bulgarian) by Daniel Moscopolites, an Aromanian from Moscopole, written c. 1770 and published c. 1794; republished in 1802 in Greek.^{[4][5][6][7][8]}

The language is similar to Romanian and its greatest difference lies in the vocabulary. There are far fewer Slavic words in Aromanian than in Romanian, and many more Greek words, a reflection of the close contact of Aromanian with Greek through much of its history.

It is generally considered that sometime between 800 and 1,200 years ago, Vulgar Latin spoken in the Balkan provinces of the Roman Empire, which is also known as Proto-Eastern Romance, broke up into four languages: Romanian, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian and Istro-Romanian. One possibility for the origin of Aromanian is that in the same way standard Romanian is believed to be descended from the Latin spoken by the Getae; Dacians (Daco-Thracians) and Roman settlers in what is now Romania, Aromanian descended from the Latin spoken by Thracian and Illyrian peoples living in the southern Balkans (Epirus, Macedonia and Thrace).

Greek influences are much stronger in Aromanian than in other Eastern Romance languages, especially because Aromanian used Greek words to coin new words (neologisms), while Romanian based most of its neologisms on French.

Also, with the coming of the Turks in the Balkans, Aromanian received some Turkish words as well. Still the lexical composition remains mainly Romance.

Dialects

Aromanian has three main dialects, Gramustean, Pindean, and Fãrsherot.

It has also several regional variants, named after places that were home to significant populations of Aromanians (Vlachs); nowadays located in Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Greece. Examples are the Moscopole variant (from the Metropolis of Moscopole, also known as the "Aromanian Jerusalem"); the Muzachiar variant from Muzachia in central Albania; the variant of Bitola; Pilister, Malovište, Gopeš, Upper Beala; Gorna Belica (Aromanian: Beala di Supra) near Struga, Krusevo (Aromanian: Crushuva), and the variant east of the Vardar River in Macedonia.

An Aromanian dictionary currently under development can be found here.

Phonology

Aromanian has differences from standard Romanian in its phonology, some of them probably due to influence from Greek. It has spirants that do not exist in Romanian, such as /θ, ð, x, ɣ/. Other differences are the sounds /dz/ and /ts/, which correspond to Romanian /z/ and /tʃ/, and the sounds: /ʎ/, final /u/, and /ɲ/, which do not exist in Romanian. Aromanian is usually written with a Latin script (a modified Romanian alphabet that includes two additional letters, ń and ľ). It can also be written with a Greek script, with an orthography that resembles both that of Albanian (in the use of digraphs such as dh, sh, and th) and Italian, (in its use of c and g), along with the letter ã, used for the sounds represented in Romanian by ă and â/î.

Grammar

Aromanian grammar book, with the title in Greek and German, 1813

The grammar and morphology are very similar to those of other Romance languages:

• It has two grammatical numbers: singular and plural (no dual).
• It is a null-subject language.
• Verbs have many conjugations, including:
  • A present tense, a preterite, an imperfect, a pluperfect and a future tense in the indicative mood, for statements of fact.
  • An imperative mood, for direct commands.
  • Three non-finite forms: infinitive, gerund, and past participle.
  • Distinct active and passive voices, as well as an impersonal passive voice.

The Aromanian language has some exceptions from the Romance languages, some of which are shared in Romanian: the definite article is a clitic particle appended at the end of the word, both the definite and indefinite articles can be inflected, and nouns are classified in three genders, with neuter in addition to masculine and feminine.

Verbs

Aromanian grammar has features that distinguish it from Romanian, an important one being the complete disappearance of verb infinitives, a feature of the Balkan sprachbund. As such, the tenses and moods that in Romanian use the infinitive (like the future simple tense and the conditional mood) are formed in other ways in Aromanian. For the same reason, verb entries in dictionaries are given in their indicative mood, present tense, first-person-singular form.

Aromanian verbs are classified in four conjugations. The table below gives some examples and indicates the conjugation of the corresponding verbs in Romanian.^[9]

Future tense

The future tense is formed using an auxiliary invariable particle "va" or "u" and the subjunctive mood.

Pluperfect

Whereas in Romanian the pluperfect (past perfect) is formed synthetically (as in literary Portuguese), Aromanian uses a periphrastic construction with the auxiliary verb am (have) as the imperfect (aveam) and the past participle, as in Spanish and French, except that French replaces avoir (have) with être (be) for intransitive verbs. Aromanian shares this feature with Meglenian as well as other languages in the Balkan language area.

Only the auxiliary verb inflects according to number and person (aveam, aveai, avea, aveamu, aveatu, avea), whereas the past participle does not change.^[10]

Gerund

The Aromanian gerund is applied to some verbs, but not all. These verbs are:

• 1st conjugation: acatsã (acãtsãnda(lui)), portu, lucreashce, adiľeashce.
• 2nd conjugation: armãnã, cade, poate, tatse, veade.
• 3rd conjugation: arupã, dipune, dutse, dzãse, featse, tradze, scrie.
• 4th conjugation: apire, doarme, hivrie, aure, pate, avde.

Situation in Greece

Even before the incorporation of various Aromanian-speaking territories into the Greek state (1832, 1912), the language was subordinated to Greek, traditionally the language of education and religion in Constantinople and other prosperous urban cities. The historical studies cited below (mostly Capidan) show that especially after the fall of Moscopole (1788) the process of Hellenisation via education and religion gained a strong impetus mostly among people doing business in the cities.

Romanian Schools for Aromanians and Meglenoromanians in the Ottoman Empire (1886)

The Romanian state began opening schools for the Romanian influenced Vlachs in the 1860s, but this initiative was regarded with suspicion by the Greeks, who thought Romania was trying to assimilate them. 19th-century travellers in the Balkans such as W M Leake and Henry Fanshawe Tozer noted that Vlachs in the Pindus and Macedonia were bilingual, reserving the Latin dialect for inside the home.^[11]

Use of the Aromanian language in the Florina Prefecture

By 1948, the new Soviet-imposed communist regime of Romania had closed all Romanian-run schools outside Romania and since the closure, there has been no formal education in Aromanian and speakers have been encouraged to learn and use the Greek language. This has been a process encouraged by the community itself and is not an explicit State policy. The decline and isolation of the Romanian orientated groups was not helped by the fact that they openly collaborated with the Axis powers of Italy and Germany during the occupation of Greece in WWII. Notably the vast majority of Vlachs fought in the Greek resistance and a number of their villages were destroyed by the Germans.

The issue of Aromanian-language education is a sensitive one, partly because of the resurgence in Romanian interest on the subject. Romanian nationalism maintains that Greek propaganda is still very strong in the area, inferring that Greeks define Aromanians as a sort of "Latinized Greeks". The fact remains that it is the majority of Greek Vlachs themselves that oppose the Romanian propaganda (those that supported it having emigrated in the early 20th Century to other countries), as they have done for the past 200 years. Most Greek Vlachs oppose the introduction of the language into the education system as EU and leading Greek political figures have suggested, viewing it as an artificial distinction between them and other Greeks. For example, the former education minister, George Papandreou, received a negative response from Greek-Aromanian mayors and associations to his proposal for a trial Aromanian language education programme. The Panhellenic Federation of Cultural Associations of Vlachs (Πανελλήνια Ομοσπονδία Πολιτιστικών Συλλόγων Βλάχων) expressed strong opposition to EU's recommendation in 1997 that the tuition of Aromanian be supported so as to avoid its extinction.^[12] On a visit to Metsovo, Epirus in 1998, Greek President Konstantinos Stephanopoulos called on Vlachs to speak and teach their language, but its decline continues.

A recent example of the sensitivity of the issue was the 2001 conviction (later overturned in the Appeals Court) to 15 months in jail of Sotiris Bletsas,^[13] a Greek Aromanian who was found guilty of "dissemination of false information" after he distributed informative material on minority languages in Europe (which included information on minority languages of Greece), produced by the European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages and financed by the European Commission. His conviction met with broad condemnation in Greece^[14] and it emerged that his case was zealously pursued by Aromanian leaders who viewed themselves as patriotic Greeks and felt affronted by the suggestion that they belonged to a "minority". Bletsas was eventually acquitted.^[15]

Language sample

Gramushtean

Tatã a nostru, tsi eshci tu tserl,

s'ayiseascã numa a Ta,

s'yinã amirãriľa a Ta,

si facã vreare a Ta,

cum tu tserl, ashi sh'pisti locl.

Pãnea a nostrã atsea di cathi dzuã dã-nã-u sh'azã

shi ľartã-nã amãrtiile a noastre

ashi cum ľi ľirtãm sh'noi a amãrtoshlor a noshci.

Shi nu nã du la pirazmo,

ala aveagľi-nã di atsel arãul.

Cã a Ta easte Amirãriľa shi putearea

a Tatãlui shi Hillui shi a Ayului Spirit,

tora, totãna sh'tu eta a etilor.

Amen.

Fãrshãrot

Tatã a nostu tsi eshti tu tser,

si ayisiascã numa a Ta,

s’yinã amirãria a Ta,

si facã vrearea a Ta,

cum tu tser, ashe sh’pisti loc.

Penia a noste, atsa di cathi dzue, de-ni-u sh’aze,

sh’ľartã-ni amartiili a nosti,

ashe cum li ľãrtem sh’noi a amãrtoľor a noci,

sh’nu ni du la pirazmo,

ma viagľã-ni di atsel rãu.

C a Ta esti amirãria ľ’puteria,

a Tatãlui shi Hiľalui shi a Ayiului Spirit,

tora,totãna sh’tu eta a etillor.

Amin.

(The Lord's Prayer – source)

Tuti iatsãli umineshtsã s-fac liberi shi egali la nãmuzea shi-ndrepturli. Eali suntu hãrziti cu fichiri shi sinidisi shi lipseashti un cu alantu sh-si poartã tu duhlu-a frãtsãljiljei.

(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights), translated by Dina Cuvata

Comparison with Romanian

The following text is given for comparison in Aromanian and in Romanian, with an English translation. The spelling of Aromanian is that decided at the Bitola Symposium of August 1997. The word choice in the Romanian version was such that it matches the Aromanian text, although in modern Romanian other words might have been more appropriate. The English translation is only provided as a guide to the meaning, with an attempt to keep the word order as close to the original as possible.

Common words and phrases

See also

• Thraco-Roman
• Illyro-Roman
• Graeco-Armenian
• Eastern Romance substratum
• Romanian language
• Origin of the Romanians
• Romance languages
• Legacy of the Roman Empire
• The Balkan language area
• Latin-Greek connection

References

• Bara, Mariana. Le lexique latin hérité en aroumain dans une perspective romane, LincomEuropa Verlag, München, 2004, 231 p.; ISBN 3-89586-980-5.
• Bara, Mariana. Limba armănească. Vocabular şi stil. Bucharest: Editura Cartea Universitară. 2007, ISBN 978-973-731-551-9.
• Berciu-Drăghicescu, Adina; Petre, Maria. "Şcoli şi Biserici româneşti din Peninsula Balcanică. Documente (1864–1948)". Bucharest: Editura Universităţii. 2004.
• Capidan, Theodor. Aromânii, dialectul Aromân. Academia Română, Studii şi Cercetări, XX 1932.
• Friedman, Victor A. "The Vlah Minority in Macedonia: Language, Identity, Dialectology, and Standardization." In Selected Papers in Slavic, Balkan, and Balkan Studies, ed. Juhani Nuoluoto, Martti Leiwo, Jussi Halla-aho. Slavica Helsingiensa 21. University of Helsinki, 2001. online
• Kahl, Thede. Aromanians in Greece: Minority or Vlach-speaking Greeks?. Online:
• Kahl, Thede. Sprache und Intention der ersten aromunischen Textdokumente, 1731–1809. In: Symanzik, Bernhard (ed.): Festschrift für Gerhard Birkfellner zum 65. Geburtstag: Studia Philologica Slavica I/I, Münstersche Texte zur Slavistik, 2006, p. 245–266.
• Pascu, Giorge. Dictionnaire étymologique macédoroumain, 2 vols. Iaşi: Cultura Naţionalâ. 1918.
• Rosetti, Alexandru. Istoria limbii române, 2 vols., Bucharest. 1965–1969.
• "The Little Prince" by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry in Aromanian. Njiclu amirārush. Translated by Maria Bara and Thede Kahl, ISBN 978-3-937467-37-5.
• Weigand, Gustav. Die Sprache der Olympo-Wallachen, nebst einer Einleitung über Land und Leute. Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth. 1888.

Footnotes

External links

Aromanian edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Look up Aromanian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Aromanian Language website
• Στα Βλάχικα – In Vlach: A website about the Vlach language in Greece
• Aromanian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)
• Aromanian basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
• Asterios Koukoudis: Studies on the Vlachs
• Greek Helsinki Human Rights Organization: Aromanians (Vlachs) in Greece
• Conjugation of verbs in Aromanian and Istro-Romanian
• Romanian and the Balkans, with some references to Aromanian
• Greek Vlach website
• Consiliul A Tinirlor Armanj – CTARM , webpage about Youth Aromanians and their projects
• Armans Association from Serbia
• Armans Cultural Association from Romania

Languages of Albania Official language Albanian Minority languages Aromanian Greek Macedonian Romani Serbian Sign languages Albanian Sign Language

Languages of Greece Official language Greek Minority languages Albanian Arvanitika Armenian Aromanian Bulgarian Ladino Macedonian Romani Turkish Greek varieties Cretan Cappadocian Pontic Maniot Tsakonian Yevanic Sign languages Greek Sign Language

Languages of the Republic of Macedonia Official language Macedonian Minority languages Albanian Aromanian Bosnian Romani Serbian Turkish Sign languages Macedonian Sign Language