Arbëresh language

This article is about a language spoken in Italy. For the related language spoken in Greece, see Arvanitika.
Arbëresh
Arbërisht(e)
Pronunciation [ˌæɾbəˈɾiʃt]
Native to Italy
Region Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Molise, Sicily
Ethnicity Arbëreshë
Native speakers
100,000 (2007)[1]
Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-3 aae
Glottolog arbe1236[2]
Linguasphere 55-AAA-aha to 55-AAA-ahe

Arbëreshë (also known as Arbërisht, Arbërishtja or T'arbrisht) is an ethnolect spoken by the Arbëreshë, the Albanian ethnic and language group in Italy.

Classification

Arbëresh derives from the Tosk dialect spoken in southern Albania and ultimately from the Arvanitika dialect of the Albanian language. Arbëresh is spoken in Southern Italy in the regions of Abruzzi, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Molise, Apulia and Sicily. All dialects are closely related to each other but are not entirely mutually intelligible.

Arbëresh retains many archaisms of medieval Albanian from the time before the Ottoman invasion of Albania in the 15th century. It also retains some Greek elements, including vocabulary and pronunciation, most of which it shares with its relative Arvanitika. It has also preserved some conservative features that were lost in mainstream Albanian Tosk. For example, it has preserved certain syllable-initial consonant clusters which have been simplified in Standard Albanian (cf. Arbëresh gluhë /ˈɡluxə/ ('language/tongue'), vs. Standard Albanian gjuhë /ˈɟuhə/). Arbëresh most resembles the dialect of Albanian spoken in the south-central region of Albania, by the Albanian speaking population.

Arbëresh was commonly called 'Albanese' (Albanian in the Italian language) in Italy until the 1990s. Until recently, Arbëresh speakers had only very imprecise notions about how related or unrelated their language was to Albanian. Until the 1980s Arbëresh was exclusively a spoken language, except for its written form used in the Italo-Albanian Byzantine Church, and Arbëreshë people had no practical connection with the Standard Albanian language used in Albania, as they did not use this form in writing or in media. When a large number of immigrants from Albania began to enter Italy in the 1990s and came into contact with local Arbëreshë communities, the differences and similarities were for the first time made apparent. The Arbëreshë have mixed feelings towards the "new Albanians".[3]

Since the 1980s, some efforts have been organized to preserve the cultural and linguistic heritage of the language.

Arbëresh has been slowly declining in recent decades, but is currently experiencing a revival in many villages in Italy. Figures such as Zef Skirò Di Maxho have done much work on school books and other language learning tools in the language, producing two books 'Udha e Mbarë' and 'Udhëtimi', both used in schools in the village of Piana degli Albanesi, Sicily.

Albanian dialects

False friends

While the relation between Arbëresh and standard Albanian is close, the two are not 100% mutually intelligible and there are many false friends, for example:

ArbëreshMeaningAlbanianMeaning
shërbenj to work shërbejto serve
punonj to work in the fields punoj to work
u nëng/ngë jamI am not unë nuk jamI am not
kopílyoung man kopilbastard
brekë trousers brekë underpants
brumë pasta brumë dough
zienj to cook ziej to boil

Dialects

Vaccarizzo Albanian

Vaccarizzo Albanian is a variety of the Arbëresh language. Spoken in the villages of Vaccarizzo Albanese and San Giorgio Albanese in Calabria by approximately 3,000 people. Vaccarizzo Albanian has retained many archaic features of both Gheg and Tosk dialects.

Distinctive features

Some features of Arbërisht distinguish it considerably from standard Albanian. In some cases these are retentions of older pronunciations.

Phonology

Vowels

Ë

The letter ‹Ë› is pronounced as either a schwa [ə] or as a near-close near-back unrounded vowel [ʊ̜]. So the word Arbëresh is pronounced either [ɑɾbəˈɾɛʃ] or [ɑɾbʊ̜ˈɾɛʃ] depending on the dialect.

Y to I

Arbërisht lacks the close front rounded vowel [y] of Albanian, which is replaced by the close front unrounded vowel [i]. For example ty ('you') becomes ti, and hyni ('enter') becomes hini.

Consonants

GJ, Q

The letters ‹GJ› and ‹Q› are pronounced as a palatalized voiced velar plosive [ɡʲ] and a palatalized voiceless velar plosive [kʲ], rather than a voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] and a voiceless palatal plosive [c] as in standard Albanian. E.g. the word gjith ('all') is pronounced [ɡʲiθ] rather than [ɟiθ], qiell ('heaven') is pronounced [kʲiɛx] rather than [ciɛɫ], and shqip ('albanian') is pronounced [ʃkʲɪp].

GL, KL

In some words, Arbëresh has preserved the consonant clusters /gl/ and /kl/. In Standard Albanian these have mostly become the palatal stops gj and q. E.g. glet not gjet ('s/he looks like...'), klumësht not qumësht ('milk'), and klisha instead of kisha ('church').

H, HJ

The letter ‹H› is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative [x] (a sound also found in Greek: "χαρά" [xaˈra], 'joy'). As such, the Albanian word ha ('eat') is pronounced [xɑ], not [hɑ]. Arbëresh additionally has the palatalized counterpart, [xʲ]. Therefore, the word hjedh ('throw') is pronounced [xʲɛθ]. The letter combination HJ is present in a few standard Albanian words (without a voiceless velar fricative), but is not treated as a separate letter of the alphabet as it is in Arbëresh.

LL, G

The letter ‹LL› and usually also ‹G› are pronounced as a voiced velar fricative [c] (also found in Greek: "γάλα" [ˈɣala], 'milk'). Often ‹G› is replaced by ‹GH› in the Arbëresh orthography. E.g. the word llah ('to eat until stuffed') is pronounced [ɣɑx], not [ɫɑh] as in Albanian, ghajdhur or gajdhur ('donkey') is pronounced [ɣajður], and grish ('invite') is pronounced [ɣriʃ].

Final devoicing of consonants

In contrast with standard Albanian Arbëresh has retained an archaic system of final devoicing of consonants. The consonants that change when in final position or before another consonant are the voiced stops b, d, g, gj; the voiced affricates x, xh; and the voiced fricatives dh, ll, v, z, zh.

Original voiced b [b] d [d] g [g]/[ɣ] gj [gʲ] x [dz] xh [dʒ] dh [ð] ll [ɣ] v [v] z [z] zh [ʒ]
Devoiced p [p] t [t] k [k] q [kʲ] c [ts] ch [tʃ] th [θ] h [x] f [f] s [s] sh [ʃ]

Examples:

Stress

Stress in Arbëresh is usually on the penultimate syllable, as in Italian.

Morphology

In Arbëresh the first person present indicative (e.g. "I work") is marked by the word ending in NJ, whereas in Albanian this is normally marked by J. So, 'I live' is rrónj in Arbëresh and rroj in standard Albanian.

Non-Albanian vocabulary

Many Arbëresh words appear to be cognate with their corresponding Greek words that have either been lost in standard Albanian or are a result of Greek influence on the Arbëresh language via the Byzantine church or their proximity to Greek-speaking populations in their original villages in Albania.

Examples:

Alongside the Greek component in Arbëresh, there is a considerable vocabulary derived from Sicilian and other southern italian dialacts. Many of these words have retained their original meanings where Sicilian has given way to Italian in everyday speech amongst the non-Arbëresh Sicilian people.

Examples:

Grammar of non-Albanian verbs

Alongside the Sicilian vocabulary element in Arbëresh, the language also includes grammatical rules for the inclusion of Sicilian-derived verbs in Arbëresh.

Examples:

In the past tense this conjugates as follows:

Comparison with other forms of Albanian

There are many instances in which Arberisht differs greatly from Standard Albanian, for instance:

ArbërishtShqipMeaning
Vjen më rarë or vjen më thënëdo të thotë or do me thënëIt means
Bëjëm të shkonj(piana degli albanesi) or mënd e më shkosh (santa cristina)më le të kalojLet me pass
Shkòmë musturënmë jep piperinPass me the pepper
Zotërote/Strote ë një "zot"?Zotëri, jeni prift?Sir, are you a priest?
E ghrish zotërisë satë për një pasijatëju ftoj për një shëtitje I invite you for a stroll
Zglith mirëlexo mirëRead well
Qëroi isht burinë i ligmoti është shumë keqThe weather is very bad
U rri Sëndastinëjetoj në SëndastinëI live in Santa Cristina
Ka bëjëm të ngrënitdo ta gatuajmë ushqimin We will prepare the food
U ka' jecur njera qacësunë kam ecur deri sheshitI have walked to the square
Ghajdhuri isht ghrishur ndë horëngomari është ftuar në katundThe donkey is invited into the village
Jam e vete/m'e vete ngulem/flëunë do të fleI'm going to sleep
Lyp ndjesë se zgarrarta shumëmë fal se gabova shumëI'm sorry that I've made so many errors
Ajo isht time shoqeajo është gruaja imeShe is my wife
Flit tarbrishtfol shqipSpeak Albanian!
Jim shoq isht e nguletim shok është duke fjeturMy husband is sleeping
Më përqen rritëratën tënëmë pëlqen fotografia jonëI like our photograph
Mortatë or motrëmëmëhallë or tezëAunt
Lalë or vovixhaxha or Lalë (dialect)Uncle or Older brother
Lalëbukri Uncle by marriage
Vovamotra e madheOlder sister
Tatababai or Tata (dialect)Father
Mëmënëna or mamajaMother
Midhe' edheAlso
Vëllai (pronouncedLluai)vëllaibrother
NdrëngonjKuptojunderstand
SprasmjaFundiend
Fundi/BythiBythibuttocks
Jotëm përherë të thëshjë të mos hash nga tajuri çë ngë ka' klënë pastruam!Jot ëmë përherë/gjithmonë të thoshte të mos hash nga pjata që nuk është pastruarYour mother always said don't eat from plates that haven't been cleaned!
The Lord's Prayer Arbëresh by Sicily (first row)

Compared with Standard Tosk Albanian (second row),
and Gheg Albanian (third row).

Áti jinëçë jeqiell,shejtëruarkloftëembrijít.
Ati ynëqë jeqiell,u shënjtëroftëemriyt.
Ati ynëqë jeqiell,shejtnue kjoftëemniyt.
Our father who art in heavenhallowed be thy name
járthshitrregjëriajóte;ubëftëvullimijít,
arthtëmbretëriajote;u bëftëdëshirajote,
ardhtëmbretniajote;u baftëvullnesajote,
thy kingdom comethy will be done
si nëqiell,ashtúdhé;
si nëqiell,edhembidhe.
si nëqiellashtudhe.
on earth as it is in heaven
bukëntënëtë përditshmeenanevesòt;
bukëntonëtë përditëshmejepnanevesot;
bukëntonëtë përditshmeepnanesot;
give us this day our daily bread
ndjenadëtyrëttóna,
edhefalnafajettona,
e ndiejna ne fajet e mëkatettona,
and forgive us our trespasses
sinajandjejëmdëtyruamëvettanë;
sikundëredheneuafalimfajtorëvettanë;
si i ndiejmë nafajtorëttanë;
as we forgive those who trespass against us
emosnalebienngarje,lironangailigu;
edhemosnashtjerëngasje,poshpëtonangailigu;
emosnalen me rakeq,porlargonaprej gjith së keq;
and lead us not into temptationbut deliver us from evil
sejótjaishtrregjëria,fuqiaelëvdiapërjétëjetëvet.
sepsejotjaështëmbretëriaefuqiaelavdiajetëtjetëvet.
sepsejotejaâshtrregjinijaefuqiaelaftijetëtjetëvet.
for thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever and ever.

Grammar comparison

There are many elements of Arberesh grammar that differ considerably from Albanian, for example:

Arbërisht Shqip Meaning Notes
ka shkoshdo kalosh You will pass Arbërisht uses the common Balkan participle ka, whereas Shqip uses do which translates as 'want', which is also a feature of the Balkan sprachsbund
flini alluras/anangasijfolni/flisni shpejt Speak soon (pl.)
flëniflini Sleep! (pl.)
bëjëm të shkonjmë le të kaloj Let me pass Shqip uses 'allow me to pass' whereas Arbërisht uses 'we do to pass' and 'able to pass'.
u vajtashkova I went Arbërisht conjugates from the Tosk word të vete whereas shkova means 'I passed' in Arbërisht
ke gjegjurke dëgjuar You have heard
zoti zën fill parkalesinprifti fillon lutën The priest starts the prayers
ish stisurisht ndërtuar It was built
jam e flas, je flet, ai isht e flet, ajo isht e flet, jem'e flasjëm, jan'e flasjën, jan'e flini po flas, ti po flet, ai po flet, ajo po flet, po flasim, po flasin, po flisni I am talking, you are talking, he is talking, she is talking, we are talking, they are talking, you (pl) are talking The present continuous is marked with the structure 'I am, You are, He is, She is, We are, They are etc. Whereas Shqip uses po which literally means 'yes'
ku ë Mëria?ku është Maria? Where is Maria? The locative marker te which literally means 'to' is added before ku 'where'. (A similar phenomena occurs in Welsh English and West Country English i.e. 'Where to you going?' or 'Where's he to?')
Mëria rri alartaMaria është lartë Maria is upstairs
Si ë Zotërote?Si jeni ju, Zotëri? How are you sir? The polite or formal is marked by use of Zotërote with ju being reserved for the plural only

Name

The name Arbërishte is derived from the ethnonym "Albanoi", which in turn comes from the toponym "Arbëria" (Greek: Άρβανα), which in the Middle Ages referred to a region in what is today Albania (Babiniotis 1998). Its native equivalents (Arbërorë, Arbëreshë and others) formerly were the self-designation of Albanians in general. Both "Arbëria" and "Albania/Albanian" go further back to name forms attested since antiquity.

Within the Arbëresh community the language is often referred to as "Tarbrisht" or "Gjegje." It is not known why the term "gjegje" is used, however, this does mean "listen" in Arbërisht.

Arbëresh names

Every Arbëresh person is given a legal Italian name and also a name in Arbërisht. Quite often the Arbëresh name is merely a translation of the Italian name. Arbëresh surnames are also used amongst villagers but do not carry any legal weight; the Arbëresh surname is called an "ofiqe" in Arbërisht. Some Arberesh 'ofiqe' are 'Butijuni', 'Pafundi' (literally 'without anus', probably with the meaning of 'without end, infinite'), 'Skarpari' (shoemaker from Italian word 'scarpa'), 'Mut', 'Picanarët', 'Balolërat', 'Kashetërat', 'Lopa', 'Bikubiu' etc.

Examples of Italian names and their Arbëresh equivalents:

ItalianArbëresh
GiuseppeZef, Jusepi
MarcoMarku
LucaLekë
GabrieleBjelli, Gavril
FrancescoFrançesk, Nxhiku
NicolaKola
AngelaNxholliqe
Alessandro Lishëndri
MarioMarjucë
MariaMarieja
MartinoTinucë
GaetanoTani
EleuterioLëfteri
AntonioNdon
GaspareGhaspani
DomenicaMima
LorenzoLloreu
GiovanniJani, Xhuan, Vanù
DemetrioMitri
SpiridioneDhoni
RosaliaSallja
TommasoMasinë
CosimoGësmëni
SaverioShaverë
AndreaNdrica

Writing system

The language is not usually written outside of the church and a few highly educated families, but officials are now using the standard Albanian alphabet, which is used on street signs in the villages as well as taught in schools.

Language samples

Pronouns

 Personal pronounsPossessive pronouns
1Sg.uIjimmine
2Sg. tiyoujytëyours
3Sg.m. aji hei/e tíjhis
3Sg.f. ajoshei/e sajhers
1Pl. nawejynëours
2Pl. juyoujuajyours
3Pl.m. atathey (m.)atyretheirs (m.)
3Pl.f. atothey (f.)atyretheirs (f.)

Verbs

Arbëresh verbs often differ, somewhat drastically, from their Standard Albanian counterparts.

Personal moods
Mood Tense Number and person English
equivalent
(only sg. 1st)
Singular Plural
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Indicative Pluperfect kisha burë kishe burë kishë burë kishëm burë kishni burë kishin burë I had done
Imperfect ish'e buja (she buja) ish'e buje (she buje) ish'e bun (she bun) ishm'e bujëm ishn'e buni ishn'e bujën I was doing
Perfect bura bure burë burëm burën burën I did
Present perfect ka burë ka burë ka burë ka burë ka burë ka burë I have done
Present bunj bun bun bujëm buni bujën I do, I am doing
Future ka bunj ka bun ka bun ka bujëm ka buni ka bujën I will do
Imperative Present buje! buni! do! (2nd person only)
Verbals
Type Form English
Infinitive të bunj to do
Gerund jam e bunj doing
 The verb HAVEThe verb BE
 Pres.Imperf.Subj.Impf.Subj.Perf.Pres.Imperf.Subj.Impf.Subj.Perf.
1Sg.kamkeshëtë kemtë keshëjamjeshëtë jemtë jeshë
2Sg.kekeshetë keshtë keshejejeshetë jeshtë jëshe
3Sg.kakishtë kettë kishishtë, ështëishtë jettë ish
1Pl.kemikeshëmtë kemite keshëmjemijeshëmtë jeshëmtë jeshëm
2Pl.kinikeshëtëtë kinite keshëtëjinijeshëtëtë jeshëtëtë jeshëtë
3Pl.kanëkishnëtë kenëtë kishnëjanëishnëtë jenëtë ishnë

Some common phrases

Falem Hello.
Çë bën? Si rri? What are you doing? How are you?
Jam shumë mirë I am very well
Zotrote e haristis, jini mirë? Thank you, and are you well?
O, jam edhe mirë? Yes, I'm fine too.
Zotrote flini arbërisht? Do you speak Arbërisht?
Ka vjen? Where are you from?
Jam gjymsë arbëresh I'm half Arbëresh
Mëma jime isht lëtire My mother is Italian
Ju parkales Please
Gëzonem të ju njoh Pleased to meet you
Mirë menatë Good morning
Shihemi See you soon
Gjegjemi alluras We'll speak soon
Si thërritet? What's your name?
Mua më thonë Marieja My name is Maria
Ëj/o Yes (Piana degli Albanesi)
Ara/ëj Yes (Santa Cristina Gela)
Ora/ëj Yes (Contessa Entellina)
Jo No

Sample text

Shërbesa e Kurorës - The Italo-Albanian Marriage Ceremony

Zoti : Gjergji, do ti të marsh për grua Linën çë ë ke këtú te ana, si urdhuron Klisha Shejte, e të qëndrosh lidhur me atë në të mirën si edhé në të ligën gjithë ditët e gjellës tënde?

Priest: Do you George want to take as your legitimate wife Lina who is present here according to the instructions of the Holy Church and to be faithful through the good and the bad all of your life?

Dhëndërri: O, e dua!

Groom: Yes, I do want that!

Zoti: Bekuar kloft Perëndia jínë nga herë, naní e për gjithëmonë e për jetë të jetëvet.

Priest: blessed be our God for all time, now and always in the centuries of centuries.

Populli: Amín.

People: Amín.

Zoti: Në paqe parkalesjëm t'ën Zonë.

Priest: In peace we pray to the Lord.

Populli: Lipisí, o i Madh'yn'Zot.

People: Our Great God, we beseech you.

Bekimi të unazavet

Zoti: Me këtë unazë shërbëtori i Perëndis, Gjergji, lidhet me shërbëtorën e Perëndis, Lina, në embër të Atit, të Birit e të Shpirtit Shejt.

Priest: The servant of God, George, is tied to the servant of God, Lina, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

Zoti jep krinjët e këndon Msalmin 127: Të limë atá çë i trëmben t'ynë Zoti e çë jecjën te udhët e Tij.

the priest delivers the candles and intones Psalm 127 Make happy those who fear the Lord and may they walk in His ways.

Lëvdi tij, o i madh'yn'Zot, lëvdi tij. Dhóksa si, o Theós imón, dhóksa si Glory to you, our God, glory to you.

Se ti ka hashë bukën e shërbëtyrës s'duarvet tote. Lumë ti e fatbardhë ka jeshë. Jotë shoqe ka jet si dhri me pemë te muret e shpis tënde. Bijët tatë si degë ullinjësh rrethë triesës tënde. Shi kështú ka jet bekuar njeriu çë ka trëmbësirën e Perëndisë.

That you will eat the bread of the work of your hands. You will be happy and enjoy all that is good. See your wife as a fertile vine in the intimacy of your home. That your daughters will be like olive branches around your table. That those who fear the Lord will be blessed.

Swadesh list

No. English Arberesh
Arbërisht, T'arbërisht
1 I u
2 you (singular) ti
3 he aj, ajo
4 we na, ne
5 you (plural) ju
6 they ata, ato
7 this ky, kjo
8 that aj, ajo
9 here këtu
10 there atì, atje
11 who kush
12 what çë
13 where ku
14 when kur
15 how si
16 not nëngë
17 all gjithë
18 many shumë, burinë
19 some ca
20 few
21 other jetër
22 one një
23 two di
24 three tri, tre
25 four kartë
26 five pesë
27 big i math, e madhe
28 long i, e glatë
29 wide i, e trash
30 thick
31 heavy i rënt, e rëndë
32 small i, e vogël
33 short i, e shkurtur
34 narrow
35 thin i hoh, e hollë
36 woman grua
37 man (adult male) burrë
38 man (human being) njeri
39 child fëmijë
40 wife shoqja
41 husband shoqi
42 mother mëma
43 father tata
44 animal animall
45 fish pishk
46 bird zok
47 dog kjen
48 louse
49 snake
50 worm
51 tree lis
52 forest
53 stick
54 fruit
55 seed
56 leaf
57 root
58 bark (of a tree)
59 flower lule
60 grass
61 rope
62 skin likur
63 meat mish
64 blood gjak
65 bone asht
66 fat (noun)
67 egg ves
68 horn
69 tail
70 feather
71 hair kripë
72 head krie
73 ear vesh
74 eye si
75 nose hun
76 mouth
77 tooth
78 tongue (organ) gluhë
79 fingernail
80 foot këmp
81 leg këmp
82 knee gluri
83 hand dorë
84 wing krah
85 belly bark
86 guts
87 neck
88 back kurrdhuc
89 breast
90 heart zëmbër
91 liver
92 to drink pi
93 to eat ha
94 to bite
95 to suck
96 to spit
97 to vomit
98 to blow
99 to breathe marr frim
100 to laugh kjesh
101 to see shoh
102 to hear gjegjem
103 to know di
104 to think pincar
105 to smell
106 to fear
107 to sleep flë
108 to live rronj
109 to die vdes
110 to kill vras
111 to fight
112 to hunt
113 to hit
114 to cut
115 to split
116 to stab
117 to scratch
118 to dig
119 to swim
120 to fly
121 to walk jec
122 to come vinj
123 to lie (as in a bed) ngulem
124 to sit ujem
125 to stand
126 to turn (intransitive)
127 to fall bie
128 to give jap
129 to hold
130 to squeeze
131 to rub
132 to wash lah
133 to wipe
134 to pull
135 to push
136 to throw
137 to tie
138 to sew
139 to count
140 to say them
141 to sing këndonj
142 to play los
143 to float
144 to flow
145 to freeze
146 to swell
147 sun dieh
148 moon hënxë
149 star izë
150 water ujë
151 rain shi
152 river lum
153 lake ghaghu
154 sea dejt
155 salt krip
156 stone gur
157 sand
158 dust
159 earth dhe
160 cloud
161 fog
162 sky kjieh
163 wind erë
164 snow sborë
165 ice akuh
166 smoke
167 fire zjarr
168 ash
169 to burn djek
170 road dhrom
171 mountain mal
172 red kukj
173 green virdhi
174 yellow
175 white i barth, e bardhe
176 black i zi, e zezë
177 night natë
178 day ditë
179 year vit
180 warm vap
181 cold titim
182 full plot
183 new i ri, e re
184 old i, e vjetrë
185 good i,e mirë
186 bad i, e lik
187 rotten
188 dirty
189 straight dreqtë
190 round
191 sharp (as a knife)
192 dull (as a knife)
193 smooth
194 wet lagët
195 dry
196 correct dreqtë, gjushtu
197 near dancë
198 far gharghu
199 right drejtë
200 left shtrëmbra
201 at te
202 in
203 with me
204 and e
205 if
206 because përçë
207 name embër

Footnotes

  1. Arbëresh at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  2. Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Arbëreshë Albanian". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
  3. New Albanian Immigrants in the Old Albanian Diaspora: Piana Degli Albanesi. Eda Derhemi

References

Vol. II. Livadia: Exandas, 1999 PDF.

External links

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