Apsis

"Apogee" redirects here. For the literary journal, see Perigee: Publication for the Arts. For other uses, see Apogee (disambiguation). For the architectural term, see Apse.

Not to be confused with the ancient shield Aspis.

The apsides indicate the nearest and furthest points of an orbiting body around its host.

(1) farthest	(3) focus	(2) nearest
apocenter	primary	pericenter
aphelion	Sun	perihelion
apastron	star	periastron
apogee	Earth	perigee

An apsis (Greek: ἁψίς; plural apsides /ˈæpsᵻdiːz/, Greek: ἁψίδες) is an extreme point in an object's orbit. The word comes via Latin from Greek and is cognate with apse.^[1] For elliptic orbits about a larger body, there are two apsides, named with the prefixes peri- (from περί (peri), meaning "near") and ap-, or apo- (from ἀπ(ό) (ap(ó)), meaning "away from") added to a reference to the thing being orbited.

For a body orbiting the Sun, the point of least distance is the perihelion (/ˌpɛrᵻˈhiːliən/), and the point of greatest distance is the aphelion (/æpˈhiːliən/).^[2]
The terms become periastron and apastron when discussing orbits around other stars.
For any satellite of Earth including the Moon the point of least distance is the perigee (/ˈpɛrᵻdʒiː/) and greatest distance the apogee.
For any orbits around a center of mass, there are the terms pericenter and apocenter. Periapsis and apoapsis (or apapsis) are equivalent alternatives.

A straight line connecting the pericenter and apocenter is the line of apsides. This is the major axis of the ellipse, its greatest diameter. For a two-body system the center of mass of the system lies on this line at one of the two foci of the ellipse. When one body is sufficiently larger than the other it may be taken to be at this focus. However whether or not this is the case, both bodies are in similar elliptical orbits each having one focus at the system's center of mass, with their respective lines of apsides being of length inversely proportional to their masses. Historically, in geocentric systems, apsides were measured from the center of the Earth. However, in the case of the Moon, the center of mass of the Earth–Moon system, or Earth–Moon barycenter, as the common focus of both the Moon's and Earth's orbits about each other, is about 74% of the way from Earth's center to its surface.

In orbital mechanics, the apsis technically refers to the distance measured between the centers of mass of the central and orbiting body. However, in the case of spacecraft, the family of terms are commonly used to refer to the orbital altitude of the spacecraft from the surface of the central body (assuming a constant, standard reference radius).

Mathematical formulae

Keplerian orbital elements: point F is at the pericenter, point H is at the apocenter, and the red line between them is the line of apsides

These formulae characterize the pericenter and apocenter of an orbit:

Pericenter: maximum speed $v_\mathrm{per} = \sqrt{ \tfrac{(1+e)\mu}{(1-e)a} } \,$ at minimum (pericenter) distance $r_\mathrm{per}=(1-e)a\!\,$
Apocenter: minimum speed $v_\mathrm{ap} = \sqrt{ \tfrac{(1-e)\mu}{(1+e)a} } \,$ at maximum (apocenter) distance $r_\mathrm{ap}=(1+e)a\!\,$

while, in accordance with Kepler's laws of planetary motion (based on the conservation of angular momentum) and the conservation of energy, these two quantities are constant for a given orbit:

specific relative angular momentum $h = \sqrt{(1-e^2)\mu a}$
specific orbital energy $\epsilon=-\frac{\mu}{2a}$

where:

$a\!\,$ is the semi-major axis, equal to $\frac{r_\mathrm{per}+r_\mathrm{ap}}{2}$
$\mu\!\,$ is the standard gravitational parameter
$e\!\,$ is the eccentricity, defined as $e=\frac{r_\mathrm{ap}-r_\mathrm{per}}{r_\mathrm{ap}+r_\mathrm{per}}=1-\frac{2}{\frac{r_\mathrm{ap}}{r_\mathrm{per}}+1}$

Note that for conversion from heights above the surface to distances between an orbit and its primary, the radius of the central body has to be added, and conversely.

The arithmetic mean of the two limiting distances is the length of the semi-major axis $a$ . The geometric mean of the two distances is the length of the semi-minor axis $b$ .

The geometric mean of the two limiting speeds is $\sqrt{-2\epsilon}=\sqrt{\mu/a}$ which is the speed of a body in a circular orbit whose radius is $a$ .

Terminology

The words "pericenter" and "apocenter" are often seen, although periapsis/apoapsis are preferred in technical usage.

Various related terms are used for other celestial objects. The '-gee', '-helion' and '-astron' and '-galacticon' forms are frequently used in the astronomical literature when referring to the Earth, Sun, stars and the Galactic Center respectively. -jove is occasionally used, while '-saturnium' has very rarely been used in the last 50 years. The '-gee' form is commonly used as a generic 'closest approach to planet' term instead of specifically applying to the Earth. During the Apollo program, the terms pericynthion and apocynthion (referencing Cynthia, an alternative name for the Greek Moon goddess Artemis) were used when referring to the Moon.^[3] Regarding black holes, the term peri/apomelasma (from a Greek root) was used by physicist Geoffrey A. Landis in 1998 before peri/aponigricon (from a Latin) appeared in the scientific literature in 2002.^[4]

Terminology graph

The following suffixes are added to peri- and apo- to form the terms for the nearest and farthest orbital distances from these objects.

Solar System Objects
Astronomical object	The Sun	Mercury	Venus	Earth	Moon	Mars	Jupiter	Saturn	Uranus	Neptune	Pluto
Suffix	-helion	-hermion	-cytherion	-gee	-lune -cynthion -selene	-areion	-zene -jove	-krone -saturnium	-uranion	-poseidon	-hadion
Origin of the name	Helios	Hermes	Cytherea	Gaia	Selene	Ares	Zeus Jupiter	Cronos Saturn	Uranus	Poseidon	Hades

Other objects
Stars	Galaxies	Barycenter	Black holes
-astron	-galacticon	-center -focus -apsis	-negricon

Perihelion and aphelion of the Earth

For the orbit of the Earth around the Sun, the time of apsis is often expressed in terms of a time relative to seasons, since this determines the contribution of the elliptical orbit to seasonal variations. The variation of the seasons is primarily controlled by the annual cycle of the elevation angle of the Sun, which is a result of the tilt of the axis of the Earth measured from the plane of the ecliptic. The Earth's eccentricity and other orbital elements are not constant, but vary slowly due to the perturbing effects of the planets and other objects in the solar system. See Milankovitch cycles.

Currently, the Earth reaches perihelion in early January, approximately 14 days after the December Solstice. At perihelion, the Earth's center is about 0.98329 astronomical units (AU) or 147,098,070 kilometers (about 91,402,500 miles) from the Sun's center.

The Earth reaches aphelion currently in early July, approximately 14 days after the June Solstice. The aphelion distance between the Earth's and Sun's centers is currently about 1.01671 AU or 152,097,700 kilometers (94,509,100 mi).

On a very long time scale, the dates of the perihelion and of the aphelion progress through the seasons, and they make one complete cycle in 22,000 to 26,000 years. There is a corresponding movement of the position of the stars as seen from Earth that is called the apsidal precession. (This is closely related to the precession of the axis.)

Astronomers commonly express the timing of perihelion relative to the vernal equinox not in terms of days and hours, but rather as an angle of orbital displacement, the so-called longitude of the pericenter. For the orbit of the Earth, this is called the longitude of perihelion, and in 2000 was about 282.895 degrees. By the year 2010, this had advanced by a small fraction of a degree to about 283.067 degrees.^[5]

The dates and times of the perihelions and aphelions for several past and future years are listed in the following table:^[6]

Year	Perihelion		Aphelion
Year	Date	Time (UT)	Date	Time (UT)
2007	January 3	19:43	July 6	23:53
2008	January 2	23:51	July 4	07:41
2009	January 4	15:30	July 4	01:40
2010	January 3	00:09	July 6	11:30
2011	January 3	18:32	July 4	14:54
2012	January 5	00:32	July 5	03:32
2013	January 2	04:38	July 5	14:44
2014	January 4	11:59	July 4	00:13
2015	January 4	06:36	July 6	19:40
2016	January 2	22:49	July 4	16:24
2017	January 4	14:18	July 3	20:11
2018	January 3	05:35	July 6	16:47
2019	January 3	05:20	July 4	22:11
2020	January 5	07:48	July 4	11:35

Planetary perihelion and aphelion

The following table shows the distances of the planets and dwarf planets from the Sun at their perihelion and aphelion.^[7]

Type of body	Body	Distance from Sun at perihelion	Distance from Sun at aphelion
Planet	Mercury	46,001,009 km (28,583,702 mi)	69,817,445 km (43,382,549 mi)
	Venus	107,476,170 km (66,782,600 mi)	108,942,780 km (67,693,910 mi)
	Earth	147,098,291 km (91,402,640 mi)	152,098,233 km (94,509,460 mi)
	Mars	206,655,215 km (128,409,597 mi)	249,232,432 km (154,865,853 mi)
	Jupiter	740,679,835 km (460,237,112 mi)	816,001,807 km (507,040,016 mi)
	Saturn	1,349,823,615 km (838,741,509 mi)	1,503,509,229 km (934,237,322 mi)
	Uranus	2,734,998,229 km (1.699449110×10⁹ mi)	3,006,318,143 km (1.868039489×10⁹ mi)
	Neptune	4,459,753,056 km (2.771162073×10⁹ mi)	4,537,039,826 km (2.819185846×10⁹ mi)
Dwarf planet	Ceres	380,951,528 km (236,712,305 mi)	446,428,973 km (277,398,103 mi)
	Pluto	4,436,756,954 km (2.756872958×10⁹ mi)	7,376,124,302 km (4.583311152×10⁹ mi)
	Makemake	5,671,928,586 km (3.524373028×10⁹ mi)	7,894,762,625 km (4.905578065×10⁹ mi)
	Haumea	5,157,623,774 km (3.204798834×10⁹ mi)	7,706,399,149 km (4.788534427×10⁹ mi)
	Eris	5,765,732,799 km (3.582660263×10⁹ mi)	14,594,512,904 km (9.068609883×10⁹ mi)

The following chart shows the range of distances of the planets, dwarf planets and Halley's Comet from the Sun.

Distances of selected bodies of the Solar System from the Sun. The left and right edges of each bar correspond to the perihelion and aphelion of the body, respectively. Long bars denote high orbital eccentricity. The radius of the Sun is 0.7 million km, and the radius of Jupiter (the largest planet) is 0.07 million km, both too small to resolve on this image.

The images below show the perihelion (green dot) and aphelion (red dot) points of the inner and outer planets.

Perihelion and aphelion points
The perihelion and aphelion points of the inner planets of the Solar System
The perihelion and aphelion points of the outer planets of the Solar System

References

↑ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/apsis
↑ This is the pronunciation given in the Oxford English Dictionary and other major English dictionaries, and is based on the usual pronunciation of scientific words derived from Greek. However, the pronunciation /əˈfiːlɪən/ is sometimes met, and is based on the misunderstanding that the 'p' from ἀπό and the 'h' prefixed to the Greek ἥλιος form a single sound.
↑ "Apollo 15 Mission Report". Glossary. Retrieved October 16, 2009.
↑ R. Schodel, T. Ott, R. Genzel, R. Hofmann, M. Lehnert, A. Eckart, N. Mouawad, T. Alexander, M.J. Reid, R. Lenzen, M. Hartung, F. Lacombe, D. Rouan, E. Gendron, G. Rousset, A.-M. Lagrange, W. Brandner, N. Ageorges, C. Lidman, A.F.M. Moorwood, J. Spyromilio, N. Hubin, and K.M. Menten, "Closest Star Seen Orbiting the Supermassive Black Hole at the Centre of the Milky Way," Nature 419, 694–696 (17 October 2002), doi:10.1038/nature01121.
↑ NASA.gov
↑ "Solex by Aldo Vitagliano". Retrieved 2012-07-09. (calculated by Solex 11)
↑ NASA planetary comparison chart http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/compchart.cfm

External links

Look up apsis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Apogee – Perigee Photographic Size Comparison, perseus.gr
Aphelion – Perihelion Photographic Size Comparison, perseus.gr
Earth's Seasons: Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion, 2000–2020, usno.navy.mil

Gravitational orbits

Orbits

General	Box Capture Circular Elliptical / Highly elliptical Escape Graveyard Hyperbolic trajectory Inclined / Non-inclined Osculating Parabolic trajectory Parking Synchronous semi sub Transfer orbit

Geocentric	Geosynchronous Geostationary Sun-synchronous Low Earth Medium Earth High Earth Molniya Near-equatorial Orbit of the Moon Polar Tundra Two-line elements

About other points	Areosynchronous Areostationary Halo Lissajous Lunar Heliocentric Heliosynchronous

Parameters

Shape/Size	$e\,\!$ Eccentricity $a\,\!$ Semi-major axis $b\,\!$ Semi-minor axis $Q,q\,\!$ Apsides

Orientation	$i\,\!$ Inclination $\Omega\,\!$ Longitude of the ascending node $\omega\,\!$ Argument of periapsis $\varpi\,\!$ Longitude of the periapsis

Position	$M\,\!$ Mean anomaly $\nu\,\!$ True anomaly $E\,\!$ Eccentric anomaly $L\,\!$ Mean longitude $l\,\!$ True longitude

Variation	$T\,\!$ Orbital period $n\,\!$ Mean motion $v\,\!$ Orbital speed $t_0\,\!$ Epoch

Maneuvers

Collision avoidance (spacecraft) Delta-v Delta-v budget Bi-elliptic transfer Geostationary transfer Gravity assist Gravity turn Hohmann transfer Low energy transfer Oberth effect Inclination change Phasing Rocket equation Rendezvous Transposition, docking, and extraction

Other orbital mechanics topics

Celestial coordinate system Characteristic energy Ephemeris Equatorial coordinate system Ground track Hill sphere Interplanetary Transport Network Kepler's laws of planetary motion Lagrangian point n-body problem Orbit equation Orbital state vectors Perturbation Retrograde motion Specific orbital energy Specific relative angular momentum

List of orbits

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